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.".tn-:2:r2r:1P2.:.dt:z;.;,g(1323-i398)Atrr,,uamPanclurang Socio celiginu,; : British social reionns (aboiition of

founded Prarthana Samaiin 1867 in Bombay. M.G. Ramde
joined it in 1870.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati (182-1-1883 ) : Swami
o, iginalh· known as .Hula Shankar ....>
J)c1y ......1and 5ara~"·ati,
f~und~d the ;fry,-aS~maji~ 1875.in•Bo°irib~y. \~.-rote'Sa~i·arth; · >
Pral<iJsh (in Hindi) and Veda-Bhashya Bhumika (part~\' in
Hindi and partly in Sanskrit).
Blavatsky (1831-91) and Olcott (1832-1 907) : Madam
H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian woman and Col. H.S. Olcott, an
American, fo u nded the Theosophical Society in New York
in 1875, bµt shifted the headqu1nter of the Society to Adyar
near M.a<;!ras in 1882. · so ld iers present, refused to obey orders to arrest Mangal
Swami Vivekanand (1863-1902) : Swam i Viveka nand
(originally Narendranath Dutta), founded the Ramakrishna
Mission in 1887 as a socia l service league w hi ch was
registered as a Trust in 1897.
Lower Caste/Caste Movements and Organisations
,1~.
¥ _'o_v.eirient/' ' ..• • :.:·Year.. . PI.a·c· .Foun· der
sati, 1$29; !P..,:ali:-ation of widow f't'marriage, !856 etc)
hurted the ~ntiments of orJi~dox and conservative
People.
'.,11ht.1r~ : Discrimination with_indian.:,~ldiers. _
Immed iatt? ca u·se : The introdu5=tio n o f Enfit?ld rifles
whose cartidges were said to ha ve a greased cover made
oi beei and pork sparked off tne revolt.
> The Beginning and Spread ott~~ Rern lt : On March
29, 1857, a n Indian sepoy of 34 Na ti ve Infantry, Mangal
Pande1; ki lle d two British office rs- Hugesonand Baugh-
on pa;ade at B.arrackpore (near Calcutta). The Indian
Pan d ey. Howe,·er, he was later on arrested, put to and
hanged•
> The m u tiny rea ll y started a t lv/erruton 10th May 1857.
/ The o.:ca~ iun \,·as the p u nishmen t of some sepoys ior
th~ir refusal to u::,e the greased cartridges. The soldie rs
along \\' ith other groups of civi li a ns, wen t ona ram page

IJl.ty:a
~ -· ~
• •.: . . .
0
shou ti ng · .\faro Firangi ko'. They broke ope n jails,
i(.Qrsa.Msa tj '?\l : ·, · -:~:-,< / ,.'.'>i:•, ·>' ·. · •. murdered Europeans, bu rnt their h ouses and marched
Shodhak Samaj 1873 M!iarashtra Jyotiba Phule to Delh i after sunset.
"ppuram 1888 Aravippurain, Shri Narayan > The appearance of the march ing soldiers next morning
.• . . ment Kerala Guru (i.e. 11th .\fay)in Delh i was a s igna l to the local soldie rs,
~Narayan Dharma 1902-03 Kerala Shri Narayan who in tum revo lted, seized the city and proclaimed
jF-Jaiana Yogam . · · Guru, Dr. Palpu the 82-year o ld Bahadur Sh ah Zafar ', as Sh ahensh ah-
~1p .P.) Movement an~ Kumaran i-Hin dustan (i.e. Emperor of In dia}.
~Ji~~:.:.: .··.. . Asan Centre Beginning Endllig i. Indian Leader ···tfritish
A'.~rj!ss~d qass' . 19Q6. Bombay V.R. Shinde Date Date · · ;Suppressor
: on Society' Delhi 11 May, 20 Sep., Bahadur Shah John
1857 1857 Il ·Zafar' and Nicholson
lJ~tice
~~jan Sa!Ylaj
:-.
!•:

(Party)
1910 Satara,
Maharashtra
1915- 16 Madras,
Mukund rao
Patil
C.N . Mudal iar,
Bakht Khan
(Commanding
General}
¥ovement TamilNadu T.M. Na ir and P.
,.
,_ Tyagaraja Chetti Kanpur 4 June, 6 Dec.. Nana Sa hib Colin
1857 1857 and his !ova l Campbell
Bombay B.R. Ambedkar commanler

~
Tantiya Tope
s
Lucknow 4 June, 21 Mar., -Beguin Hazra t Colin
. 1857 1858 Mahal Campbell
e. Ma<;lras, E.V. Ramaswami
Jhansi
.. 4 June 1857 18 June, Rani La:xiru Bai Huge Rose
.Tim:uJNadu Naiker '. Periyar'
1858
cl Pune Mahatma Allahabad 5 June, March, Liyaqat Ali Colonel
e Gandhi 1857 · 1858 Neil
. ,19: F~e~doi;n ~.truggle , .. Jagdishpur Aug., 1~57 Dec., K.uer S~gh and W'tl4;un
e_ ' (Billar) · · 1858
I. The Revolt of 1857 Amar Singh Taylor
:,,..
andVmcet
The Revolt of 1857 is an important landm a rk in th e Eyre
n history of India whi ch occurred during th e governer-
generalship of Lord ca nning. Within a mo nth o f the capture o f De lhi, the re volt
f
a :,,.
spre ad to th e diffe rent p<1rts of India (esp. all over the
Causes of the Revolt : The revolt of 1857 w as a
s
North India, Central India a.nd Western India). South
combinatio~ of political, economic, socio-religio us a nd
s remained quite and Punjab and Bengal were onl ·
military causes. marginally a ffected . y
e
Poliiical : Nana Sahib was refused pens io.n, as he \\'as Note:
j.
the ado pted son of peshwa Baji Rao II. Avadh w as
()
annexed in 1856, on charges of mal -admin.is trati on ' adur
1. dBah · " oo n, w h ere 11e
Sha h I_[ : w as Deported to R•ng
s • . I
ied in 1862. His so ns we re d ead·, Nana Sa h 1'b 1t on .g ina
Dh
Satara, Jh ansi, Nagpur and Sambhalpur we re a nnexed
d ~m e - undhu Pant) Begum Hazrat Mahal and
o wing to Doctrine of Lapse.
d an Bahadur Khan : Escaped to Nepal; Tantiya
I Economic : Heavy taxation, forcibly evictions, Tope (Onginal name - Ramchandra Panduran ) . :
e discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and • was . captured and executed on 15th April fs59
le destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants Rant Lax 1· B ·
• . ~ ai :
o·ied in the battle-field;' Kuer;
and artisans.
Singh. was wounded and died on 26 April, 1858.

- ·-
 \ \ · I

72 Lucept's General Kno,dcdg_.

2. Sir Huge Rose described Laxm; 3ai as 'the best and ·'The Ren::!t of i857 was 'the First war o( lndepe11dence."
lt'.D. Sa1·zr_l.: i:,-
bravest military leader of the rebel'.
3. Other Imrort.mt Leaders : Khan Bahadur Khan •'ll'hat ~gan ,
a. .i fight for religion ended as a war for
(BareiJJi, ), r.fauiavi Ahmadullah (Faaabad}, Azimu lla h independence." S.N. Sen
Khan (Fatt'hpur), De\'i Singh (Mathura), Kadam Singh
/4~act of the Revolt of 1857
(Merrut)etc. ·
1 /4 August 1858, the British parliament pa~sed an act,
4. English authority re-established in India during . . . / ~~:hich put an end to the rule of the Company. The control
July-Dec. 1858_: oi the British government in India was transferred to
Causes of Failure: The Revolt of 1857 was an unsuccessful The British Crown.
but heroj; effort to eliminate foreign rule. The main 9uses 2. A minister of the British go,·emment, calledthe
werif.Disunity of Indians and poororganisatio~ack oi Secretary oi state for India was made responsible for
complete nationalism-Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others
Ult' gov~rnance of India.
actively helped the British)A.-ack of coordination between
sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes 4. Mam· h ad 3. The British Go\'emor-General of India was now also
different motives for participating in the re\'olt. · gi,·en the title of Viceroy, who was also the represen-
Significance: The important element in the re\'olt la~· in tative of the monarch.
Hindu-Muslim unity. People exhibited patriotic sentimt:'nt -t 1'.larkt'd the end of British Imperialism and Princely
without any touch of communal feelings. It no doubt began Sta tes were assured against annexation. Doctrine of
as a mutiny of soldiers, but soon turned into a rernlt against Lapse was withdrawn.
British rule in genera l. ~ f t e r the revolt, the British pursued the policy of' dil-ide
Nature of the Revolt of 1857 • and rule .
:»- There are two main views about the nature of the Revolt 6. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration
of 1857: and increast:' of white soldiers in the army.
i... 1. Sepoy Mutiny : Syed Ahmed Khan, Munshi Jeevan 7. Total expense of the suppression was thrown on the
..,, Lal and Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya (Contemporary
Historians); Stenley (Secretary of state for India), John
Indian people.
8. It has been said that Julius Caesar was more powerful
Lowerence, Jo~n Seeley, Malleson, R.C. Mazumdar. than Julius Caesar alive. The same may be said about the
2. National Struggle /War of Independence Benjamin Revolt of 1857. Whatever might have been its original
Disraely, Karl Marx, V.D. Savarkar, K.l'vt. Pa nnikar. charncter, it soon became a symbol of challenge to the
Ishwari Prasad, A.L. Shrivastva, Tarachand. mighty British empire in India and remained a shining
Other views : star for the rise and growth of the Indian national
nllH·e111~nt.
Racial Struggle/ Black-White Struggle
Religious Struggle/ HinJu-Muslim- Christian Struggle 19. II Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
- Ree.,;
Important Organisations Before Congress
Ci,·ilisation-Barbarism Conflict ! English-lnd,an Conflict
- TR. Holmes;
s. Organisation Pl.ace Year Founder(s)
1. Landholders Society Calcutta 1837 Dwarka Nath Tagore
Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy against Christian
- Outram and Taylor. · 2. Bri.tish India Socie_ty Londo!'· 1839 William Adam
Important Books on 1857 3. British India Calcutta 1851 Devend.ra Nath
Association (Result of Tagore
---/-"'-,!:.-··· Book .~:·-· ")'ear Author the merger of 1 and 2)
The First Indian War of 1859 Karl Marx 4. Madras Native Madras 1852 C.Y. Mudaliar
Iodependence-1857-59 A~soci'!tion
Ca~ d£ India~ R~~olt -i873 Sayed Ahm;d Khan· 5. Bombay Association Bombay 1852. Jagannath Shanker
The India War of Independence 1909 V.D. Savarkar Sheth
The Sepoy Mutiny and the.rebellion 1957 R.C. Mazumdar 6. East lnd ia Association Lopdon 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji
of 1857 ?. Poona Sarvajanik Poona 1870 S.H. Chiplunkar, G.V.
Civil Rebellion in lndian Mutinies 1957 5.8. Chowdhury Sabha Joshi, M.G. Ranade
Rebellion, 1857 : A Symposium 1957 r.c. Joshi 8. Indian Society London 1872 Anand Mohan )3ose
1857 1957 SN.Sen 9. Indian League Calcutta 1875 Shishir Kumar Ghosh
Select Opinions on 1857 Indian A.~sociation Calcutta 1876 Surendra Nath
Bannetji and Anand
" It !fa.< wholly unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny 1viU1 lvlohan Bose
no native leadership and no popular s upport."John Set:'le_1· India National Calcutta 1883 -do-
" V,e so-called First National War ofIndependence is neither Conference
'First', nor 'N,1tional~ nor 'a war of Independence." 10. Madras Mahajan Madras 1884 P.Rangia Naydu,
R.C. ,\.fazumdar Sabha V. Raghava-chari,
"A national re,·olt rooted in deep mistrust. " Anand Charlu, G.S.
Benjamin Disraely (Opposition Leader) Aiyer

·-

rkar Vffl~l~ii¥i!~~r:~_.j~_ .'J'"!l:t · _._,_ r'1l~•J(~~Jtr
l:r.:2·· • ·
i~~.b?y }'r""'i~ei-,i:.)· ·.- ~mlJay 1885 l"erozshah Mehta,· ·
r for
~~sooabon · K 'i· T.- "--., ·
Sen
f
Darim~~Ty1~iji . · -
g;;;· Nation~l Congress {I.N.C.) : Bombay, •1865, A.O.
act,
ntrol ~ The Indian Nati?nal Union was formed inl.B&l.hy A.O.
ed to Hume, an Englishman and a retired ci0Jse..,,ilM;"'rn
association ~tb various n a ~ a l l e d
the fora conference in Pi1oe in December 1885.
~
e for ► The_ conference received the unanimous support of all
Indian leaders, but the venue was shiited tb Bomba,· for
various reasons (esp. outbreak of cholera in Punef.
also
► Further, th~ leaders decided to rename the Indian
esen-
f
r ncely
l·
~
National Union as Indian National Congress.
The first session of the Indian National Co~~-;t
held at Gqkuldas Te%al Sanskr,i_!.,Q;ij/ege
~ne of
ll!lder the presidents ip of WC Bannerji, a 1·et 7
lawyer of Calcutta.
l
~
It was att:nded bv2 dele~tes from all over India.
c[iv~de
~ 88:i onwa_rds the I C met every year and its
ation cause spread rapidly among middle class Indians.
~ foundation of INC in 1885, the struggle for
n the India's inde pendence was launched in a small, hesitant
'' and mild but organized manner.
~ erful ► The first ~o decade of INC are described in history as
those of moderate demands and a sense of cogfulence
i utthe
in British justjce and generosity. Their aim was not
riginal
To be aggressive far attaining iodepeoderc@ leet the
Ito the
British s hould ~•1ppress this Il:iis Fes~~led in Indian
r.ining
Council Ad in 1892 which allowed some members to
tional
be indirectly e lecfec! by Indians but keeping the official
majo rity inta ct.
Moderate Leaders : Dada Bhili ;\;,1oroj1, A.O. Hume,
Badruddin Tayebji. M.G Rilnilde, \V.C. Banncrji.
Feroz~ha h ;\ 1ehta,Surend ra ;--;a th Bannerji.C.Shankaran
t ~;.i.'\: Naiyar, Madan l'v!ohan Malviya, V.S. Shriniva.s Shastri,
-"go1- Tej Bahadur Sapru, Copa! Krishna Gokhale, Anand
Mohan Bose; E. Dinesh Wacha, Ras Bihari Ghosh,
Mohan Lal Ghosh, P. Anand Charlu,.C.Y. Chintamani,
R.C. Dutt, S. Subrahmanyam Aiyer, K.T. Tailang,
Madhus udan Das, Rahimtulla M. S~yani.
Select Opinions about INC
''INC tepresents only a mii:r.oscdpic min'orWes.'
Lord Dufferin (1884-88) (Contemporary Viceroy)
'The congress is tottering to its fall, and one ofmygreat
ambitions, while in India, is to assist it to a peaceful demise.'
Lorri Curzon (1899-1905) (Viceroy)
'INC is a begging institute.'
Aurpbindo Ghosh (Extremist leader)
'INC should distinguished between begging and
clNming the rights.'
nd Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Extremist Leader)
'INC playing with bubbles. '
Bipin Chandra pal (Extremist Leader)
19.111. E,xtremisl Phase (1905-lZl.
Reasons for the Emergence of Extremists : l. Realization
'.s. that the true nature of British rule was exploitative
2. International. influences and events which demolished
Indian History
Q
73
::he myth oi While/ Luropean supremacy. Th- i.nciuded-
Abyssinia 'Ethopia's vir:t0!')" ov~~ It<!ly (18%), l''.c,~r -,.,.a,s
(1899-1902) in w~ch_}~e B:i~sh _faced_ re\·erse,"Japan v ictory
ewer Russia (190:>l)t01ssatistaction with the achievements of
1- lcderates,i. Reactionary po1,ciesofCuaonsuchasCa1cutta
Cooperation Act (1904), Indian Uruve·rsities Act (1905)°and' '
Partition of Bengal (1905) 5. Existence of a militant school of
thought and emergence of a trained leadership.
Prominent Extremist Leaders
1. Bal ~gadbas J;;)ak.,: 'Lokrnanya' lilak was the
uncompromisingleaderofextremists.Hewasinfluenced
O}' Agarkar, Ranade and Naoroj~- J-I~ launched tivo
r'lewspapers the Kesari (in Marathi) and the Matatha
(in English). He Organised Ganpati Festfral (1893) and
li£mba0
Shivaji Festival (1895). He was deported to Mandlay
Jail (Bunna) for writin lQllS, arti es➔ He started
ome u e League in 1916. He wrote Gita Rahasya.
Tilak asserted : 'Swaraj is my Birth Right and I will
haveit.' .
2. Lala Lajpat Rai : Extremis t from Punjab. Under the
influence of Arya ~faitlJ) he founded Nabonal School at
Lahore. He presided over the AITUC in 1920. Boycotted
Simon Commission and demonstrated against it at
Lahore during w hich he was brutally assaulted by the
police a.rd sublj;egµenlly succumbe§ to his m1ur!,es.
3. Bipin Chandra Pal : Discarded orthodox Hindill,5m
and entered Brahmo"Sa~d visited England and
· oun e 'sh week! New India. He
"" e wadeshj IDP.Xl:ffient. He carried gospels of
!eel
Boycott, Swadeshi, National Ea;jcation, Swaraj and the
Passive Resistanc~He founded Vande Matram.
4. Sri Aurobindo. Ghosh : He Passed !CS exam with
record marks in .Greek and Latin. He had European
uplmnging. He worked for secret societies in Bengal
and t-.1aharashtra: He ,;t.irted Bengali daily Jugan tar. ~
wro te seditious articles in Van de Ma tram. He was put to
,.__ tria11or Maniktalla (Calcu'ffa) Bomii Conspiracy Case.
He finally retired to the life of Yoga at Pondicherry.
Other Extremist Leaders Chakravarthi Viji
Raghvachariar, Aswini Kumar Dutta, Raj Narayan
Bose, T. Prakasham, Chidambaram Pillai etc.
Methods of Extremi~ts :
l- ·Passive Resistance i.e. non.cooperating with tlie British
Government by boycotting government service, courts,
schools and colleges.
2. Promotion 9f Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.
The Partition of Bengal (1905) and
Bo_yitt and Swadeshi Movement (1905-08)
✓ The Partition of Bengal came into effect on Oct. 16,
· I 905, tlirough a Royal Proclamation, reducing the old
province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of
East Bengal, which later on became ~st Pakistan and
present day Bangladesh
:,,- The go:emment explained that it was done to stimulate
growth of under-developed Eastern region of the
Bengal. But, actually, the main objective was to 'Divide
and Rule' the most advanced region of the country
at that time. The main reason for partition of Bengal
 Lucent's Ce!"!eral K..~c1.•: ledg ...~
·was to cies,cov i'.he
,e enga I mtd ige;;tsi<i
rr:id,-l!e ~!i2,..:-:mon
were the most prorn.inen . l - so Se. up a corru7iunal gulf
between Hind us and M u s lims . The INC unanimously
conde1m1~ u1e Pitl'~i'ion (?f_ Bengal. . , .
The Boycott and Swad~~hi movement. had 'its genesis · .·.
in the antipartition movement whtdt was started to
oppose the British d ecision to divide Bengal.
With the start of the Swadeshi movement at the tum oi
the country, the Indian National Movement took a major
leap forward.
>· Ibe INC took up tbe -Sw adesbi ca)) jn·Beoarns Session,
J 9D5 presjded aver by ·c K Gokble ;md-impporte d the were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord
~wadeshj and Boycott Movement af Bengal Militant
natioMlislf\ spe1uhe11aec:I by Trio 0£ J,al-Bal-Pal (Lala
Lajpat Raj, Bal Gangadhar TiJak and Bipin Chandra
Pal) and Aurol:>indo Ghosh was however, in• ia\'our
of extending the movement to the rest oi India and
carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and
B goods to full-fledged poli tical mass struggle.
st 7, 1905, a resoluti9n to boycott British goods
were adopted at a meeting of the INC held in Calcutta .
lt was started as a purely economic measure for the
development of Indian industry.
>- Bonefire of foreign goods was launched on a large
scale in all the major cities. Tilaktook the movement to
different parts of India esp . in Pune and Mumbai. Ajit
singhand Lala Lajpat Rays pread theSwadeshi message
in Punjab and other parts of Northern India. SyedHaidar
Raza set up the agenda in Delhi. Rawalpind i, Ka ngra,
Jammu, Multan and Hardwar witnessed active publi
participation in Swadeshi Movement. Chidambram
Pillai took the mO\·ement to Madras Presidency which
was also ga lvanised by Bipin Chandra pal's extensi\'e
lecture tour.
Muslim League (1906): In Dec., 1906, All India Muslim
Salimullahof Dacca (Dhaka)
League"·as set up by :Vawab
a t D acca (Dhaka). The Leagu e s upported the partition of
ed
Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi. n:ovement, and demand
special safeguard,s · for its _co mmunity and· a separale
'i electorate of Muslims. This led to communal differences
I
between Hindus and Muslims.
-r Calcutta session of INC (1906)-Swaraj : In Dec. 1906 at
Calcutta, the INC under the lea9e rship of Daci;;i Bh_ai N~orojj
ad6pted 'S\varaj' ~s the goal of Indian people, Naoroji in his
presidential address declared that the g~al of_the IN~ was
'self govemmento fSwaraj like thatofUruted Kingdom. The
differences between the moderates and the extremists, esp.
regarding the pace of the movement and the techniques cf
the struggle to be adopted, came to he;id in 1907 at the Surat
Session of the congress where the party splil with serious
consequences for the Swadeshi movement.
, Surat Split (1907): The INC split into two groups-the
extremists and the moderates, a t th e Surat session in I 907
~ he ld o n the banks of the river Ta pi. The extremists were led by
Tilak, Lajpat Raiand Bipin Chandra Pal and the moder~tes
were led by Gopal Krishna Gokhle At the Surat ses_s1on,
the moderate and extremist delegates of congress met man
atmosphere surcharged with excitement and anger.
The suddenness of the Surat fiasco took the extremist
leaders by surprise and they offered their cooperatio.n
to ;:he woik •6 committee of the congress by accepting •
presider.tship af Ras Bih zri Ghc::e. But the mcrl Pf' tc::; ,rO'uL!
not relent as they fou nd themseh'es o n fi rm grounp. TI1e
gove rnment observing the o p portunity la u nche d a m assive ,
z ii.ack o n the ex t;-e ;[,,sts by :;upp~js:,1g ,he n"'_.v::.i:,a ~r ·
and .'a rresting their main leader, Tilak, and sending him to
Mandalay Jail (Burma} ior 6 years. The extremists were not ·
able to organise an effective alternative party or I<> sustain
the movement. Aurbindo Ghoshgave up politics aruf left for
Pondicherry. Bipin Chandra Palalso left politics temporarily.
Lajpat Raileft for Britain. After 1908, the national movement
as a whole declined.
· Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) :Morley-Min to Refonns '
Minto was the Viceroy of India. The reforms envisaged a
separate electorate for Muslims besides other constitutional
measures. The government thereby sought to create a rift
within the Congress by winning thesupportof the moderates
on the one hand, and favour of Musli ms against Hindus
on the other. To achieve the latter objective, the reforms
introduced the system of separate electorates under which
Musli ms could only vote for Muslim candidates. This was
done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and
cultural interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate
and not common. Indian political leaders were however
dissatisfied by these reforms.
Home Rule Movement (1915-16): 8.G. Tilak founded
Indian Home Ru le League at Puneon 28 April, 1916. Annie
Besan( inspired by the Irish rebellion, started Hom~ Rule
Movement in India in September, 1916. The movement
sp read rapid ly and branches of the Home Rule League ·
were established all over India. B.G. Tilak wholehearted ly
c supported this movement. He joined forces with Annie
Besant and persuaded the Muslim League to support this
programme. In 1920, All India Home Ru le League changed
its name tu 'Swara jya Sabha'.
Lucknow Pact-Congres s-League Pact (1916) : An
important step forward in achieving Hindu-Musli m un ity.
was th e Lucknow pact (1916). Anti-British feelings were
generated · among. the Muslims following a war between
Britain and Turkey which opened the way for the Congress
unity. Both the Congress and the Muslim
and Muslim League
League held session at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded the
famous Lucknow pact. The congress accepted the separate
electorate and both organisations jointly demanded
' dominion status' for the country.
· · . -Hindu-Mus lim unity .a larmed the British and'forted'the
government to announce its future policy. In 1916, a British
policy was announced whereby_assoc iation of Indians wacc.s_._ _ __
in government increased and there was to be a gradual
development of local self-governing institutions.
Montagu Declaration/ August Declaration of 1917: The
control over the Indian government would be transferred
gradually to the Indian people. This was the result of Hindu-
Muslim unity exhibited in Lucknow pact.
Indian Revolutionar y Organisations (India)
:}~ar~~!r~t::::ft~ ~~TI~ -tt.::tiJii&l:f~~~ ~~tr~ \~~:;\iir;·v ·::,... -~-,;-· -;:-:J-!~~:
~-,!) ........~ ~ - -<"--'. -..... ti:..._ •• ,.. :,...C;~E ~~:J~, r~~,,~....\,:~.9 :~t¥., i.,...-...,\,·•·'
Vypy$Min,4a..Ia. .I'oona ~:; i~)J .~ : c!Jpekar Bri:>~
i~itt1}~i~1i~A~~ r~t~,~r:t::;•.:
~ ~ " \ f ' :~pap!,lr'':~ \1--~J.., Prli•inat!-r~atl\ Mil:ra
~'1.Wsl1ti"'.,.~,~iio&r,.:,~~~
-~;··'. t~-. _: :,; :f~:T/if{
~
r~~· vr; ··
k1~i~r &b3~~~f·; ~·~;-
't<n · ..,~ •:-;.,;,
·r~;~•~\~tt.~~,~;~
 \.' •• _!

!.1dictn f-'Hsto. 75

lli-~~:~r.~td.~rt~tS½'! ;t. •~~e~_ :-:· ·:"'~ -:.·-fJ\~~ ·<

C¥~gonr,A~o~~y ~.'. ·, ChittagonF, 1?30 S;uya$m .
Da,~~IY.-. (. .. . . .
j~,;y;j~~~:;h.i.:.,.. ki ()' l.:.uls.. __ 1'riil_ u,U.:ul, _r. i.,,),
·pwyer• . -· · · :.- ·.-_; :.•
19. IV. The Gandhian Era (1917-47)

.- . Delhi ,_.'·; ·. ·.·. 1928 . Chandrashekhar ·

,~~1,~s1~~r~~--
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948): Chronological Overview

. GiindhJ:;.,aij ~~-~ff the.fiisi'cfus toinp_artmentof the

,. . !Jafn~t"Pie~antab~rg s4J.tio~ '(07June)· '' .
. Azad 1894 F~dati"an of Natalb,_:mn C~.n~·
:-' ti.on/ . - -.· 1899·: · Foundation'~.ffndianAinbulanreC ared~~Wars,
: ....s.~) .
Indian Revolutioriary Organisations (Abroad)
~ ! i:i~ii:if:Eii~f:~~::~~ fh~
~~~~~·~~( ::~\~:?~~~{~~~}7/}:~ ~~. ,~,.~5~~:~·~~~~i i:~t ai:ii_~. i~cr{M,9-_it~t (~tyiigraha) against
}!l06 ,.
.~Asiatjc._Qi'~i!11rn.nsvaak-_. a·,;; •. •.\:·.• ·. ~ .. ·
~ri:re
~funava Bharat
~ety_· ~dt,,i. ~--- ~~ t:f~ ,~t_;~
..·~ d~n .. ::.. 1906 ~ uaiiiciif'
~~°:~i(':~ty~~rr~:&-![Zf!:! 61-~~~ntd p ~
~%:,- _ ,-..
Independence ! ·'._."California O
. Savar~ ·! ,}:f:Jf · :
·i907 -'fa.ral<:N~th b~ ·. : · M~it:: ~;!ffii•_'tt~7;t:~:±-ti~J~·: t /ail
~4~fParty· ·.
.. _.. \-.. .~ :-··~.• ·--'.~ )
:~F~a(1913
·..·:·~~ ..':'.:_f:.-: ... ; ,.._f\..,~-,;~~:.?>;._;~.:\(}':
~ 'Hardaya1''¥.:, 1~:":!tr~4~~~1f.f&jif!ft:f~~ftft~f-1a)
ffil:41:.lh 1ndei,~9e:ri.~-:: '~ i~co:-. :"°.''l?.14 i:ai.~H~~iy~~a
"!Y,~·g
~-,:,.,;- '·· _. · -· ·· ·
_ ,vf'''--.· "' V-irendra Natl1'"''i'°
··u··e ·· -· -:.•·.·· ··., · : · ·'(Ge_'i:!na/J
· ·· ·.~,. -,~:--..·.. -< ~-· diattopactliyay.F-
~ ;:'~~irattI~J~~~t~i:.;~tltz:;~~
.• .-. ........
n1;4
" .. . ·'' :, .. ,•.·,.. ··,. ,-\ .-' ··:-•; .· ··.·c,'~,.-...; '··
Quits Sou#t;~•;i1/PNJVer_il!l4,reru.ms tq_µijia,Awarded
w-·~- •.- .~. . •, o.,.·..:.,;f,('-> ,:-· _,· ,.

fi;}~iari Independence· 1915 Raja Milimdra .,

/rf.i;i~iilfii;!;":~~t ~:~
Kabul .:.
~ague and Government J'ratap ·
Revolutionary Events/Cases
i.Name of the Eyent/Case Place Year -Accused · 1915 Arrived in Bombay {India) on 1915; Foundation 9"Jan;
of Satyagraha Aslirama at Kocharab near Alimedabad
:Mlirder of Rand and Poona 1897 Chapekar (20 May); In i.917, Ashram~ shifted at the banks of
(Amherst Brothers,
Sabarr:''.',ti; All India to11r.
1};-1,ague Commissioners) D~modar and,_ .
Q;.f_:': . Balkrishna .· :_. • -191~ Deli.vereiaSJ>E!echc;>nthe.occaiisiol). of operililgcetomony
,., _ . of B'a nar~s #.ci'! l[niv~itr,~1!11-(~ ;F~b,),_ ,}bstain.

~Ifr2;J;:;: '. /: ',.:;tr~~~-l~~if½~~; ~~;'.- ..'"' .:: fr?~\~~'?~ ;_p<?liq~ ) _{tf,oi,Jg1;.)!,f:<;"-"./1(r.,J.~1),pi::kriow

•_ .. ·
. !.-
session ofINc;held Ifl 26o30Q~<:;;19,/9,'wh~ ~aj"K.umar
'Shulda, a &titiato/from:iJiltii,':ie[f'iiJsfldf'.him io•'come

, ~;tta) ·. ··· •. ·: ·; '•" :•' '.

~ ~;alla {Ciic,;tta) and ~talla, "1908 A~_rb~d.o <;;~<jsh
i~~,~~~~ Co~ p1~acy
.·y
1917
· tOC~p'aran.) · ~,;' · ;~?--;~- :-,)'.::,J(~-'.:~.L~,J.' 1 ·~t.-·~· ·
Gandhienter'edactiv~~litics-i~tli"thampata:Htampaign
to redri!ss gri!!"a,rtces pf:.!nl':'' roltivaiQrs oppreS~aj by .
i'Miirder of Jackson · N,,;il< t909- ~t"!<a~~ ::, "_.:) . ,·:>; hj9!go, plan,te~ cif-{ B~r ~{ApriJ.•-!~~7). ,:0,}ffpa;an
'fJpj{!rictXt;fiistr~t~> ·. :> - ;/?· .: . ·...· . .,,;':,it/:{-
r ~r'p~ Wym~:0r.~9~ . _. .~~ t~~~Y~;;~(
&rzo~
L. -\-/:. -~ (n~~!:-;:::~~ t~{~~-:~~o~dien~~~r:~,~~~nt
19~li•/ ,:fit Feb. 1918, ~ ~"i:inmed the str\lggleinAluhedabad
irtempt to ~urder - ·~: 1912:- R_as ~\lt'.1fi, J~,; ·.· : / wl:pch inv~lved iri<!jis
. ·qial
.. . Work. 'ers.. Hqn·g.'e r·.•Str\~.~~s a
w.rd:inge_{Viceroy) (Dellu · ·' . . , .: .an1
B.~ il!lt_ /~, · i6/' •; ;iveapon. wa;s pseq,~Pf~ l;_,firs! tiJ;ll!! ,by,~and,h/. \luring
/mifub Case) . .• ~ ·j".o ',,., Kumar ' '. ·::, ·:•::,~ .. • . -tvunedabad stlJ.!ggle. 41 March l918, Gandhi worked for
i ~ori Tr~ o ·~coity i<akori ·1925· R~ pras~d-- peasants' of Kh;ia ~ Guja;~t who\ve~ facing.di.fficulties
' ,Case {Kakori-a station Bismil an~d in paying .the. rent ?Wing
to failure of cro~: Kheda
Wi Lucknow-Saharanpur Ashafaqull _ Satyagraha was his fi~st Non-Coope·ration Movement.
!'division) · · ··. · ' ·" · 1919 c ari'~~ _gav~ a·~ f,o_rSa!yaiaha agalnsr'th~Ro~vj~ltAd
~urder of Saunders Lahore 1928 Bhagat S ~ on April 6, 1919 and took the command of the nationalist
i(A.S.P. of Lahore) movement foi the first .time'. rFlrst ·aJJ-lndia Political
1929 Bhagat . ;. V Movement), Ca_ndhl returns -Kaisar-i-HiM' gbJd;m~a!
5:K'~embly ;omb case
~·: ,1••
_; · Sin~'arui' _. as a protest aglllllSl/a/lianwa/a
Bagh mas,sacr.;;-April 13,
Ba~:war· _:... ;. . •,1919; The All lf!_d!a.,Khillfiii(·.C.0.~ren.~ :~lected <;,andhi
Dutta as its pn,s\4erit(.Nov. 191~.Pe~.A. · · .. :: ,. ,
 ['
;z:: 22 Gandhi leads the Non-0,ape,atior,
~-'·
liiav~ ..·~,t {A,;.;,; 1✓ 192()...T-.:::.,., :'l'tl -
19dh
Movement (Feb. 12, 1922,i after .the viole,;f inai:lenl
::,c,==•~"''/~::;::,:•;"!"""
'-'"'"J]_i.:.. ~
irt Clwuri-Cluiura ·,m Feb. 5, 1922. Non-Coopen1ti.o!l
.•.· }.foveme,l· w:is 1he fl.,~t l7laSS lr...red politi,:s u:nder
·,,.a. Gandhi. .
1924' -~um (l(;un;itab} ~on of JNC-(or ~e·firs!
--~ . : ~~~me Gandhi was elected the _pr~~~n_t
·1~27 ~ dhi retires from active politics for. the first time__.Bl1,d
;~-l--~-\: ~e,rptes· ~ If .to 'co~v~ p rri~~'f ,of ;-~e
:_:"'. ',i ~oitgress; Gandl-1,i,_ ~~ active politics in '19.27'.
1~' G~dhi lauru:he_s~ Cfril.Di$-Obedieiire.Mo.~~eritwith h ! { o ,_··la· tt Act (!~19) . Duri_nn<Y the vitero)·a. lty of Lord
·:·: : ·, · rus.Dil!lc1i~fSaJis.,tyagrafia{Fi!Jtflµ1se.':•Marai?2
1930-March5,19Jl;Gandhi-1rwin Pact:Uarch5, ·J93J;
~- Gandhi attends the Serond Round Table Conference in
, ~;.,,,, .London.as.solerepresentativeofthe Congr:eys;Sep.'7~
•·_:" _'..' De/ 1,.193J;Second Phase:Jan.3, 1932'-Apill 17,'1934}
1934-39 Gandhi retiies·from active politics, sets up "Sev.ag.ram
· · • (Va.rdhaAshram) · · ··
1939•,v;{;andhi resumes active politics. · .. - :.:,;; .-•:
194Mi Gandhi launches IndividuaJSatyagraha Movemiiit, -., .
J.~42·-~ .Call to QuiMndia Movementf;r whi°ch•G~ ~ j ~
·;:. -the slogan, ' Do or Die (We-shall either'free,li;idia' q'r die
··=~ •
_/µ ~ att_empt), Gandhi ~~-i!!l Congrefs lea:c\~.
(AUg~ 9; 1942). · . . "·· · ·, · -·_ t·
., l 942-44 Gandhi kept in detention'at_ tb,e Aga '[<hip P~ace ~ear
r
,,
!-
I
·.. --··•·:? ·Pune ·(Aug. ·9, 1942 .:..May, JJ/44)~ G§d.~'!f,~fll.ls.,mfe
.. Kasturba (Feb. 22, 1944)and prhrate secr:etary ~ l ier
, :~".. . ~ this ~a,s
Gan<J.hi'.s .~ f~ .on,~~~-. _·_\_. ·
1945. .., pandhi's influence· on !h.f g.\n~ .s W¥)~, P!!~P.iff~!Y
I, .· :-: after 1945. · ·' ,. · > '!;-.·,:-
,.1
i
;
i 9;4~ ~ply distressed by the ~rgy of commµ~ violence,
t. as·~·result Muslim League's Dire.ct ~ct;i?,n._~ 'G.aridhi
., ~~; :~~;o~f::i~: :~<;:~::!~::f ;:f~:~es!iJ.and
1947 Gandhi. deeply distressed by the Mo_u ntbatten Plan/
Partition Plan lju.ne 3, 19.J7). while staying in Calcutta 10
restore communal violence, observes complete silence on
the dawnoflndia'slndependence(Aug.15, 1947).Gandhi
returns to Delhi (Sep. 1947)
1948 ' Gartdhiwas shofiieadbyNathu'Ram Qxise, ~ hileorihis
·.. w~y to the evening-prayer meeting at Birla Hous~ ~ew
···· DeJhi·_(Jan_. 30, 1948). He died, with 'J:{ey Ram' on his lips.
Note: Gandhi has suggested the winding up of Ind ian
National Congress afterlndia attained ind epe nd ence
and conve rting it into Lok Sevak Sa m aj.
... Facts about Gani:lhi . . ' . : ,,
I , Date and Place of Birth : Oct. 2, 1869 and Porbandar,
i Gujarat. Note : His birthday.. 2 October, is commemorated in
India as 'Gandhi Jayanti", a national holiday. and worldwide as
the 'International Day of Non-Violence' (Antarrashtriya Ahimsa
Diwas) according to declaration of UNO.
Father : Karamachand Gandhi, Mother : Pu tali Bai,
Political Guru : Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Private Secretary :
Maha~ev Desai (1917-42), Pyarela_l Nayyar (194;-48 ) . / _ No n-Coope ration Movement (1920-22) :At the Calcutta
Literary Influences on Gandhi :John Rusk111 s Unto This
Lasf/ Emerson, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, the Bible and the Gita
Literary Works : Sarvoday (1908}-translation of 'Unto
t:hf!; last' in G~jar~ti, Hind Swaraj (1909), My Experiments
i with Truth (Autobiography, /927)-reveals events of Gandhi's
life upto 1921.
I
>
As an Editor : Indian Opinion: 1903-~5 (in English and
Gujarati, for a !>hort period in Hindi and Tamil), Harijan : 1919-31
I.
,1
k
-· "- ff
_o _
,nJ J-lmdi), Young lnd,ac l 9JH2 /U, Engli,h
and Cu/"ai ~ti-r.. n-:t?d t ,a -jf-<: 1,d,)
Other Name~ : Mahatma (hl'.~h-.cC>uled, Saint}-by
Rabindranath Tagore, 1917; Malang ~ab;;,/ NN'.!Ja Faqit
(Naked Saint}-by Kabailis of ~orth-\'\~st Fro?uer, 19?0;
. ,,,_;>;:-- · Haii-naked Saint (Ardha .'\'anga Faqir)/Ind1an '.aq1r/
aitd Traitor Faqir-by Winston Churchill 1931; Rashtrap1ta (the
~:t~ Father of the Naiton}-by Subhash Chandra Bose, 1944.
He is also called 'Bapu' (Gujarati : term of endear~ent
for 'father') and 'GandhJ_ji'.
Main Events during the Gandhian Era
• =
lmsford, a sedition committee was appointed by the
government in 1918 with Justice RC>wlattw_h_ich _made~ertain
recommendations to curb seditious act1v1tJes m India. The
Rowlatt Act 1919, gave unbridled powers to the government
to arrest and imprison suspects, with out trial. The act caused
a wave of anger among the people. Even before the act was
passed, popular agitation began against it. Gandh.iji decided
to fight against this act and he gave a call for Satyagraha on
April 6, 1919. He was arrested on April 8, 1919. This led to
further intensification of the agitation in Delhi, Ahrnedabad
/
ai\~~
,._· :. • • .
and Puni· ab. _
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (A ri l 13, 1919) : The arrest
·>.
~ r. a1 in Kitchlu and Dr. Satypal on April 10, 1919,
under the Rowlatt Act in connection with Satyagraha caused
serious unrest in Punjab. A public meeting was held on
April 13, 1919 in a park called Jallian wala Bagh in Amritsar
where thousands of people including women and children
assembled. Before the meeting could start General Reginald
Edward Harry (R.E.H.) Dyer ordered indiscrim inate heavy
firing on the crowd and the people had no way ou t to escape .
As a resu lt hundreds of men, women ;ind children were
· h
killed and more than 1200 people wounded . 'At t at time
Miachel O'Dwyer was the Iieu tt>n:i nt go\·ernor o.f the Pufljab.
The massacre was a tlrrnmg point in Inda-British relations
and ins pired the people to p rovide a more un relenting fight
fo r freed om .
· Note: Sarda r Uddham Singh a n Ind ian patriot from Punjab,
..
sho t d own Miachel O ' Dwyer in Lon don in 1940.
/ Khilafat mo vement (1920-22) · The Caliph ·(or, Kha/ifa)
Sultan o f Turke y, was looked upo n by the Muslims as
their religio us head. During the firs t Wo rld -War, when
' . ;the>Safety· a nd . welfar~ .o f 'Ttirkey were:· th rea tene<;l -by' the .
British thereby weakening the Caliph's p osition, Indian
Muslims adopted an aggressi ve a nti-British attitude. The
Ali Brother!r Mohammad Ali an d Shaukat Ali-launched an
anti-British movement in 1920-the Khil a fat Movement fo r
the restoration of the Khil afat. M au Jana Abu/ Ka/am Azad
also led the movement. It was s uppo rted by Gandhiji and
INC which paved the way for_ Hindu-M uslim unity.
session in Sep. 1920, the Congress resolved in favour o f
the Non-coo pe ration Move men t a nd d efined Swaraj as
its ultimate aim (according to Gandhi). The movement
envisaged : (i) Surrender o f titles and honorary offices and
resignation from nominated offices; (ii) Refusal to attend
go~~mment darbars and official functions and boycott of
Bnhsh courts by the lawyers; (iii) Refusal of general public
to offer themselves for military and other government jobs,
 77
.rn hbroi:·

\\ ,:h The chiei architects of the report were Motilal Nehru and Tej
~ d boycott of foreign goods etc. Gandhift. along d l , ., ,. TI • · • • a •· ,
b\"e,y ··
.1 o / l r· 0 -,. •f o S r.,..,, •.,,., ·1 r ,. r.1 , ,
.e-ni !c1.i1'l'E!j L.fl er~(, .... ' lJi.JJili.J&.:.z ...;cy,u. J , ... . .... c :.:u-ta~-tC'.1.""'i.U~~-.cn <.?lCt-(C(J (h;;'Ual.?
µ •-.. J.,1. L-.vu 1"-I , v'.l i.../lJ.,1.d1.Zt .1.t.J.Cl'En·

a .iali~nw ide tour during addressi ng of meetings . The concerni ng the goal of lndi"-O ominion Status or Complete
t>duntio nal boycott was specially successf ul in Bengal w ith Independence.
tw:iiab too, respondi ng ~der the le_a dm~ip of Lala Lajpat. . 14 Points of Jinnah (March 9, 1929) ;Jinnah, the leader
~ill- Apart frc;>!Jl educatio nal boycott, there was boycott
of of Muslim League, did not accept the Nehru Report. Jinnah
up a list of demands , which was called
\aw courts which saw major lawyers like Motilal Nehru, thereafter drew Jinnah'.
CR. Das, C Rajagopalachari, Saifuddi n Kitchlu, Val/abh ~ 14 0' · ts of
P,hai Patel An.ma Asa{ Ali, etc. giYing up their lucrative ahore Session , 1929): At its annual session held
practices in their fields. The non-coo peration moveme nt a lso L ore m ec. 19_22, under the presiden tship of Jawaharlal
shops selling foreign cloth and boycott N L th Ind. 1an N a t·10na 1 C ongress passed a resoIu t·10n
saw picketing s of enrn e
o], f the foreign cloth by the followers of GandhiJ'i. Another declaring 'Pooma Swaraj' {Comple(e Indepen dence) to be
a_, ramat:ic.event during this period \\'as the visit of the princ~ · the goal of the national moveme nt.
of Wales. The day he landed in India (in Bombay on Nov.
17, 1921) he was greeted with empty streets and downed On Dec. 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolour flag was
$hutters whereve r he went. unfurled and Jan. 26 was fixed as the Indepen dence Day
whichw astobece lebrated everyye ar,plead ingtothe people ·
·
heh ·
L...:;.. aun- aura, m or pur
, , cane
Ch · G akh
.

1s
. b
Th e a tta ck on a Ioca I po1ice station y angry peasants
d. t .
e woe s1 ation. Gandhi, shocked b ,
net o
f UP
, on
F b
e . 5,/4 . . ..
not to submit to British rule any longer.
Dand1M arch/Sal tSatyagr aha(I930) :Toach1evethegoal
.
aun- aura incident, withdrew the on- ooperati on of rcomplete Independ ence', Gandhi launched another civil
-Movem ent on Feb. 12, 1922. disobedience moveme nt. Alongwi th 78 follower s, Gandhi'
. Swaraj Party (1923) ~ Ga~dhi' s decision to call off the started his famous march from Sabarma tiAshram on March·
agitation caused frustration among masses. His decision 12, 1930iorthesroall village OaadilNavsariDi.,;trictltnbreak
a distance of 240 miles in 24
came in for severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal
the Salt · I;;:,:. C<!ndhi covered
12-Apri l 5). On reaching the seashore on April
Nehru, CR. Das and NC Ke/kar, who organsied the Swaraj days· {Mardi
6, he broke the Salt Law by picking!- 1~salt from the seashore.
Party. The foundati onsofthe Swarajp artywere Jaid on Jan. 1, ted tbe£ivil
p_osed then By picking a liandtul of salt, Gand( jnaqgpra
1923,ast he ' CongressKhilafat-SwarajParty.Itpro that was to remain
Disobedience Moveme nt, a moveme nt
an alternati ve program me of diverting the moveme nt from l Moveme nt
assed in the h istory of Indian Nationa
widespr ead civil disobedience program me to restrictive one t:i"nsurp unleashe d. The
e for the countryw ide ma9s· participa tion it
which would encourage.its member to enter into legislativ
councils (established under Mont-ford Reforms of 1919) by movement became so powerfu l that is sparked off patriotism
contestin g elections in order to wreck the legislature from even among the Indian soldiers in the army. The Garhwal
within and to use moral pressure to compel the authority to soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshwar . Gandhiji
ent. In the was arrested on Mav 5, 1930. This was followed bv another
concede to the popular demand for self governm
election held in 1923 the S,varaj Party captured -15 of the l-15 round of boycott of foreign goods and it took the shape
seats. In provincial elect/bns they secured few seats but in of a nationwide Civi l Disobedience Moveme nt in which
the Central Province they secured a clear majority. In Bengal; ladies also participated. Soon thereafte r fo llowed repressive
the Swaraj Party was the largest party. They followed the measures such as mass arrests, lathi-charge, police-firing etc.
policy of undilut~d opposition. Tl;ie Swarajists dema_nd ed About 1,00,000 people went in jail.
. ound Table Conference (l 9_30) : It was held in
the release all the political prisoners, provincial autonomy, .~ T h e First
ent. Londori on Nov. 12, 1930, to discuss e imon Commis sion
repealing of the repressive laws imposed by the governm boycotted by the Indian National Congress.'
However , after the death of C.R. Das in 1925 they drifted b ut was tota Ily
towards a policy of cooperation with th e governm ent. This The Commission had proposed self-gov ernment in the
led to dissension and the party broke up in 1926. prnvmce • s and federatio n of British India and the princely
..Howeve r, '_the re presenta tive of the
Sil_Tlon, Com.Q')ission (192~2..Jh!" activitjes -;0f.the Swaraj · • state:;. at the -~entre
review th e Muslim League, Liberals and other parties had assembled
ff had induced the British governm ent to
working of the dyarchy system introduc ed by the Montagu e- for the discussion on the commission report. But in absence of
Chelmsf ord Reforms of 1919 and to report as to what extent the premier political party, the First Round Table Conference
a representative government could be introduc ed in India. ha'd toy adjourned to Jan. 2, 1931.
The British governm ent appointe d the Simon Commis sion Aanc
in Nov., 1927 for the task. All member s of this commiss ion a nd hi-lrwin Pact/De lhi Pact (March 5,193.1): Early in
were .Europeans {Whites). Indian political leaders felt
19 ~ 1 two moderate statesman , Sapru and fayakar, initiated
ion. Whereve r efforts to bring about rapproch ement between Gandhi and
insulted and decided to boycott the commiss
•the commission went there were cries of' Simon Co BacK.
th e government. Six meeting with Viceroy Lord Irwin finally
It was while leading a demonst ration against the Simon led to the signing of a pact between the two on March 5, 1931,
dealt whereby th e congress called off the moveme nt and agreed
,. Commis sion in Lahore that a fatal lathi-blow was
to Lala Lajpat Rai. It was his death Bhagat Singh and his to JOin the Second Round Table Conferen ce. Regarding
comrad~s \)'ere seeking to avenge when they kilted a white Gandhi-Irwin Pact J-~· Nehru remarks, 'This is the way the
police officials, Saunders in Dec. 1928. wor!pen ds,/Not with a bang, but a whimpe r'.
. Nehru Committee Report (1928): The Committ ee was _/The Second Round Table Conference (1931) : It was
setupund erthecha irmansh ipof Motila/Nehrotodetermine hel~ in London during the v1ceroyalty of lord Willingdon
the principles of the constitution before actually drafting it. dunng Sep. - Dec. 1931 and Gandhiji attended it on behalf
 •,:·.
· Luceii£'s C.. •;,eraJ Knowleclge
of In<lian Naitional Congress. Nothing much was exp«te<l
ttr.i fr.;; C.-r.L•.::. :~fol iL~ i..~rp.::.l:-it.;~ 1AXi:icru 1orres, which
nltimately COi'lm,llro !he U,iHsh Government in London,
were opposed to any political or economic concession being
given to lndia which couki ieaci co Hs independence. The
·Confereru:.-e; ·however, failed a·s 'Gandhiji• could not agree
witl1 British Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald on his
policy of communal representation and refusal of the ~ritish
government on the basic Indian demand for freedom. T),e
conference closed on Dec. 1, 1931, without any concrete
t------,~stflt.
The Commuflal Award/Mac Donald ~ward (Aug.
16, 1932) : While Gandhi was arrested on his return from
London after the Second Round Table Conference, British
Prime Min.ister Ramsay ,'vfac Donald announced his Award
on communa1 representation in Aug. 16, 1932. Besides
containing provisions for rep re sen ta lion of Musi ims; Sikhs
and Europeans, it envisaged communal representatioi:'t: of
Depressed Classes also. Gandhi was deeply grieved by
this and underwent a fast in protest against this Award
since it ai~ed to ~vide India on \ communal basis. While
many political Indians saw the fast as a diversion from the
ongoing· political movemen·t, ali ·were deeply concerned
and emotionally shaken. Almost everywhere· ·in· India
mass meetings took place, political leaders of different
persuasions, like Madan Mohan Malviya, B. R. Amhedkar
and M. C Raja became active. In the end the succeeded in
hammering out an agreement, known as the Poona Pact.
Poona Pact/Gandhi-Ambedkar Pa~t"·(Sep. 24, 1932*)
: <s discussed, the Communal Award created immense
dissatisfaction among Hindus. Gandhi who was on fast /1940) : It was is 1930 that Iqbal suggested the union of
in protest staked his life to get the Award repudiated.
According to the pact, the idea of separate electorate for the
Depressed Classes was abandoned but seats reserved for
them in the pro\'inc~l legislatures were increased from 7f
in the Award to 1~8. and in the central legi~l;iture to 18',",, TheidealiS
of the tota l. Ultimately the fast ended with the Poona Pact
which annulled the Award. The leaders ofthe various groups
and parties among Hindus, a nd B.R. Ambedkaron behalf
. of the. harijans, signed _the pact. The Poona .Pact between
. .
caste Hindus and the Depressed Classes agreed upon a joint
electorate: , .
/ The Third Round Tab.le Conferen~e (Nov. 17: Dec 24,
,11932) : Hw,as_ held m 1~32 but aga~n pr~"'.ed fn.ut\~ss smc~
tl\e national leaders were in pri'son. . Pakistan. Pakistan Raso! u tion was an irnp~rtant landmark in
The Government of India Act, 1935 : The Simon
Commission report submitted in 193tJ formed- the-;:::6n-March 2f''H40, passt::d Pakistan Resolubonand reiected
basis. for the Government of India Act, 1935, The new
Government of lndia Act received the royal assent on
A/4. 4 1935, The Act continued and extended all the ~ffer/Linlithgow Offer (Aug. 8, 1940) : On
,-{xi;ting features of earlier constitutional reforms. But in
additym there were certain new principle introduced. It
provilied for a federal type of government. Thus, the act:
(i) Introduced provincial autonomy
,. . .
(ii) Abolished dyarchy m provinces
. .
(iii) Made ministers responsible to the legislative and
• at· thI! centre. Th e Act o f 1935 was condemned
'federation
· f I d" bl. · · and was
by nearly a II sections o n 1an pu 1c opinion
· the Congress. The Congress
unanimously re1ected by
demanded itself the convening of a Constituent Assembly
* Gazetteer of India (V- 11) P.577
·--- -· ------
elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitu'l'ion
for an indep!"nde"~ Indi«. 'R-::ga;d:..,g ..i,e Go,,e,,u111=r,1 <;[
Indi~ Act, 1935 J. L. Nehru remarks, 'It was a new chartet ·
ofbondage.'
. • ·Althou~h the Congress opposed the Act, yet it contested
the elections when the constitution was introduced on April
1, 1937; and formed ministries, first in 6 provinces and then
in a_nother 2. The Muslim League was however, not happy
wi~ the Congress rule, esp. Mr. Jinnah, who described it
in those words : 'Congress was drunk with power and was
oppressfre against Muslims'.
CongressMin.istriesResign(Dec.2 2, 1939):TheSecond
World War broke out in Europe on Sep. 3, 1939 that brought
Britain also w ithin its fold. Without consulting the Indian
leaders, Toth~ Vicerkoyd dheclared India fralso asda belligderethnt
I
.
country. 1s evo e s arp criticism orn 1n ians an e
Congress took the stand that India cou Id not associate herself '
in a war said to be for democratic freedom when the very
freedom was denied to her. The Congress demanded that
India should be declared an independent nation. Then only
would the country help Britain in the war. The Viceroy in his
reply dated Oct. 17, 1939 rejected the Congress demand as
impracticable and took the stand that the.Government could
_ thin.kovertheentireconstitutional schemeafterthewar. The
Congress condemned the Viceroy's reply and the Congress
ministries everywhere resigned on Dec. 22, 1939. Jinnah was
happy over this and he called upon tf!e Indian Muslims to
celebrate the resigning day of Congress ministries as 'the
day bf deliverance~
/ Pakis·tari ·Resolution/Lahore Resolution (March 24,
the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir as
MuSlim state within the federations. This proved to be a
creati\'e idea which germinated during the early thirties to
burS t into vigorous life with the ad\'ent of the new reforms.
t Chaudhr:i· RehmatA!idevelopcd this conception
at Cambridge, where he inspired a group of young Muslims
a nd invented th e term 'Pakstarf (later 'Pakistan') in 1935.
His ideas seemed ·v isionary during that time, bl)I within
7
rears they turned_ tn_to a political programme by Jinnah
with the new name as its slogan or banner. The Ideology of
th
Iqbal, e vision of Rehamat Ali, and the fears of Muslims
were thus united by the practical genius of Jinnah to blind
Muslim. together as never before during the British period
a.i1d ~lh~atelx led to the.v ivisection oflndia and creation of
this context. The Lahore session of the Muslim League, held
fhe :F.M eral scheme <is envisaged m the government of.India
ct, ·
Aug. 8, 1940, the Viceroy linlithgowcame out with certain
propo~als, known as August Offer declaring that the goal
of ~nhsi1 G~vernment was_to establish Dominion Status in
1nd1a. It accepted th at framing of a new constitution would
be the responsibility of the Ind·,ans. It a 1so 1a1"d d own that
full , . h . .
¾e1g twouldbeg1ventotheviewsofm· ·n · th
constitution. Maulana Ab I K I m~n es m e
u
Congress, rejected the August Off
a am Azad
h'ch • President .of .the
erw ITh aimed atbrmgmg
the Congress in the ongoing world M .
war. rede us1un League
however welcomed the offer as -1 th '
constitution would be adopted ~-;nsut th at no further
. 1 ou e prior approval
.

\,'•
;_-~f !1us1:m~. The L-~2.gtie ::h:da.n:G tha~ the , 1·tos( c::;.fic...!i<
::' 1problem of India's future constitu1;on could be solvf'd onJv
by tne partition of tndia. ln brief, the Auqust Offer fai led i~
:.,gruning Indian's co-operation for war ,;d, in fact further
•·• • ·}
-· -1~·1e<l
,..\-~.ti 1 · · l 1' 'C~ •LW~-tn ••
,e E,t• ~ · ~'
ana· i:.ne
HC: u1~ \_~!"t3(~5~
;, 415 well as between the Congress and the Muslirn League.
'.J.. Individual Civil Disobedience/Individual Satyagaraha
{Oct., 1940 - Dec., 1941 ) : The Congress Working Committee
•. ~ecided to start individual civil disobedience on Oct. 17,
:, 1940. Vinoba Bhave was the first Satyagrahi who was arrested
·'• ,,on Oct. 21, followed soon by many more including Nehru
,_. f,!ld Pa tel. But the movement created Ii ttle en thusianism and
-,Gandhi suspended it.
~' The Cripps Mission (March-April 19-12) : In 1942, the
,British Government realized that it could not ignore the
µtdian problems any ,more. As a result of the World War,
,,t he situation worsened for the British w ith Japanese advance
.towards Ind ian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell
and Japan occupied the entire South-East Asia. The British
~ovemment, w ith a view of getting cooperation from
Indians, sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British
cabinet to India to settle termswi th Indian leaders who were
·torthwith released. Cripps proposed Dominion Status after
t11e war but his proposal was rejected by all the political
·1eaders. As no party agreed to accept these proposals, the
Cripps Mission ended in fail ure. Regarding the Cripps
Mission proposals Mahatma Gandhi remarks 'A post-dated
'cheque on a crumbling bank'. .
1t Ind ia' movement (1942 · On Aug. 8, 1942, the
ngress m its meeting at Gowatiya Tank, Bombay passed
a resolution known as 'Quit India' resolution, whereby
Gandh iji asked the British to quit India and gave a call for
'Do or die (We shall-either free India or die in the attempt)
to his countrymen. On A~g. 9, 1942 all the p_rominent leaders
like Ga ndh i, Nehru Patel etc. were arrested but tfie rest most
of (J.P., Lohiyt'Ar::na ~shaf'Ali, U,;ha Mehtaetc.)continued
the revolutionary s_truggle. Violence sprca9 _througho_;::1t the
country, several gove rnment offices were destroyed and
damaged, the telegraph wires were cut an d communication
paralyzed. Parallel gove rnment we re established_in some
places viz. 1. Bafia, U._P. (by Chittu Pan deya)-fir:t Par~llel
govt. 2. Tamulak, Midnapur Dis tt., Bengal (by Sa tis Samant)
3. ·satara, Maharashtra (by Y. B. Chahvan and N ana Patil)
- the longest (term) parallel govt. 4. Talchar, Orissa. The
movement was, howeve r, crushed by the government.
c· Note : 'Quit India'_term was coined by Yus uf Meherally,_
a companion of Mahatma Gandhi-'-"
-- Gandhiji's Fast (Feb. 10 - Ma_rch 7, 1943) : Gandhiji
undertook a 21-day fast in jail. His condition dete_riorated
after 13 d ays and all hopes of his s urvi val we re g1v':~ up.
However, as a res ult of his moral s trength and spmtual
stamina, he s urvived and. corriplet_e d the 21-day fast. This
was his answer to the government which had been constantly - 1942) Ras,Bihari ~~was elected Presidento{~: ,. gfi~~P.'fAwii.s
exhorting him to conde mn the violence of the people in the
'Quit India Movement. Gandhi not only refu sed to condemn
people resorting to violence but unequ1 vocall y held the
• government responsible for it.
C.R. Formula (1944) : In 1944, Chakravarti
ajagopalathari (C.R.) proposed to appoint a commission
demarcate the districts in North-West and East_ where
uslims were in majority. In such areas, a pleb1sate ~as
oposed to be held on the basis of adult suffraqe to decide
Indiar, History
.i1e issue of sepa.-ation. 7ney wou,d ue given freedom if !hey
f3vn,1~?. 50"-'e!'°ig:-: $t1t"' I; -:2=:? ~f-:c~t't~~cf 1;a i.itio .. ~
agrz,emerit was !o be :nad2 joi, ;t) y for safeguarding <lefence,
commeice, comm:inica1::ions etc. Muslim League was to
··,
onti:;ners Z;"iac.·se Cuf,g .. oS <.l~i.lA.i iCl lot u 1uepenaence ana cooperate
in the formation of provisional government.Jinnah objected,
as he wanted Congress to accept ~o-nation theory and
":.ll!.!teE ~nly Muslims ~Lt!ie_~cir-~ :W~~ ~~5:~~!._?Hnc!ia
_!9_ yote in the plebiscite. Hindu Leaders led by V.D. Savarkar
condemned the plan.
W.we-11 Plan and -Shimla-'Conference Oune 14-July 14,
1945): The war situation in Europe improved in the beginning
of the year 1945. India's goodwill was, however, needed as
the war against Japan was expected to last for about two
years. The situation within the country was worsening day
by day as a result of deteriorating economic situation and
famines. The British Government was compelled to come
forward with some sort of plan to satisfy the Indians. After
consultations with the British Government on the Indian
p.roblem,Lord Wal'e/1, the Viceroyoflndia, issuedastatement
known as Wal'ell />Jan. The Plan, which chiefly concerned
Viceroy's Executiv~ Council, proposed certain changes in
the structure of the council. One of the main proposals was
that the Executive Council would be constituted giving
a balanced representation to the main communities in it,
including equal representation to Muslims and Hindus.
Soon after the Wavell Plan w~s issued the members of
the Congress Working Committee were released fro~ jails. A
conference of22'prominent Ind ian leaders called at Shi.mla to
consider the Wavell Plan, reached no decision. What scuttled
the conference was Mr. Jinnah's unflinching stand that the
Muslim members approved only by the Muslim League
should be included in the Executive Council. Communal ism
thus again became a stumbling block. For the Britishers,
however, the dissension between the Congress and the
Muslim League was a source of happiness.
!NA Trial (Nov., 19,15) : P K. Sehgal Shah Nawaj
Khan and Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial at
the Red Fort in Nov., 1945. To elucidate, despite the best
effo rts of the Congress to w in the legal battle the trial of
IN~ prisone rs led to their ou tright conviction on the chiifge
.of waging war against the King Emperor. The pressurd,of
the Indian public opinion agains t this conviction however,
soon mounted high. This shook the British Government and
it was compelled to suspend the sentences imposed on the
INA convicts. Further, disaffectio,n spread fast among the
solqiers_. T):ie chief d~fencead vocat~ dl;li;ing the INA trial was
Bhulabhai Desai . Other defeirc:e lawyers were· Tej Bahadur
Sapru, fa wah arlal N ehru, A sal Ali and Md. Ali/ innah .
w~\~jii~~4.~<)·:~~~~-1:
,:1,>,,';~i. i,,~-'·d•, c'• •'"":;;<'H3.~ l-i1;l;U-';i;:~•,;,t··,i0
~ :-~~<,:• · : .l'U.a _)?!~~!!!J.;-~!.~-'-'t>'f!"•:~•':~ ... ,(J~~·~.'.f-"~~.Z.Y!I.~ .~_;_:::_~f:,i.~\~.
i
The Jap~nese affe( ';i~~~lrfhe BritisJ\ iii'Sq4~~fis1a>}9ok
a'niitnber 'o f Incliai{sofpm a~ prisonets';{f_'.~;"'. •·. -,~_-_'}942
a CCJ~tence;Qt!"-~~»b ~ias_h~~tl 41 :1okJRti ) . ' ·#le
In_d ian Indepena1nce U?ll~. ·At<the •Ban~o _ .: ., e
a brain-child ofM,o~Singh. INA was foi:m~,b,i!¥)3il)ii.~iBose
in 1942. ln 1943, 1N'A was reorganfsed by Sqbh~°b-~dra Bose
Subhas Clumdra Bose had escaped to Berlin'm'i941 and ,set up
Indian League the,re. lrijuly 1943, he joined the lNA~tSingapore.
~ Ras :Sihari Bose--J:iajltied. over·the lei3dersru.p it),lupk~;, ,.,
Provisional Gqv~~l.:a/FJJ!e ·lndi~ aiid .lNA~~nned by
Sub1'~ Cqanp.ra ~ -m.S~11pore dct..ii;•-1~,~~_,,; .,~ ,~ .,. on
INA:h~i3 ~g}J~~~4~ itamed ~ -.,siI~f~ijf~phi a.rid
Nehru..J?an,i Jhatisi.Bnga'c/ewas an exclusive wQ!p~;fon;e.::.., ,.
BO

·at11 With the defeat Gf Japan in 1<).15, the INA also d1.::d out.
Bose is said to have i;een l<lU.eil i.-1 air crash over Taipei, faiwa."l en
his way to "fokyo in Aug. is, l945. · ·
. .... .
_ . i<oyal u1dian.Nary(i{1/'l)i i<a•.-ings~fofuiy(Feb.l~:}9:16) __
: ~Feo., 18, 1946;-Bombay Ratings of HMS Tah•hir struck
work due to flagrant racial discrimination, unpalatable food
and abuse after the arrest of B.C. Dutt who had scrawled
Quit India on the ship. On Feb. 19, HMS Hindustan, in
Karachi also mutinied . VallabhBhai Patel and Jinnah jointly
persuaded the Ratings to surrender on Feb. 23, 19-16. The
Britishers for the first time_seriously realized that \Vith this
awakening among the Indians and revolt in armed forces,
it could not perpetuate its hold on India any more.
J:abjnPt M ission (March - June, 1946) : The British
Pr1m~ Minister, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March
15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission would visit Ind ia to
make recommendations regarding constitutional reforms
to be introduced in India. The Cabinet Mission which
inclu ded of Lord Pathick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and
A. V. Alexander visited India and met the representative of
d ifferent political p a rties, bu t a satisbctory solution to the
constitutional difficulties could not be found. The mission
envisaged the establisJv:nen_t of a Constituent _Assembly t9..-
'frame fhe consttfutton as well as an mtenm government.
:-Tfle Mt1sli111 League accepted the plan_onJune 6, 1946, while
maintaining its rights of striving for a separate Muslim state.
The Congress also partially accepted the plan.
Direct Action Campaign (Aug. 16, 1946): Provoked by
the• success of the Con gress (in the voting for Constituent
Assembly), the M uslim League launched a_ 'direct action'
campaign on A u g. 16, 1946, w hich resulted m wide spread
communal riots in the country.
Interim Government (Sep. 2, 1946) : On Sep. 2, 1946, an
in<l!'nm government was formed . Con_g ressmembers led bv
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the l\lu..,lim League _did
\ not, on the contrary it withdrew ib ear.lier acceptance ot the
of ciominion status to the newly formed dominions of India
~i1d Pzl'i~t::---:. Its ~1=-:cp~~:-!-::' l;y the Cr;~~!:5;:r..d t.h~ M1..!~Ern
· Leag,.ie resulted i.:, trie birth of Pakistan.
The Indian Independence Act, 1947: The Bill containing
._the provi:;toi:s.()f the Mountbatterj Plarl..of June 3, J.947, was
introduced' in the British Parliament and passed as the
Indian Independence Act, 1947. The Act laid down detailed
~-c-::,==-=--
< measu~s fut tire partition of India and s peed · y trans f er
of political powers to the new governments of India and
Pakistan.
Integration · of States : By Aug. 15, 1947, all states
except Kashmu; Junagadh and Hyderabad had signed
the Instrument of Accession with India. The Maharaja of
Kashmir acceded to India in Oct., 1947 when irregular
Pakistani troops invaded his state. The Nawab ofJunagadh
was a Muslim whereas most of its people were Hindus. In
Feb: 19,18, through a referendum the people of this state
decided to join India. The Nawab of Junagadh, therefore,
left for Pakistan. The Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to
accede to the Indian Union under the pressure of internal
anarchy and military action against him in Sep., 1948.
French Colonies : By the end of 1954, French colonial
rule in Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Mahe, Karaikal and
Yanam came to an end. These territories were integrated
with India.
Portuguese Colonies : The_ Portuguese .colonie~ in
India were Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveh. In
1954, Dadra and Nagar Haveli were liberated by ~ <lorn
fighters. Indian .troops liber~ted Goa, Daman and Dm from
th e Portuguese in 1961.
Miscellaneous
t. Ancient' .
BC '
2500-1750 Indus Valley Civili:z;ation .
563-483 Buqdh.a's life-:,pan. -."'.:~•{fc>\: 0 ",,· •• · . : -: ••

Cab inet Mission Pla n. -~o-468 1

Mah~vir's lif~pan.: :{· ;;~:~-~-i~4i~,_f}f_:f-,S~~-;- 1
·~

Fo rma tio n o f Cons tituent Assembly (D~W 946~ : The 327-326 ··A1el.inde~'. finiiisiori:Bf'lh.ci,a:J(i-'.~~.,!ai\'d~'ute
Cons titue nt Assembly rnet on Dec. 9, 1946, and_Dr. Ra1~dndra
Prasad was elected its President. The I\,·1us· im eagu
· 1· L · ed1 not
~r;:t;~~:~~1~;;ii;~;~--
3;/ : .:. . .. · :.:'.' 'si:f''..:-- •• ,.,,. ·!h· ·:';f;fmar J£ '-:cn'aridragupta
1

rfn~:.:~i~l;i~:f'¼il}liiii;
join the Assembly. _
Attlee's Announcement (Feb. 20, 1947) . On Feb. 20,

~
1947 British Prime Minister Attlee. annou nced that th~
Briti~h would w i thdrnwsfron:i India b-y Ji.me 3,0, 1948 -a n
th t Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell. 145--101 . R~igIJ:ofJ~la.i;~, $~ Chola-kirig;i)f..Srj;~ :•1"':~~;;r;,: '
4h7 Lord

ft;t':~1tt~tlt)t.
a Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): _In
_ .::.:,;;.::.:,.=::::=--'.=:-r::-=:rr-;:;;:;:n;r;,;;;;;:rrr.,:::r,eeannou need is p1an
oun atten rep ace or ave . b ndoned
3 1947 His ea rlier Plan Balkan was a a
on Jthune J~ne 3 .Plan. It offered a key to the political a~d
for •tut" is nal dea , di ock crea te d by the refusal of Mushm
consh 10 . . the Constituent Assembly formed to frame
League to 101_n . f Jndia1/:rrountbatten's formula was to 380 Accession ofChahdra~pf~ ll 'VtkiJmaclityit;·: ·! ,.;-. '
the constitution ° . ·. - The country would 405-411 Visit of Ch!niie tr~v~llerFal)iJn. ,,,_. ,, .. . . ,
divide9India but retain m ximum urnty. al so that
be pa rtitio ned but so ,thvould be Pu~Ja~o~~
, . ·t d Pakistan at emerge v-
:;! both the
/rh
415
455
Accession o(Kumaragupta L
Accession of$kandagupta. ' -
.
•.
··
the 11m1 e ' , "tion to some extent e
Cong ress and the Leagues pos1 ceded in that it would
606-~t7 . ~~t:~~~~,~~. :-::c,"-/~·/'";~,;}\) :;.;•,·},;'. ·.
Llague's position on Pa kistan was ci:n on unity would be U.;Mji4i~!11(;{:•(:.:,.'~;;~~~'t~},:t'; ~i'.:li~~~~~~~l;,,ll'.lc>~; ·
be cre~ted, but the Co;;~:s;r~:1tan as small as possible. 712 . .; First ixwaslii.niil'S~$ by ~-MQ<l:!Jin Qasfin)..
taken _into acco~::a:~ed principles for the parti~ion of the 836 .. · · ·Ac~on ~fKinfBhoja of~-:\':'i.r::H·.:,x,, '·
He laid down f f olitical powers m the form
country and speedy trans er o p