DIFERENT MATERIAL USE IN

PRODUCT DESIGNING
Plastic
Plastic can cover many synthetic or semisynthetic
polymerization products. They are composed of
organic condensation or addition polymers and may
contain other substances to improve performance
or economics. There are few natural polymers
generally considered to be "plastics". Plastics can
be formed into objects or films or fibers. Their
name is derived from the fact that many are
malleable, having the property of plasticity. Plastic
can be classified in many ways, but most
commonly by their polymer backbone (polyvinyl
chloride, polyethylene, polymethyl methacrylate and other acrylics, silicones, polyurethanes,
etc.). Other classifications include thermoplastic, thermoset, elastomer, engineering plastic,
addition or condensation or polyaddition (depending on polymerization method used),
and glass transition temperature or Tg.Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially
amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the temperature at
which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions
(temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular is substantially increased).
So-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Many plastics are
completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly(methyl
methacrylate), and all thermosets.Plastics are polymers: long chains of atoms bonded to
one another. Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 in molecular weight,
while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made
up of many repeating molecular units, known as "repeat units", derived from "monomers";
each polymer chain will have several 1000's of repeat units. The vast majority of plastics
are composed of polymers of carbon and hydrogen alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine
or sulfur in the backbone. (Some of commercial interest are silicon based.) The backbone
is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together.
To vary the properties of plastics, both the repeat unit with different molecular groups
"hanging" or "pendant" from the backbone, (usually they are "hung" as part of the
monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). This
customization by repeat unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become such an
indispensable part of twenty first-century life by fine tuning the properties of the
polymer.Molded plastic food replicas on display outside restaurant in Japan.People
experimented with plastics based on natural polymers for centuries. In the nineteenth century they
discovered plastics based on chemically modified natural polymers: Charles Goodyear discovered
vulcanization of rubber (1839) and Alexander Parkes, English inventor (1813—1890) created the
earliest form of plastic in 1855. He mixed pyroxylin, a partially nitrated form of cellulose
(cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls), with alcohol and camphor. This produced a
hard but flexible transparent material, which he called "Parkesine." The first plastic based on a
synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap
synthesis methods invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1909, the product being known as
Bakelite. Subsequently poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, polyethylene (polyethene),
polypropylene (polypropene), polyamides (nylons), polyesters, acrylics, silicones, polyurethanes
were amongst the many varieties of plastics developed and have great commercial success.The
development of plastics has come from the use of natural materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac)
to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen)
and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene).In
1959, Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, PA had a team that developed the expandable polystyrene
foam cup. On this team was Edward J. Stoves who made the first commercial foam cup. The
experimental cups were made of puffed rice glued together to form a cup to show how it would
feel and look. The chemistry was then developed to make the cups commercial. Today, the cup is
used throughout the world in countries desiring fast food, namely, the United States, Japan,
Australia,and New Zealand. Freon was never used in the cups. As Stoves said, "We didn't know
freon was bad for the ozone, but we knew it was not good for people so the cup never used freon
to expand the beads."The foam cup can be buried, and it is totally stable such as is concrete and
brick. No plastic film is required to protect the air and underground water. If it is burned with
sufficient oxygen, the only chemicals generated are water and carbon dioxide. Burning a ton of
cups results in less than 600 grams of ash. It can be recycled to make park benches, flower pots
and toys.

Cellulose-based plastics: celluloid and rayon

Bakelite (phenolic)

The limitations of celluloid led to the next major advance, known as "phenolic" or "phenol-
formaldehyde" plastics. A chemist named Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American
living in New York state, was searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors
and generators. Baekeland found that mixtures of phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH)
formed a sticky mass when mixed together and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if
allowed to cool and dry.He continued his investigations and found that the material could be
mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite" materials with different
properties. Most of these compositions were strong and fire resistant. The only problem was that
the material tended to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of unacceptable
quality.Baekeland built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform
product. He publicly announced his discovery in 1912, naming it "bakelite". It was originally
used for electrical and mechanical parts, finally coming into widespread use in consumer goods in
the 1920s. When the Bakelite patent expired in 1930, the Catalin Corporation acquired the patent
and began manufacturing Catalin plastic using a different process that allowed a wider range of
coloring.Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material, not based on any
material or even molecule found in nature. It was also the first "thermoset" plastic. Conventional
"thermoplastics" can be molded and then melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds
between polymers strands when "cured", creating a tangled matrix that cannot be undone without
destroying the plastic. Thermoset plastics are tough and temperature resistant.Bakelite was cheap,
strong, and durable. It was molded into thousands of forms, such as radios, telephones, clocks,
and, of course, billiard balls. The U.S. government even considered making one-cent coins out of
it when World War II caused a copper shortage.Phenolic plastics have been largely replaced by
cheaper and less brittle plastics, but they are still used in applications requiring its insulating and
heat-resistant properties. For example, some electronic circuit boards are made of sheets of paper
or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin.Phenolic sheets, rods and tubes are produced in a wide
variety of grades under various brand names. The most common grades of industrial phenolic are
Canvas, Linen and Paper.

Polystyrene and PVC

After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new
forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new plastics were "polystyrene"
(PS) and "polyvinyl chloride" (PVC), developed by IG Farben of Germany.Polystyrene is a rigid,
brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knickknacks.
It would also be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name "styrene
foam" or "Styrofoam". Foam plastics can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the
foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the
bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and floatation devices. In
the late 1950s "High Impact" styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current
use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.

Nylon

The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was "polyamide" (PA), far better known by its
trade name, "nylon". Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by Du Pont
Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City.In 1927, Du Pont had begun a secret
development project designated "Fiber66", under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace
Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to
perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and
physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.His
work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible.
The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk,
particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different It took Du
Pont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon synthesize and develop the industrial
processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont
spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon
mania". Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War
II. The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just "nylons",
for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and
paratroopers. After the war ended, Du Pont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in
another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so
called "nylon riots".Subsequently polyamides 6, 10, 11, 12 have been developed based on
monomers which are ring compounds, e.g. caprolactam.Nylons still remains important plastics,
and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil-
impregnated, and so is used to build gears, bearings, bushings, and because of good heat-
resistance, increasing for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical
parts.polyamides including polyamide6.6 and 4.6., they also discovered polyesters.

Synthetic rubber

A polymer that was critical to the war effort was "synthetic rubber", which was produced in a
variety of forms. Synthetic rubbers are not plastics. Synthetic rubbers are elastic materials.The
first synthetic rubber polymer was obtained by Lebedev in 1910. Practical synthetic rubber grew
out of studies published in 1930 written independently by American Wallace Carothers, Russian
scientist Lebedev and the German scientist Hermann Staudinger. These studies led in 1931 to one
of the first successful synthetic rubbers, known as "neoprene", which was developed at DuPont
under the direction of E.K. Bolton. Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil
and gasoline, and is used in fuel hoses and as an insulating material in machinery.In 1935,
German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as "Buna rubbers".
These were "copolymers", meaning that their polymers were made up from not one but two
monomers, in alternating sequence. One such Buna rubber, known as "GR-S" (Government
Rubber Styrene), is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, became the basis for U.S. synthetic
rubber production during World War II.Worldwide natural rubber supplies were limited and by
mid-1942 most of the rubber-producing regions were under Japanese control. Military trucks
needed rubber for tires, and rubber was used in almost every other war machine. The U.S.
government launched a major (and largely secret) effort to develop and refine synthetic rubber. A
principal scientist involved with the effort was Edward Robbins.By 1944 a total of 50 factories
were manufacturing it, pouring out a volume of the material twice that of the world's natural
rubber production before the beginning of the war.After the war, natural rubber plantations no
longer had a stranglehold on rubber supplies, particularly after chemists learned to synthesize
isoprene. GR-S remains the primary synthetic rubber for the manufacture of tires.Synthetic
rubber would also play an important part in the space race and nuclear arms race. Solid rockets
used during World War II used nitrocellulose explosives for propellants, but it was impractical
and dangerous to make such rockets very big.During the war, California Institute of Technology
(Caltech) researchers came up with a new solid fuel, based on asphalt fuel mixed with an
oxidizer, such as potassium or ammonium perchlorate, plus aluminium powder, which burns very
hot. This new solid fuel burned more slowly and evenly than nitrocellulose explosives, and was
much less dangerous to store and use, though it tended to flow slowly out of the rocket in storage
and the rockets using it had to be stockpiled nose down.After the war, the Caltech researchers
began to investigate the use of synthetic rubbers instead of asphalt as the fuel in the mixture. By
the mid-1950s, large missiles were being built using solid fuels based on synthetic rubber, mixed
with ammonium perchlorate and high proportions of aluminium powder. Such solid fuels could
be cast into large, uniform blocks that had no cracks or other defects that would cause
nonuniform burning. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic
rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space
effort.Other plastics emerged in the prewar period, though some would not come into widespread
use until after the war.By 1936, American, British, and German companies were producing
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), better known as "acrylic glass." Although acrylics are now
well known for their use in paints and synthetic fibers, such as "fake furs", in their bulk form they
are actually very hard and more transparent than glass, and are sold as glass replacements under
trade names such as "Plexiglas" and "Lucite". Plexiglas was used to build aircraft canopies during
the war, and it is also now used as a marble replacement for countertops.

polyethylene

Another important plastic, "polyethylene" (PE), sometimes known as "polythene", was

discovered in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at the British industrial giant Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI). This material evolved into two forms, "low density polyethylene"
(LDPE), and "high density polyethylene" (HDPE). PEs are cheap, flexible, durable, and
chemically resistant. LDPE is used to make films and packaging materials, while HDPE is used
for containers, plumbing, and automotive fittings. While PE has low resistance to chemical
attack, it was found later that a PE container could be made much more robust by exposing it to
fluorine gas, which modified the surface layer of the container into the much tougher
"polyfluoroethylene".
Polyethylene would lead after the war to an improved material, "polypropylene" (PP), which was
discovered in the early 1950s by Giulio Natta. It is common in modern science and technology
that the growth of the general body of knowledge can lead to the same inventions in different
places at about the same time, but polypropylene was an extreme case of this phenomenon, being
separately invented about nine times. The ensuing litigation was not resolved until
1989.Polypropylene managed to survive the legal process, and two American chemists working
for Phillips Petroleum, J. Paul Hogan and Robert Banks, are now generally credited as the
"official" inventors of the material. Polypropylene is similar to its ancestor, polyethylene, and
shares polyethylene's low cost, but it is much more robust. It is used in everything from plastic
bottles to carpets to plastic furniture, and is very heavily used in automobiles.

Polyurethane

was invented by Friedrich Bayer & Company in 1937, and would come into use after the war, in
blown form for mattresses, furniture padding, and thermal insulation. It is also one of the
components (in non-blown form) of the fiber spandex.In 1939, IG Farben filed a patent for
"polyepoxide" or "epoxy". Epoxies are a class of thermoset plastic that form cross-links and
"cure" when a catalyzing agent, or "hardener", is added. After the war they would come into wide
use for coatings, "adhesives", and composite materials.Composites using epoxy as a matrix
include glass-reinforced plastic, where the structural element is glass fiber, and "carbon-epoxy
composites", in which the structural element is carbon fiber. Fiberglass is now often used to build
sport boats, and carbon-epoxy composites are an increasingly important structural element in
aircraft, as they are lightweight, strong, and heat resistant.Two chemists named Rex Whinfield
and James Dickson, working at a small English company with the quaint name of the "Calico
Printer's Association" in Manchester, developed "polyethylene terephthalate" (PET or PETE) in
1941, and it would be used for synthetic fibers in the postwar era, with names such as "polyester",
"dacron", and "terylene".PET is less gas-permeable than other low-cost plastics and so is a
popular material for making bottles for Coca-Cola and other "fizzy drinks", since carbonation
tends to attack other plastics, and for acidic drinks such as fruit or vegetable juices. PET is also
strong and abrasion resistant, and is used for making mechanical parts, food trays, and other items
that have to endure abuse. PET films are used as a base for recording tape.One of the most
impressive plastics used in the war, and a top secret, was "polytetrafluoroethylene" (PTFE), better
known as "Teflon", which could be deposited on metal surfaces as a scratch-proof and corrosion-
resistant, low-friction protective coating. The polyfluoroethylene surface layer created by
exposing a polyethylene container to fluorine gas is very similar to Teflon.A Du Pont chemist
named Roy Plunkett discovered Teflon by accident in 1938. During the war, it was used in
gaseous-diffusion processes to refine uranium for the atomic bomb, as the process was highly
corrosive. By the early 1960s, Teflon "nonstick" frying pans were a hot item.Polyurethane was
invented by Friedrich Bayer & Company in 1937, and would come into use after the war, in
blown form for mattresses, furniture padding, and thermal insulation. It is also one of the
components (in non-blown form) of the fiber spandex.In 1939, IG Farben filed a patent for
"polyepoxide" or "epoxy". Epoxies are a class of thermoset plastic that form cross-links and
"cure" when a catalyzing agent, or "hardener", is added. After the war they would come into wide
use for coatings, "adhesives", and composite materials.Composites using epoxy as a matrix
include glass-reinforced plastic, where the structural element is glass fiber, and "carbon-epoxy
composites", in which the structural element is carbon fiber. Fiberglass is now often used to build
sport boats, and carbon-epoxy composites are an increasingly important structural element in
aircraft, as they are lightweight, strong, and heat resistant.
Two chemists named Rex Whinfield and James Dickson, working at a small English company
with the quaint name of the "Calico Printer's Association" in Manchester, developed
"polyethylene terephthalate" (PET or PETE) in 1941, and it would be used for synthetic fibers in
the postwar era, with names such as "polyester", "dacron", and "terylene".PET is less gas-
permeable than other low-cost plastics and so is a popular material for making bottles for Coca-
Cola and other "fizzy drinks", since carbonation tends to attack other plastics, and for acidic
drinks such as fruit or vegetable juices. PET is also strong and abrasion resistant, and is used for
making mechanical parts, food trays, and other items that have to endure abuse. PET films are
used as a base for recording tape.One of the most impressive plastics used in the war, and a top
secret, was "polytetrafluoroethylene" (PTFE), better known as "Teflon", which could be
deposited on metal surfaces as a scratch-proof and corrosion-resistant, low-friction protective
coating. The polyfluoroethylene surface layer created by exposing a polyethylene container to
fluorine gas is very similar to Teflon.A Du Pont chemist named Roy Plunkett discovered Teflon
by accident in 1938. During the war, it was used in gaseous-diffusion processes to refine uranium
for the atomic bomb, as the process was highly corrosive. By the early 1960s, Teflon "nonstick"
frying pans were a hot item.

Common plastics and their uses

Polyethylene (PE)
Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags, plastic bottles.
Polypropylene (PP)
Food containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers).
Polystyrene (PS)
Packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette
boxes.
High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
fridge liners, food packaging, vending cups.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers, keyboards).
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)
carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film, microwavable packaging.
Polyester (PES)
Fibers, textiles.
Polyamides (PA) (Nylons)
Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood car engine mouldings.
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window frames,flooring, erotic
clothing.
Polyurethanes (PU)
cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers.
(Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance the most
commonly used plastic found in cars).
Polycarbonate (PC)
Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, lenses.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran)
Food packaging.
Bayblend (PC/ABS)
 A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic. :Car Interior and exterior
parts

Special-purpose plastics
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around
the world, e.g "Perspex", "Oroglas", "Plexiglas"), fluorescent light diffusers, rear
light covers for vehicles.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (trade name Teflon)
Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like "non-stick" surfaces for
frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides.
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Polyketone)
Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for
use in medical implant applications, aerospace mouldings. One of the most
expensive commercial polymers.
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem)
A General Electric product, similar to PEEK.
Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes)
high modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant polymer. Used
for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g.
"Formica"), thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the
familiar trade name "Bakelite", that can be moulded by heat and pressure when
mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast
as foam, e.g. "Oasis". Problems include the probability of mouldings naturally
being dark colours (red, green, brown), and as thermoset difficult to recycle.
Urea-formaldehyde (UF), one of the aminoplasts and used as multi-colorable alternative
to Phenolics. Used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical
switch housings.
Melamine formaldehyde (MF), one of the aminoplasts, and used a multi-colorable
alternative to phenolics, for instance in mouldings (e.g. break-resistance alternatives to
ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the
paper laminates (e.g. "Formica").
Polylactic acid
a biodegradable, thermoplastic, found converted into a variety of aliphatic
polyesters derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made by fermentation of
various agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from diary products.
Plastarch Material
biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch.
Rubber
is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that naturally occurs as a milky colloidal
suspension, or latex, in the sap of some plants. It can also be synthesized

Rubber latex.

Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties.

Rubber's stress-strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect, the Payne effect and is often
modeled as hyperelastic.

Rubber strain crystallizes.

Why does rubber have elasticity?

In most elastic materials, such as metals used in springs, the elastic behavior is caused by
bond distortions. When force is applied, bond lengths deviate from the (minimum energy)
equilibrium and strain energy is stored electrostatically. Rubber is often assumed to
behave in the same way, but it turns out this is a poor description. Rubber is a curious
material because, unlike metals, strain energy is stored thermally, as well as
electrostatically.In its relaxed state rubber consists of long, coiled-up polymer chains that
are interlinked at a few points. Between a pair of links each monomer can rotate freely
about its neighbour. This gives each section of chain leeway to assume a large number of
geometries, like a very loose rope attached to a pair of fixed points. At room temperature
rubber stores enough kinetic energy so that each section of chain oscillates chaotically,
like the above piece of rope being shaken violently.When rubber is stretched the "loose
pieces of rope" are taut and thus no longer able to oscillate. Their kinetic energy is given
off as excess heat. Therefore, the entropy decreases when going from the relaxed to the
stretched state, and it increases during relaxation. This change in entropy can also be
explained by the fact that a tight section of chain can fold in fewer ways (W) than a loose
section of chain, at a given temperature (nb. entropy is defined as S=k*ln(W)).
Relaxation of a stretched rubber band is thus driven by an increase in entropy, and the
force experienced is not electrostatic, rather it is a result of the thermal energy of the
material being converted to kinetic energy. Rubber relaxation is endothermic. The
material undergoes adiabatic cooling during contraction. This property of rubber can
easily be verified by holding a stretched rubber band to your lips and relaxing
it.Stretching of a rubber band is in some ways equivalent to the compression of an ideal
gas, and relaxation in equivalent to its expansion. Note that a compressed gas also
exhibits "elastic" properties, for instance inside an inflated car tire. The fact that
stretching is equivalent to compression may seem somewhat counter-intuitive, but it
makes sense if rubber is viewed as a one-dimensional gas. Stretching reduces the "space"
available to each section of chain.Vulcanization of rubber creates more disulphide bonds
between chains so it makes each free section of chain shorter. The result is that the chains
tighten more quickly for a given length of strain. This increases the elastic force constant
and makes rubber harder and less extendable.When cooled below the glass transition
temperature, the quasi-fluid chain segments "freeze" into fixed geometries and the rubber
abruptly loses its elastic properties, though the process is reversible. This is a property it
shares with most elastomers. At very cold temperatures rubber is actually rather brittle; it
will break into shards when struck. This critical temperature is the reason that winter tires
use a softer version of rubber than normal tires. The failing rubber o-ring seals that
contributed to the cause of the Challenger disaster were thought to have cooled below
their critical temperature. The disaster happened on an unusually cold day.

Current sources of rubber

Close to 21 million tons of rubber were produced in 2005 of which around 42% was
natural. Today Asia is the main source of natural rubber, accounting for around 94% of
output in 2005. The three largest producing countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand)
together accounts for around 72% of all natural rubber production.

Hypoallergenic rubber can be made from Guayule.

Early experiments in the development of synthetic rubber led to the invention of Silly
Putty.

Natural rubber is often vulcanized, a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur,
peroxide or bisphenol are added to improve resilience and elasticity, and to prevent it
from perishing. Vulcanization greatly improved the durability and utility of rubber from
the 1830s on. The successful development of vulcanisation is most closely associated
with Charles Goodyear. Carbon black is often used as an additive to rubber to improve its
strength, especially in vehicle tires.
Uses

The use of rubber is wide spread, ranging from household to industrial products, entering
the production stream at the intermediate stage or as final products. Tires and tubes are
the largest consumers of rubber, accounting for around 56% total consumption in 2005.
The remaining 44% are taken up by the general rubber goods (GRG) sector, which are all
products except tires and tubes.Other significant users of rubber are hoses, belts and
dampners for the automobile industry in what is known as the "under the bonnet"
products. Gloves (medical, household and industrial) are also large consumers of rubber,
although the type of rubber used is that of the concentrated latex. Of particular
importance is condom manufacture, a most valuable product which, when used properly,
may prevent the spread of sexually-transmitted diseases and significantly reduce the
number of unwanted pregnancies. Significant tonnage of rubber is used as adhesives in
many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable are the
paper and the carpet industry.Additionally, rubber produced as a fiber has significant
value for use in the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery
properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber is made as either an extruded
round fiber, or rectangular fibers that are cut in strips from extruded film. Because of its
low dye acceptance, its hand and appearance, the rubber fiber is either covered by yarn of
another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into the fabric. In the early 1900’s, for
example, rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in
textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex
lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and
perspiration. Seeking a way to address these shortcomings, the textile industry has turned
to Neoprene, a type of synthetic rubber as well as another more commonly used
elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber
in both strength and durability.

Metal
In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an
element that readily loses electrons to form
positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds
between metal atoms. Metals form ionic bonds
with non-metals. They are sometimes described
as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a
cloud of delocalized electrons. The metals are
one of the three groups of elements as
distinguished by their ionization and bonding
properties, along with the metalloids and
nonmetals. On the periodic table, a diagonal line
drawn from boron (B) to polonium (Po) separates the metals from the nonmetals. Most
elements on this line are metalloids, sometimes called semi-metals; elements to the lower
left are metals; elements to the upper right are nonmetals.
An alternative definition of metals is that they have overlapping conduction bands and
valence bands in their electronic structure. This definition opens up the category for
metallic polymers and other organic metals, which have been made by researchers and
employed in high-tech devices. These synthetic materials often have the characteristic
silvery-grey reflectiveness (luster) of elemental metals.The traditional definition focuses
on the bulk properties of metals. They tend to be lustrous, ductile, malleable, and good
conductors of electricity, while nonmetals are generally brittle (if solid), lack luster, and
are insulators.

Chemical properties

Most metals are chemically reactive, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over
changing timescales (for example iron rusts over years and potassium burns in seconds).
The alkali metals react quickest followed by the alkaline earth metals, found in the
leftmost two groups of the periodic table. The transition metals take much longer to
oxidize (such as iron, copper, zinc, nickel). Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do
not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their
surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their
shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, some steels,
and titanium). The oxides of metals are basic (as opposed to those of nonmetals, which
are acidic), although this may be considered a rule of thumb, rather than a fact.Painting or
anodising metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more reactive
metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping
of the coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if
the coating is less reactive than the coatee, the coating actually promotes corrosion.

Physical properties

Traditionally, metals have certain characteristic physical properties: they are usually
shiny (they have "luster"), have a high density, are ductile and malleable, usually have a
high melting point, are usually hard, and conduct electricity and heat well. However this
is mainly because the low density, soft, low melting point metals happen to be reactive,
and we rarely encounter them in their elemental, metallic form. Metals conduct sound
well, that is, they are sonorous.The electric slide and thermal conductivity of metals
originate from the fact that in the metallic bond the outer electrons of the metal atoms
form a gas of nearly free electrons, moving as an electron gas in a background of positive
charge formed by the ion cores. Good mathematical predictions for electrical
conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat capacity and heat
conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model, which does not
take the detailed structure of the ion lattice into account.When considering the exact band
structure and binding energy of a metal, it is necessary to take into account the positive
potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores - which is periodic in
crystals. The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a
small band gap at the boundary of the brillouin zone. Mathematically, the potential of the
ion cores is treated in the nearly-free electron model.
Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major
component is a metal. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive
for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modify the properties of
pure metals to produce desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to
make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and
luster. Examples of alloys are steel (iron and carbon), brass (copper and zinc), bronze
(copper and tin), and duralumin (aluminium and copper). Alloys specially designed for
highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain more than ten elements.

Categories

Base metal

In chemistry, the term 'base metal' is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or
corrodes relatively easily, and reacts variably with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form
hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base
metal as it oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. It is commonly
used in opposition to noble metal.In alchemy, a base metal was a common and
inexpensive metal, as opposed to precious metals, mainly gold and silver. A longtime
goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals into precious metals.In
numismatics, coins used to derive their value primarily from the precious metal content.
Most modern currencies are fiat currency, allowing the coins to be made of base metal.

Ferrous metal

The term "ferrous" is derived from the latin word meaning "containing iron". This can
include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often
magnetic, but not exclusively.

Noble metal

Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base
metals. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include
tantalum, platinum, and rhodium.

Precious metal
A gold nugget.

A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic

value.Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high
luster and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as
currency, but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold,
silver, platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known
precious metals are gold and silver. While both have industrial uses, they are better
known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage. Other precious metals include the
Platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum,
of which platinum is the most widely traded. Plutonium and uranium could also be
considered precious metals.The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their
practical use, but also by their role as investments and a store of value. Palladium was, as
of summer 2006, valued at a little under half the price of gold, and platinum at around
twice that of gold. Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals, but is often
traditionally considered a precious metal for its role in coinage and jewelry.

Extraction

Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining, resulting in ores that are
relatively rich sources of the requisite elements. Ore is located by prospecting techniques,
followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally
divided into surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and
subsurface mines.Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by
chemical or electrolytic reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore
into raw metals, while hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose.
The methods used

depend on the metal and their contaminants.

Metallurgy

Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical
behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which
are called alloys.

Applications

Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making
them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys
can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the
same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use, or from
sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of
metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well
as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, non-illuminated signs and railroad
tracks.Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for
carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids
rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part,
are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.The thermal conductivity
of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metal is also used for heat
sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating.The high reflectivity of some
metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical
instruments. This last property can also make metallic jewelry aesthetically
appealing.Some metals have specialized uses; Radioactive metals such as Uranium and
Plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission.
Mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit
when it flows over the switch contacts. Shape memory alloy is used for applications such
as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents.

WOOD
Wood is a solid material derived from woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs. Wood
from the latter is only produced in small sizes, reducing the diversity of uses.In its most
common meaning, "wood" is the secondary xylem of a woody plant, but this is an

approximation only: in the wider sense, wood may refer to other materials and tissues
with comparable properties.Wood is a heterogeneous, hygroscopic, cellular and
anisotropic material. Wood is composed of fibers of cellulose (40%–50%) and
hemicellulose (15%–25%) held together by lignin (15%–30%).[1]

U ses
Artists can use wood to create delicate sculptures.Wood can be cut into straight planks
and made into a hardwood floor (parquetry).Wood has been used for millennia for many
purposes. One of its primary uses is as fuel. It is also used as for making artworks,
furniture, tools, and weapons, and as a construction material.Wood has been an important
construction material since humans began building shelters, houses, boats. Nearly all
boats were made out of wood till the late 1800s. It remains in common use today for
some boats and houses. In buildings made of other materials, wood will still be found as a
supporting material, especially in roof construction and exterior decoration. Wood to be
used for construction work is commonly known as lumber in North America. Elsewhere,
lumber will usually refer to felled trees, and the word for sawn planks ready for use will
be timber.Wood unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down
mechanically (into fibres or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and used as a raw
material for other building materials such as chipboard, engineered wood, hardboard,
medium-density fibreboard (MDF), oriented strand board (OSB). Such wood derivatives
are widely used: wood fibres are an important component of most paper, and cellulose is
used as a component of some synthetic materials. Wood derivatives can also be used for
kinds of flooring, for example laminate flooring.Wood is also used for cutlery, such as
chopsticks, toothpicks, a Different woodsThere is a strong relationship between the
properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it. For every tree
species there is a range of density for the wood it yields. There is a rough correlation
between density of a wood and its strength (mechanical properties). For example, while
mahogany is a medium-dense hardwood which is excellent for fine furniture crafting,
balsa is light, making it useful for model building. The densest wood may be black
ironwood.Wood is commonly classified as either softwood or hardwood. The wood from
conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from broad-leaved trees (e.g. oak) is
called hardwood. These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily
hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is
actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some softwoods (e.g. yew)
are harder than most hardwoods.Wood products such as plywood are typically classified
as engineered wood and not considered raw wood.

Color

In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural
color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the
contrast is conspicuous. This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of various
materials resulting from the process of growth, increased possibly by oxidation and other
chemical changes, which usually have little or no appreciable effect on the mechanical
properties of the wood. Some experiments on very resinous Longleaf Pine specimens,
however, indicate an increase in strength. This is due to the resin which increases the
strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter". Structures built
of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites; however they are very flammable.
Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for
fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce
impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby.
The wood of Coast Redwood is distinctively red in colourSince the late wood of a growth
ring is usually darker in color than the early wood, this fact may be used in judging the
density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the
case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood not
infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser late wood, though on
cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true. Except in the manner just
stated the color of wood is no indication of strength.Abnormal discoloration of wood
often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western
hemlock is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory
and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration is
merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the
properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors
which thus become symptomatic of weakness; however an attractive effect known as
spalting produced by this process is often considered a desirable characteristic. Ordinary
sap-staining is due to fungous growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening
effect.

Structure

In coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids, and as
a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods.
There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak
and ash, for example.

Magnified cross-section of a diffuse-porous hardwood

wood (Black Walnut), showing the vessels, rays (white
lines) and annual ringsThe structure of the hardwoods is
more complex.[3] They are more or less filled with vessels:
in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) quite large and distinct,
in others (buckeye, poplar, willow) too small to be seen
plainly without a small hand lens. In discussing such woods
it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ring-
porous and diffuse-porous. In ring-porous species, such as
ash, black locust, catalpa, chestnut, elm, hickory, mulberry,
and oak, the larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of
vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth
ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The
rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater
proportion of wood fibres. These fibres are the elements which give strength and
toughness to wood, while the vessels are a source of weakness.In diffuse-porous woods
the pores are scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or
row. Examples of this kind of wood are basswood, birch, buckeye, maple, poplar, and
willow. Some species, such as walnut and cherry, are on the border between the two
classes, forming an intermediate group.

Black locust end grain, showing the ring-porous structure.If a heavy piece of pine is
compared with a light specimen it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a
larger proportion of late wood than the other, and is therefore considerably darker. The
late wood of all species is denser than that formed early in the season, hence the greater
the proportion of late wood the greater the density and strength. When examined under a
microscope the cells of the late wood are seen to be very thick-walled and with very
small cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cavities.
The strength is in the walls, not the cavities. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or
stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative
amounts of early and late wood. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the
proportion of the late wood in the ring.It is not only the proportion of late wood, but also
its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of late wood it
may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the late wood in pieces
that contain but little. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent
weight and strength, by visual inspection.

The twisty branch of a Lilac tree

No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the real causes underlying the
formation of early and late wood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least,
rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for
in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the
opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the
character of the wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In
general, however, it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential,
woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen. But in choosing a particular
specimen it is not the width of ring, but the proportion and character of the late wood
which should govern.In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods there seems to exist a
pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may
be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider
the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the wood. This, it must be
remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of
the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations.In ring-
porous woods of good growth it is usually the middle portion of the ring in which the
thick-walled, strength-giving fibres are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes,
this middle portion is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light,
porous wood composed of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma. In good oak these
large vessels of the early wood occupy from 6 to 10 per cent of the volume of the log,
while in inferior material they may make up 25 per cent or more. The late wood of good
oak, except for radial grayish patches of small pores, is dark colored and firm, and
consists of thick-walled fibres which form one-half or more of the wood. In inferior oak,
such fibre areas are much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very
largely the result of rate of growth.Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth",
because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been
removed is more rapid than in trees in the forest, and in the manufacture of articles where
strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is
preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes.
Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series
of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that:

"The work or shock-resisting ability is greatest in wide-ringed wood that has from
5 to 14 rings per inch (rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairly constant from 14 to 38 rings
per inch (rings 0.7-1.8 mm thick), and decreases rapidly from 38 to 47 rings per
inch (rings 0.5-0.7 mm thick). The strength at maximum load is not so great with
the most rapid-growing wood; it is maximum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch
(rings 1.3-1.8 mm thick), and again becomes less as the wood becomes more
closely ringed. The natural deduction is that wood of first-class mechanical value
shows from 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-5 mm thick) and that slower growth
yields poorer stock. Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate
against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch (rings less than 1.3 mm thick).
Exceptions exist, however, in the case of normal growth upon dry situations, in
which the slow-growing material may be strong and tough."[4]

The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut wood is summarized by the same
authority as follows:

"When the rings are wide, the transition from spring wood to summer wood is
gradual, while in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood
 abruptly. The width of the spring wood changes but little with the width of the
annual ring, so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at
the expense of the summer wood. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make
it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels.
Therefore, rapid-growing specimens with wide rings have more wood substance
than slow-growing trees with narrow rings. Since the more the wood substance
the greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the wood, chestnuts
with wide rings must have stronger wood than chestnuts with narrow rings. This
agrees with the accepted view that sprouts (which always have wide rings) yield
better and stronger wood than seedling chestnuts, which grow more slowly in
diameter."[4]

In diffuse-porous woods, as has been stated, the vessels or pores are scattered throughout
the ring instead of collected in the early wood. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore,
not the same as in the ring-porous woods, approaching more nearly the conditions in the
conifers. In general it may be stated that such woods of medium growth afford stronger
material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown. In many uses of wood, strength is
not the main consideration. If ease of working is prized, wood should be chosen with
regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain, which will in most cases
occur when there is little contrast between the late wood of one season's growth and the
early wood of the next.

Monocot wood

Structural tissue resembling ordinary 'dicot' wood is produced by a number of monocot

plants, and these are also usually called wood. Of these, the wood of bamboo has
considerable economic importance. Other plant groups that produce woody tissue are
palms, and members of the Liliales, such as Dracaena and Cordyline. With all these
woods, the structure and composition of the structural tissue is quite different from
ordinary wood.

GLASS

Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into

other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere
from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany.

Glass in buildings

Glass has been used in buildings since the 11th

century. Uses for glass in buildings include
transparent material for windows, as internal
glazed partitions, and as architectural features.It
is also possible to use glass as a structural
material, for example, in beams and columns, as well as in the form of "fins" for wind
reinforcement, which are visible in many glass frontages like large shop windows. Safe
load capacity is, however, limited; although glass has a high theoretical yield stress, it is
very susceptible to brittle (sudden) failure, and has a tendency to shatter upon localized
impact. This particularly limits its use in columns, as there is a risk of vehicles or other
heavy objects colliding with and shattering the structural element. One well-known
example of a structure made entirely from glass is the northern entrance to Buchanan
Street subway station in Glasgow.Glass in buildings can be of a safety type, including
wired, toughened and laminated glasses. Glass fibre insulation is common in roofs and
walls. Foamed glass, made from waste glass, can be used as lightweight, closed-cell
insulation.As insulation, glass (e.g., fiberglass) is also used. In the form of long, fluffy-
looking sheets, it is commonly found in homes. Fiberglass insulation is used particularly
in attics, and is given an R-rating, denoting the insulating ability.The glass used for
building facades usually has a green hue because of small amounts of iron oxide added to
its mixture. The iron oxide prevents sunlight from discoloring clothes or other objects
behind the glass.

PROCESSES IN PRODUCTION
WOODWORKING
Woodworking is the process of building, making or carving something using wood.

History
Ancient Egyptian woodworking

Woodworking shop in Germany in 1568, the worker in front is using a bow saw and the
one in the background is planingAlong with stone, mud, and animal parts, wood was
certainly one of the first materials worked by primitive human beings. Microwear
analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were
used to work wood. Indeed, the development of civilization was closely tied to the
development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.Among
early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea
and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen (Germany) provide some of the first
examples of wooden hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving. Since Neolithic
times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example from the Linear Pottery culture
wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include trees
worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, and wooden folding-chairs.
The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden
animal statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period are known from
a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France.Two ancient civilizations that used
woodworking were the Egyptians and the Chinese. Woodworking is depicted in many
ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture
(such as stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) has been preserved in tombs. As well, the
inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the
Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC
bronze as ironworking was unknown until much later.[1] Commonly used woodworking
tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are
attested from the earliest Presynastic period. These joints were strengthened using pegs,
dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New
Kingdom period.[2] Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes
whose composition is not known as finishes. Although different native acacias were used,
as was the wood from the local sycomore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in the Nile
valley resulted in the need for importation of wood, notably cedar, but also Aleppo pine,
boxwood and oak, starting from the Second Dynasty.[3]The progenitors of Chinese
woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban ( 魯 班 ) and his wife Lady Yun, from the
Spring and Autumn Period. Lu Ban is said to have brought the plane, chalkline, and other
tools to China. His teachings are supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班
經 , "Manuscript of Lu Ban"), although it was written some 1500 years after his death.
This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various
items—such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc.—and also contains extensive instructions
concerning Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese practice of geomancy. It mentions almost
nothing of the intricate glueless and nailless joinery for which Chinese furniture was so
famous.

Tool sharpening

The cutting and some of the shaping woodworking tools rely upon sharp cutting edges to
produce a satisfactory finish. Keeping these tools sharp is an important aspect of
woodworking. There are a large number of machine powered and hand powered
sharpening methods in use by woodworkers, the selection of which is in part determined
by the tool being sharpened and part personal preference. Some tools, such as chisels and
plane blades, are commonly sharpened by the owner, others, such as saw blades and
machinery knives, are more often sent to a sharpening specialist.

Sharpening paraphernalia

• Diamond plate
• File
• Grinder
• Saw set
• Sharpening jig
• Waterstone
• Whetstone or Oil stone
• Grinding dresser

Sharpening methods

Scary sharp - a method using paper-backed coated abrasives or sandpaper and a flat
surface, such as plate glass.

MOLDING

Molding (USA) or moulding (AUS, CAN, UK) is a strip of material with various cross
sections used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally
made from solid milled wood or plaster but may be made from plastic or reformed wood.
In classical architecture and sculpture, the molding is often carved in marble or other
stones.

A "sprung" molding is a strip that has beveled edges, allowing it to be mounted at an

angle between two non-parallel planes (such as between a wall and a ceiling). Other types
of molding are referred to as "plain".
Theory

At their simplest, moldings are a means of applying light and dark shaded stripes to a
structure or object without having to change the material or apply pigment. The contrast
of dark and light areas gives definition to the object. The aesthetic function is similar to
that of go-faster stripes applied to the side of a vehicle.

Imagine the vertical surface of a wall lit by sunlight at an angle of about 45 degrees
above the wall. A concave cavetto molding against the wall will produce a horizontal
shadow that is darker at the top and lighter at the bottom, whereas a convex ovolo
molding will cause the shadow to be lighter at the top and darker at the bottom. Other
concave moldings are the scotia and congé, and other convex moldings are the echinus,
torus and astragal.

Placing an ovolo molding directly above a cavetto forms a smooth 'S' shaped curve with
vertical ends is called an ogee or cyma reversa molding, which appears as a band that is
light at the top and bottom, but dark in the interior. Similarly, a cavetto above an ovolo
forms an 'S' with horizontal ends, called a cyma or cyma recta molding, appearing as two
dark bands with a light interior.

Together, these basic elements and their variants form a decorative vocabulary which can
be assembled and rearranged in endless combinations. This vocabulary is at the core of
both Classical architecture and Gothic architecture.

Types

Moldings from 1728 Table of architecture in the

Cyclopedia[1]

There are a variety of common moldings:

• Astragal — semi-circular molding attached to one

of a pair of especially fire doors to cover the air gap where the doors meet
• Baguette — Thin, half-round molding, smaller than an astragal, sometimes
carved, and enriched with foliages, pearls, ribbands, laurels, etc. When enriched
with ornaments, it was also called chapelet. [1]
• Bandelet — Any little band or flat molding, which crowns a Doric architrave. It
is also called a tenia. [1]
• Baseboard, "base molding" or "skirting board" — used at the junction of an
interior wall and floor to protect the wall from impacts. The so called speed base
 (a 163 base cap on top of a 1x board and the victorian base (feathered edge) are
the most common baseboards.
• Baton — see Torus
• Batten or board and batten — a symmetrical molding that is placed across a
joint where two parallel panels or boards meet
• Bead molding — narrow, half-round convex molding, when repeated forms
reeding
• Beading or bead — molding in the form of a row of half spherical beads, larger
than pearling
o Other forms: Bead and leaf, bead and reel, bead and spindle
• Beak — Small fillet molding left on the edge of a larmier, which forms a canal,
and makes a kind of pendant.[1] See also: chin-beak
• Bed molding — a narrow molding used at the junction of a wall and ceiling. Bed
moldings can be either sprung or plain.
• Cable molding or ropework — Convex molding carved in imitation of a twisted
rope or cord, and used for decorative moldings of the Romanesque style in
England, France and Spain and adapted for 18th century silver and furniture
design (Thomas Sheraton)[2]
• Cabled fluting or cable — Convex circular molding sunk in the concave fluting
of a classic column, and rising about one-third of the height of the shaft [1]
• Casing — Final trim or finished frame around the top, and both sides of a door or
window opening
• Cartouche ((French) escutcheon) — framed panel in the form of a scroll with an
inscribed center, or surrounded by compound moldings decorated with floral
motifs
• Cavetto — (Latin) cavare: "to hollow", concave, quarter-round molding
sometimes employed in the place of the cymatium of a cornice, as in the Done
order of the theatre of Marcellus. It forms the crowning feature of the Egyptian
temples, and took the place of the cymatium in many of the Etruscan temples.
• Chair rail — horizontal molding placed part way up a wall to protect the surface
from chair-backs, and used simply as decoration
• Chamfer — beveled edge connecting two surfaces
• Chin-beak — Concave quarter-round molding. There are few examples of this in
ancient buildings, but is common in more recent times.[1]
• Corner guard — Used to protect the edge of the wall at an outside corner, or to
cover a joint on an inside corner.
• Cove molding or Coving — a concave-profile molding that is used at the
junction of an interior wall and ceiling
• Crown molding — a wide, sprung molding that is used at the junction of an
interior wall and ceiling. General term for any molding at the top or "crowning"
an architectural element.
• Cyma — molding of double curvature, combining the convex ovolo and concave
cavetto. When the concave part is uppermost, it is called a cyma recta but if the
convex portion is at the top, it is called a cyma reversa, When the crowning
molding at the entablature is of the cyma form, it is called a cymatium.
• Dentils — Small blocks spaced evenly along the bottom edge of the cornice
 • Drip cap — this is placed over a door or window opening to prevent water from
flowing under the siding or across the glass
• Echinus — Similar to the ovolo molding and found beneath the abacus of the
Doric capital or decorated with the egg-and-dart pattern below the Ionic capital[2]
• Egg-and-dart — One of the most widely used classical moldings[2] with egg
shapes alternating with V-shapes and known from Ancient Greek temples
(Erechtheion).
o Also: Egg and tongue, egg and anchor, egg and star
• Fillet — small, flat band separating two surfaces, or between the flutes of a
column
• Fluting — Vertical, half-round grooves cut into the surface of a column in regular
intervals, each separated by a flat astrigal. This ornament was used for all but the
Tuscan order
• Godroon or Gadroon — Ornamental band with the appearance of beading or
reeding, especially frequent in silverwork and molding. It comes from the Latin
word Guttus, meaning flask. It is said to be derived from raised work on linen,
applied in France to varieties of the, bead and reel, in which the bead is often
carved with ornament. In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to
describe the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terracotta vases.
The godroons radiate from the vertical support of the vase and rise half-way up
the bowl.
o Also: Gadrooning, lobed decoration, (k)nukked decoration, thumb
molding
• Guilloche — Interlocking curved bands in a repeating pattern often forming
circles enriched with rosettes and found in Assyrian ornament, classical and
Renaissance architecure.[2]
• Keel molding — with a sharp edge, resembling in cross-section the keel of a ship.
It is common in the Early English and Decorated styles.
• Ovolo — Simple, convex quarter-round molding that can also be enriched with
the egg-and-dart or other pattern
• Rosette — Circular, floral decorative element found in Mesopotamian design and
early Greek stele. Part of revival styles in architecture since the Renaissance.[2]
• Scotia — Concave molding with a lower edge projecting beyond the top and so
used at the base of columns as a transition between two torus moldings with
different diameters [2]
• Screen molding — this is a small molding that is used to hide the area where a
screen is attached to the frame.
• Shoe molding, toe molding or quarter-round — often used at the bottom of the
baseboard to cover a small gap or uneven edge between the flooring and the
baseboard.
• Torus — Convex, semi-circular molding, larger than an astrigal, often at the base
of a column, which may be enriched with leaves or plaiting

FABRICATION
A typical steel fabrication shop

Raw materials

Standard raw materials used by metal fabricators are;

• plate metal
• formed and expanded metal
o tube stock, CDSM
o square stock
o sectional metals (I beams, W beams, C-channel...)
• welding wire
• hardware
• castings
• fittings

Cutting and burning

The raw material has to be cut to size. This is done with a variety of tools;Special band
saws designed for cutting metal have hardened blades and a feed mechanism for even
cutting. Abrasive cut-off saws, also known as chop saws, are similar to miter saws but
with a steel cutting abrasive disk. Cutting torches can cut very large sections of steel with
little effort.Burn tables are CNC cutting torches, usually natural gas powered. Plasma and
Laser burn tables are also common. Plate steel is loaded on a table and the parts are cut
out as programmed. The support table is made of a grid of bars that can be replaced.
Some very expensive burn tables also include CNC punch capability, with a carousel of
different punches and taps.

Forming

Hydraulic brakes with v-dies are the most common method of forming metal. The cut
plate is placed in the press and a v-shaped die is pressed a predetermined distance to bend
the plate to the desired angle. Wing brakes and hand powered brakes are sometimes
used.Tube bending machines have specially shaped dies and mandrels to bend tubular
sections without kinking them.Rolling machines are used to form plate steel into a round
section.

Machining

Fab shops will generally have a limited machining capability including; metal lathes,
mills, magnetic based drills along with other portable metal working tools.

Welding

Welding is the main focus of steel fabrication. The formed and machined parts will be
assembled and tack welded into place then re-checked for accuracy. A fixture may be
used to locate parts for welding if multiple weldments have been ordered.The welder then
completes welding per the engineering drawings, if welding is detailed, or per his own
judgment if no welding details are provided.Special precautions may be needed to
prevent warping of the weldment due to heat. These may include; welding in a staggered
fashion, using a stout fixture, covering the weldment in sand during cooling, and
straightening operations.Straightening of warped steel weldments is done with an Oxy-
acetylene torch and is somewhat of an art. Heat is selectively applied to the steel in a
slow, linear sweep. The steel will have a net contraction, upon cooling, in the direction of
the sweep. A highly skilled welder can remove significant warpage using this
technique.Steel weldments are occasionally annealed in a low temperature oven to relieve
residual stresses.

BLOW MOLDING
Blow molding or blow moulding (see spelling differences) is a manufacturing process
by which hollow plastic parts are formed. In general, there are three main types of blow
molding; Extrusion Blow Molding, Injection Blow Molding, and Stretch Blow Molding.

Extrusion blow molding

Parison extruded from an accumulator

machine head. Courtesy Graham
Engineering, York, PA

In Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM), plastic

is melted and extruded into a hollow tube (a
parison). This parison is then captured by
closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is
then blown into the parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container or
part. After the plastic has cooled sufficiently, the mold is opened and the part is ejected.

EBM processes may be either continuous (constant extrusion of the parison) or

intermittent. Types of EBM equipment may be categorized as follows:

Continuous Extrusion Equipment

• rotary wheel blow molding systems

• shuttle machinery

Intermittent Extrusion Machinery

• reciprocating screw machinery

• accumulator head machinery

Examples of parts made by the EBM process include dairy containers, shampoo bottles,
hoses/pipes, and hollow industrial parts such as drums.Basic polymers, such as PP,
HDPE, PVC and PET are increasingly being coextruded with high barrier resins, such as
EVOH or Nylon, to provide permeation resistance to water, oxygen, CO2 or other
substances. In dairy applications, it is possible to extrude a black light-blocking layer in
the center layer of containers, with opaque white resin used in the inner and outer
layers.Compared to injection molding, blow molding is a low pressure process, with
typical blow air pressures of 25 to 150 psi. This low pressure process allows the
production of economical low-force clamping stations, while parts can still be produced
with surface finishes ranging from high gloss to textured. The resulting low stresses in
the molded parts also help make the containers resistant to strain and environmental
stress cracking.

Injection blow molding

The process of Injection Blow Molding (IBM) is used for the production of hollow glass
and plastic objects in large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is injection
molded onto a core pin; then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be
inflated and cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding processes, and is
typically used to make small medical and single serve bottles. The process is divided into
three steps: injection, blowing and ejection.The injection blow molding machine is based
on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which melts the polymer. The molten polymer
is fed into a manifold where it is injected through nozzles into a hollow, heated preform
mould. The preform mold forms the external shape and is clamped around a mandrel (the
core rod) which forms the internal shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully
formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the
body.The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow,
chilled blow mold. The core rod opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which
inflates it to the finished article shape.After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the
core rod is rotated to the ejection position. The finished article is stripped off the core rod
and leak-tested prior to packing. The preform and blow mold can have many cavities,
typically three to sixteen depending on the article size and the required output. There are
three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection, blow molding and
ejection.Another application of injection blow molding is in the production of soft elastic
gelatin capsules for pharmaceutical applications. Two strips of gelatin are pressed
together in a rotary die which cuts out the desired shape of capsule while the fill liquid is
injected. Afterwards, they are cooled and dried to yield a firm, strong capsule.

Stretch blow molding

In the Stretch Blow Molding (SBM) process, the plastic is first molded into a "preform"
using the Injection Molded Process. These preforms are produced with the necks of the
bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end. These preforms are packaged, and fed
later (after cooling) into an EBM blow molding machine. In the SBM process, the
preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass transition
temperature, then blown using high pressure air into bottles using metal blow molds.
Usually the preform is stretched with a core rod as part of the process. The stretching of
some polymers, such as PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) results in strain hardening of
the resin, allowing the bottles to resist deforming under the pressures formed by
carbonated beverages, which typically approach 60 psi.

The stretch blow molding process.

The main applications are bottles, jars and other containers. The Injection blow molding
process produces bottles of superior visual and dimensional quality compared to
extrusion blow molding. The process is ideal for both narrow and wide-mouthed
containers and produces them fully finished with no flash. A sign of injection blow
molding is the seam where the two halves of the mold meet.This picture shows what
happens inside the blow mold. The preform is first stretched mechanically with a stretch
rod. As the rod travels down low-pressure air of 5 to 25 bar (70 to 350 psi) is introduced
blowing a 'bubble'. Once the stretch rod is fully extended, high-pressure air of up to 40
bar (580 psi) blows the expanded bubble into the shape of the blow mold.