The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1352-7606.

htm

Age and expatriate job performance in Greater China

Jan Selmer and Jakob Lauring
Department of Management, Aarhus School of Business, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark, and

Age and expatriate job performance 131

Yunxia Feng
School of Business, Renmin University, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
Abstract
Purpose As opposed to the predominant belief in the West, in Chinese dominated societies there may be a positive relationship between age and perceived possession of high quality personal resources. That attitude towards old age may carry over to expatriates in Chinese societies. This may have a positive impact on expatriates job performance. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to examine the association between the age of business expatriates and their work performance in a Chinese cultural setting. Design/methodology/approach Controlling for the potential bias of a number of background variables, data collected from business expatriates in Greater China were analyzed by means of hierarchical regression. Findings Results indicate that contextual/managerial performance, including general managerial functions applied to the subsidiary in Greater China, had a positive association with the age of the expatriates. This finding provides partial affirmative support to the presumption that the age of business expatriates matters in a Chinese cultural context. Practical implications Companies sending expatriates to Greater China could introduce age among other selection criteria. At least, companies should not discriminate against older candidates in expatriate selection for Greater China. Furthermore, older expatriates destined for a Chinese cultural context could be trained how to exploit their age advantage. Originality/value In contrast to previous studies, this investigation attempts to match a certain personal characteristic of expatriates with a specific host culture. The results have implications for and contribute to the literature on expatriate selection as well as to the body of research on crosscultural training. Keywords China, Older workers, Expatriates, National cultures Paper type Research paper

Introduction It has been observed that the age of an expatriate could be a relevant factor in adjusting to a foreign location (Mamman, 1995; Mamman and Richards, 1996). In some societies it is believed that the older one gets, the wiser one becomes (Harris and Moran, 1991). As opposed to many Western cultures where youth is glorified and the age of people with whom one works is typically not even considered (Vasil and Wass, 1993), elders in Chinese culture are highly respected and obeyed (cf. Ho, 1996; Hwang, 1987). Furthermore, older people living in Chinese dominated societies could also be respected for their wisdom and kindness and are therefore sought after for counsel and guidance (cf. Liu, 1996; Yang, 1994). Hence, in Chinese culture there may be a positive association between age and perceived possession of high quality personal resources. Traditionally, young people in Chinese societies are not considered dependable, experienced or capable of performing well in business (Fang, 1999). The positive attitudes towards old age may carry over to expatriates living and working in societies dominated by Chinese culture. There is a possibility that at least visibly older Western expatriates will generally enjoy more respect and be treated with more deference by host country nationals (HCNs) in a

Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal Vol. 16 No. 2, 2009 pp. 131-148 # Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1352-7606 DOI 10.1108/13527600910953892

CCM 16,2

132

Chinese cultural context than their apparently younger colleagues. This may have a positive impact on expatriates work performance. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between the age of business expatriates and their work performance in a Chinese cultural setting. This is an important and relevant investigation for several reasons. Despite the importance to the parent firm that the expatriate achieves a satisfactory work performance on the foreign assignment, not many studies have tried to directly assess expatriates performance at work, let alone linking work performance to personal characteristics of the expatriates (Harrison and Shaffer, 2005; Kraimer et al., 2001; Wang and Takeuchi, 2007). Instead, much of the expatriate literature has focused on the adjustment of expatriates examining personal characteristics that may facilitate or mitigate international adjustment in general, regardless of destination (cf. Caligiuri, 2000; Mamman and Richards, 1996; Takeuchi et al., 2005b). However, in contrast to such studies which explore personal characteristics of expatriates that in general may affect their work outcomes, this investigation attempts to match a certain personal characteristic of expatriates with a specific host culture with the presumption that this characteristic may assist their work performance in that particular cultural context. The results of this investigation may have implications for and contribute to the literature on expatriate selection (cf. Anderson, 2005; Caligiuri, 2000; Harris and Brewster, 1999) as well as to the body of research on cross-cultural training (cf. Caligiuri et al., 2001; Kealy and Protheroe, 1996; Waxin and Panaccio, 2005). Following this introduction, the remainder of the paper first deals with the place of investigation, Greater China, and how the notion of age is perceived in that part of the world in contrast to the West. Succeeding that, the research question is presented and justified and the methods section details how the study was undertaken. The results are then presented and discussed, where the main findings, limitations and implications of the study are discussed. The main contributions of this investigation are finally pointed out in the conclusions. Greater China Greater China The place of investigation is Greater China. Besides including mainland China, the loosely defined entity of Greater China usually entails Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. Despite a certain degree of cultural heterogeneity in Greater China, Chinese culture is a dominating feature of this region. Mainland China. The population of mainland China is about 1.3 billion people, or about one in five persons in the world, living in an area slightly larger than all of the USA. Most people live in the crowded river-valleys and coastal areas and a rapidly growing urban population becomes increasingly wealthy. Since the introduction of the open door policy in the late 1970s, mainland China has undergone enormous social and economic transformations but many parts of the Chinese mainland still have the character of a developing country. Nevertheless, the country has enjoyed an average annual growth rate of 9 per cent since 1980, partly because of a huge inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) making mainland China the largest recipient of FDI in the world. (de Keijzer, 1992; Pitsilis et al., 2004; Warner, 1995). Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region was established in 1997 as a part of China after 155 years of British colonial rule. Covering an area about the size of New York City, Hong Kong is located south of the Chinese mainland and comprises a modern, mostly urban society. It epitomizes a prosperous and vibrant

capitalist modern metropolis whose 7 million inhabitants enjoy a similar per capita GDP as Britain. Hong Kong is predominantly Chinese, with an overwhelming majority belonging to the Cantonese dialect group (Engholm, 1991; Loh, 2004; Roberts, 1992). Singapore. The city state of Singapore is located on a small island about the size of Bronx and with a population of 3.5 million. It freed itself from British colonial rule in 1963 and became the Republic of Singapore in 1965 when it left the federation with Malaysia. All Singaporeans live in urban areas and the majority of the population consists of ethnic Chinese, while Malays and Indians make up substantial minority groups. The ethnic Chinese control the economy as well as the government and there are four official languages in Singapore: English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Singapore has a high degree of trade openness and extensive investment in cutting edge technology making it one of Asias most dynamic tiger economies with an impressive growth rate for decades (Datamonitor, 2005; Engholm, 1991). Taiwan. Off the southeastern coast of mainland China and previously known as Formosa, Taiwan was created in 1949 when the defeated Nationalist forces retreated from the Chinese mainland to the island. It is about the size of Holland with a population of 23 million and with a yearly economic growth over the last three decades that has averaged around 8 per cent (Datamonitor, 2004). The population is predominately ethnic Chinese and Mandarin is the official language but other dialects are also widely spoken (Datamonitor, 2004, Engholm, 1991). Perceptions of age in Greater China As the number of older persons is increasing radically in both developed and developing countries, understanding the issue of age becomes increasingly important and not the least in international management studies. While ageing populations may constitute a common problem for many countries, perceptions of age vary across nations guided by cultural values, demography, philosophy, family structure and environment (Brown, 1990; Ice, 2005; Palmore and Maeda, 1985). This suggests that cultural differences need to be taken into account by researchers engaged in trying to understand age-related managerial issues in an international context. Studies in cultural variation in the perception of age have in particular outlined differences between East Asian and Western (OECD) countries (Streib, 1987). It has been argued that in the modern West a senior citizen is neither respected as representative of the accumulated knowledge, nor considered a relevant player in daily activities (Manheimer, 1989; Sawchuk, 1995). Older Westerners most often have the freedom to live their lives as they choose and spend their money as they please. They are typically not required in childcare and can participate in family activities to the extent that they wish to do so (Streib, 1987). The younger generation is expected to leave home and child rearing is done by parents or nurseries or day care centers. This focus on personal independence in the West has lead to concerns that this part of the world is failing to recognize the value of aged individuals (Chappell, 2003). In Eastern Asia, in contrast, long term social reciprocity and collectivist values guide relations between generations. Traditional cultural patterns for Eastern Asia are centered around respect for older people, togetherness of generations and the elderly involvement in child rearing. Streib (1987) quotes the anthropologist Francis Hsu (1972, p. 317) for arguing that while in the West, the approach of old age means the end of almost everything that gives life meaning, to Eastern Asians it marks the beginning of a more respected status. Hence, Eastern Asia is often argued to have a more positive view on senior citizens resulting in larger social power of the older generation (Tobin, 1987).

Age and expatriate job performance 133

CCM 16,2

134

In Chinese culture, the view of age is to a high extent formed on the relations between children, parents and grand parents. According to Streib (1987) Chinese parents do not ask what they can do for their children, but what their children can do for them. Thus, older individuals in Chinese societies generally expect family cohesiveness and respect (Zhang and Yu, 1998). Central to the understanding of age in Chinese culture is the traditional philosophy of Confucius (Ikels, 2002). Over the past 2000 years virtually every Chinese dynasty has adopted Confucian philosophy as state orthodoxy (Chappell and Kusch, 2007). According to Confucianism, society is hierarchically organized and in every social relationship one party will be superior to the other. Accordingly, social relations are modeled in five cardinal relationships (wu-lun): rulersubject, fatherson, husband wife, elder brotheryounger brother and friendfriend where only the last one assumes an egalitarian bond (Zhang and Yu, 1998). While Confucianism influences all aspects of life in China the moral concept of filial piety (xiao) is particularly influential on the perception of age. Filial piety is a moral relationship including the notions of respect, loyalty, material provision and physical care for elderly family members and of family reciprocity (Zhan and Montgomery, 2003). This concept is deeply rooted in history and often argued to be cornerstone of Chinese social structure (Ikels, 2002; Zhang and Goza, 2006). In fact Confucius believed that there was no greater crime than failing to practice filial piety (Zhang and Goza, 2006). According to the tradition of filial piety children are obliged to provide for their elderly parents (Chappell and Kusch, 2007). On the other hand, the philosophy also requires parents to love their children (Sung, 1998). The ideal is for the filial child to show the utmost reverence to his or her parents. In nourishing them, he or she should try the best to please them. If they are taken ill, he or she should feel utmost concerned, etc. (Legge, 2004). There is a relation of inter-generational reciprocity where parents owe caring, love and obedience to their sons and daughters and as both mature, the children give back in return (Ng et al., 2002). Despite Chinas turbulent social and cultural changes since the middle of the last century, filial piety continues as an ideology, defining relationship between the generations. However, in recent years a number of changes challenge traditional Chinese perceptions of age (Chappell, 2003). Among these changes is the rapid industrialization, the geographic mobility of young people, the movement toward smaller families and the aging population. Along with these trends respect for senior citizens is argued to have decreased (Zhang and Goza, 2006). Understanding age in times of change Due to increased life expectancy and a rapid decline in fertility, China, along with many other nations, is dealing with problems of an aging population (Ikels, 2002). However, as a result of the one-child family policy the shift in age structure has been and will be particularly dramatic in Chinas case (Zhang and Goza, 2006). In 1970 the dependency ratio was calculated to be 0.03 whereas in 2001 it was 0.29 and in 2030 it is estimated to increase to 0.55. This means that there will be less than two workers per retiree. Consequently, in the future, many Chinese families will face supporting two pairs of elderly parents as well as some grandparents. This may affect the traditional norms for social relationships across generations (Williamson and Deitelbaum, 2005). One reason for the erosion of traditional perceptions of age in China is resulting from increased mobilization as a consequence of economic modernization and an uneven economic growth between rural and urban areas. Since the family is no more

the principal production unit the multi-generational family structure is declining and the household size is decreasing (Zhang and Goza, 2006). After the Communist revolution in 1949, the government criticized Confucian ideas as being a feudal tradition (Streib, 1987; Zhang and Goza, 2006). At this early stage of government, individuals were encouraged to denounce family and kinship in order to strengthen loyalty to the state (Zhan, 2006). Under Chairman Mao, the feudal patriarchal family was replaced with legal changes that weakened the power of the head of the household over younger generations. To promote loyalty to the government instead of to ancestors and to fathers, the individual rather than the lineage, became legally entitled to civil rights (Chappell and Kusch, 2007). However, the official view on Confucianism and age changed during the 1960s and the Chinese government is now indirectly using Confucian ideology to encourage some components of filial piety to help diminish the burden of an aging population. Movements toward this could be seen already in the Criminal Law of 1979 stating that it is a legal obligation of children and family to care for their elders (Zhang and Goza, 2006). Caring for the elderly is now again encouraged as a primary value in China. However, rather than an emphasis on obedience and producing descendants, the focus now lies on supporting aged parents (Ikels, 2004). Throughout this political turmoil, some argue that the ideals of filial piety have remained relatively intact in Chinese dominated societies while the character and extent of the daily practices may have changed in different ways (Chappell and Kusch, 2007). Research question There are a multitude of issues that may have an impact on the association between expatriate managers age and their job performance in Greater China. Among them are whether there is a change of attitudes towards age in Greater China, whether expatriate managers are enabled to perform better if they are respected and to what extent a cultural outsider will be treated as an insider. Are attitudes towards age changing? Social, political, economic and demographic changes have been dramatic across Greater China but they have affected different parts of the region differently. Though Ikels (2004) argues that there appears to be a shared core value of perceiving age favorably in Greater China, other researchers suggest that the perception of age is increasingly differentiated (Chappell and Kusch, 2007; Harwood et al., 2001). Some of these studies have begun to paint a less positive picture concerning attitudes towards older adults in Greater China (cf. Chang et al., 1984; Chow, 1999; Giles et al., 2002; Ikels et al., 1992). In a cross-national study of over 1,000 younger adults around the Pacific Rim, Harwood and his associates (1996) show that ageist attitudes in Hong Kong were greater than those in the West. Hong Kong respondents even reported on declines in wisdom with increasing age. From this result Harwood et al., concludes that there is little evidence of filial piety. Similar negative perception of old age have also been uncovered recently in Taiwan (Giles et al., 2000). In another recent study on mainland China and Hong Kong respondents show significant declines in the perception of levels of wisdom with increasing age. Both sites displayed markedly negative attitudes towards old age (Harwood et al., 2001). Indeed, it seems that cultural differences in the perception of age between East Asia and the OECD countries may not be as great as some previous studies have suggested.

Age and expatriate job performance 135

CCM 16,2

136

While some recent contributions have documented decreasing levels of respect for the elderly in Greater China there is still substantial evidence that filial piety does motivate behavior (Ikels, 2002). Wang (2004) outlines the changes in filial piety in terms of a distinction between the ideal which has remained constant and the actual practices of exercising the tradition. In Hong Kong, Chow (1999) argue, that the value of filial piety remains a core value while the status of older people have declined (Chow, 1999). However, despite recent economic, demographic and political changes, the respect for the elderly and the close patterns of daily multi-generational living are still more common than in OECD countries. And there is evidence that the ideal of filial piety is still valued (Chappell and Kusch, 2007; Wang, 2004; Whyte, 2004). Do expatriate managers perform better if they are respected? Expatriate managers on assignment in foreign countries meet new cultural environments which they must try to make sense of in order to function properly as managers. Adjusting to a different cultural context is a daily challenge for expatriate managers (cf. Early, 1994; Jun and Gentry, 2005; Newman and Nollen, 1996). Chinese culture could pose a serious challenge for Western expatriate managers as it is radically different from what they are used to and China itself could be seen as . . . the most foreign of all foreign places. Its culture, institutions and people appear completely baffling a matter of absolute difference, not of degree (Chen, 2001, p. 17). This could make Greater China a challenging destination for Western expatriate managers since they have to deal with a very different way of life than in their own country and they have to perform in an unfamiliar work context (cf. Bjorkman and Schaap, 1994; Kaye and Taylor, 1997; Sergeant and Frenkel, 1998). Work outcomes and job performance of expatriates are of crucial importance since they are assigned to their location to complete certain job tasks. In such a context, where Western expatriate managers easily could be frustrated at work, any confidence enhancing attitudes demonstrated by HCN staff members may enable the expatriate manager to do a better job. An expatriate at a mature age may instill confidence in local subordinates and colleagues alike to a degree not possible for a younger counterpart (Mamman, 1995; Mamman and Richards, 1996). The self-efficacy of such individuals may be enhanced by being treated in a serious and respectful manner and this supportive environment surrounding the expatriate manager may contribute to an improved job performance. Will a cultural outsider be regarded as an insider? The age of a person is reasonably easy to assess, at least in the rough categories of young and old. Therefore, it is not unlikely that locals in Greater China may be influenced by apparent age differences and extend the culturally appropriate behavioral responses even to Westerners and other cultural outsiders. Hence, there is a possibility that at least clearly visibly older business expatriates will enjoy more respect and be treated with more deference by HCNs in Greater China than their apparently younger colleagues. On the other hand, although gender may be an even more easily detectable personal characteristic than age, it has been reported that female expatriates in Asia may be regarded first and foremost as foreigners who happen to be women (Adler, 1984, 1987). In other words, host cultural norms may not always be perceived as applicable to foreigners and cultural outsiders. To the extent that the positive attitude towards old age still prevails in Greater China, that expatriate managers perform better if they are respected by HCN staff and that cultural outsiders to a certain extent are treated as insiders, there may be a

positive association between the age of expatriate managers and their performance at work. These presumptions are explored in the research question below. Research question: Is the age of business expatriates in Greater China positively associated with their job performance? Method Sample Data were collected from business expatriates in Greater China, including Hong Kong, Mainland China, Singapore and Taiwan. Several data collection techniques were applied. Most responses were received by mail surveys, but personal contacts and on-line surveys were also used. No comprehensive response rate can therefore be calculated. The reason for this less conventional mix of methods is that unsolicited international postal mailings seem to have become a less efficient way of collecting data in the wake of various terrorist attacks or threats. An initial screening question made sure that only individuals in the targeted group of business expatriates completed the questionnaire. All other respondents were instructed to ignore the rest of the questionnaire. All responses from expatriates born in Greater China were excluded. The total number of valid responses was 212. On the average, the respondents had spent 7.7 years (SD 6.1) at their respective locations on the current assignment in Greater China and they had been expatriates for 12.4 years (SD 8.6), including their current assignment. The expatriates had an average age of 46.1 years (SD 9.2). The overwhelming majority of the respondents were Westerners. The largest nationality groups were from Britain (14.6 per cent), USA. (13.2 per cent), Germany (10.8 per cent) and Australia (9.4 per cent). Most respondents were male, married and with a university or postgraduate degree as seen from Table I. All but a few of the respondents occupied managerial positions, the majority being CEOs. Instrument Expatriate performance. The scale used to measure expatriate performance builds on the scale developed by Caligiuri (1997). Expatriates rated themselves on four dimensions of performance: technical (one item: technical competence), contextual/managerial (six items; alpha 0.83; sample item: maintaining good working relationships with locals) and expatriate-specific (two items; alpha 0.56, iic 0.39[1]; sample item: transferring
Background Variables Gender Male Female Married Position CEO Manager Non-managerial Education level University graduate Postgraduate Professional Frequency Per cent

Age and expatriate job performance 137

201 11 183 142 65 3 93 77 39

94.8 5.2 86.3 67.6 31.0 1.4 44.5 36.8 18.7

Table I.
Background of the sample (n 212)

CCM 16,2

138

information across strategic units (e.g. from host country to headquarters). The respondents also rated their overall performance (one item; overall performance as an expatriate). The range of responses of the Likert-type scale varied from (1) poor to (5) outstanding. Age. This variable was assessed by directly asking the respondents how old they were on their last birthday. Controls. A large number of circumstances may affect expatriates level of job performance. Although it seems virtually impossible to control for all such possible other influences besides age, five salient variables were used as controls: time in Greater China, time as expatriate, corporate tenure, education level and position. Results Descriptive statistics and correlations for all studied variables are displayed by Table II. All expatriate performance variables have significantly higher mean scores than the midpoint of the scale, contextual/managerial performance (t 28.57; p < 0.001), expatriate-specific performance (t 15.99; p < 0.001), technical performance (t 18.02; p < 0.001) and overall performance (t 28.12; p < 0.001) indicating that the respondents perceived themselves as better than average performers. This may perhaps reflect the fact that on the average, they had spent considerable longer time on their current assignment in Greater China than most expatriate tours of duty (cf. Harvey, 1997; Tung, 1988). All expatriate performance variables are significantly interrelated. As could have been expected, there is a negative significant relationship between position and age (r 0.20; p < 0.01) as well as between position and time as expatriate (r 0.33; p < 0.001) suggesting that CEOs are older and have been expatriates longer than the other respondents. There is a significant positive association between age and contextual/managerial performance (r 0.20; p < 0.01) providing partial preliminary affirmative support to the research question. The research question was further examined by means of hierarchical regression analysis. The control variables, time in Greater China, time as expatriate, corporate tenure, education level and position were entered first. As displayed in Table III, two of the control variables were significant for one or two of the performance variables. Education level had a significant positive association with technical performance (beta 0.18; p < 0.05) indicating that a professional education may better promote this kind of work performance than a university exam. Perhaps surprisingly, corporate tenure showed a significant negative relationship with contextual/managerial performance (beta 0.20; p < 0.05) and overall performance (beta 0.23; p < 0.01) suggesting that corporate old-timers perform worse in Greater China than those with a shorter corporate tenure. Only two of the four F values for the control variables were marginally significant, implying a less good overall data fit. The predictor variable, age, was entered in Step 2. As seen, age had a positive significant association with contextual/managerial performance (beta 0.24; p < 0.01), but there was no relationship between age and any of the other job performance variables. Again, only two of the F values were statistically significant. The results confirm the tentative findings above. Discussion Generally, the research question, whether there is a positive association between the age of expatriate managers in Greater China and their job performance, received partial affirmative support. Although there was no association between the age of the

Variables 3.97 3.69 3.85 4.03 46.12 7.66 12.44 15.91 1.74 1.32 1.00 0.21*** 0.45* 0.06 0.07 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.00 1.00 0.31* 0.08 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.15** 0.04 1.00 0.13 0.14** 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.08 1.00 0.35* 0.51* 0.52* 0.07 0.20***
a

Mean 0.49 0.63 0.69 0.53 9.18 6.06 8.56 9.22 0.75 0.47 1.00 0.62* 0.22*** 0.09 0.16**

SD

10

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Contextual/managerial performance Expatriate-specific performance Technical performance Overall performance Age Time in Greater China (years) Time as expatriate (years) Corporate tenure (years) Education levela Positionc

1.00 0.57* 0.16** 0.63* 0.20*** 0.06 0.13 0.05 0.07 0.15**

1.00 0.27* 0.06 0.33*

1.00 0.01 0.13

1.00 0.02

1.00 1 university graduate; 2 postgraduate;

Notes: *p < 0.001; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01 (two-tailed); 212 < n < 197 due to missing answers; 3 professional; c1 CEO; 2 other

Means, standard deviations and correlations among the variables

Age and expatriate job performance

Table II.

139

CCM 16,2
Step 1 (control) Time in Greater China Time as expatriate Corporate tenure Education level Position R R2 (adjusted) F Step 2 Age R Change in R2 R2 (adjusted) F

Contextual/Managerial Expatriate-specific Technical Overall performance () performance () performance () performance ()

140

0.00 0.03 0.20* 0.10 0.14 0.25 0.04 2.47* 0.24** 0.31 0.03 0.07 3.30**

0.08 0.03 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.16 0.00 0.97 0.10 0.18 0.01 0.00 0.98

0.04 0.02 0.01 0.18* 0.03 0.20 0.01 1.55 0.07 0.21 0.00 0.01 1.38

0.15 0.05 0.23** 0.11 0.08 0.30 0.06 3.55** 0.15 0.32 0.01 0.07 3.40**

Table III. Results of hierarchical regression for effects of age on expatriate job performance in Greater China

Notes: Regression coefficients are standardized; n 192 due to missing values. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

expatriates and their expatriate-specific performance or with their technical ability or with their overall performance, contextual/managerial performance showed a positive association with the respondents age. The contextual/managerial performance variable includes general managerial functions applied (and, if needed, adapted) to the subsidiary in Greater China such as expatriates ability to build and maintain good morale in the subsidiary, being able to represent the company to host national customer, communicating and keeping others informed, maintaining and keeping good working relationships with HCNs, and supervising and developing HCN subordinates. Therefore, although only representing one of the four measured dimensions of expatriate job performance in Greater China, this could be regarded as a central domain of expatriate job performance with clear implications for firms selecting expatriates for assignment to Chinese dominated societies. Age does matter and being older may help the expatriates to perform better. The findings here are consistent with research on Western business expatriates in Hong Kong suggesting a positive association between the age of the respondents and their adjustment to work (Selmer, 2001). Although the theoretical link between expatriate adjustment and expatriate performance is still somewhat unclear (Takeuchi et al., 2005a), recent empirical research has found a positive relationship between work adjustment and work performance (cf. Bhaskar-Srinivas et al., 2005; Kraimer et al., 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2005a). Among the control variables, it is worth pointing out that expatriate performance does not seem to improve over time in Greater China. This is surprising since many studies have established an association between expatriate adjustment and time in the host location, suggesting that there is a learning process how to adjust (cf. BhaskarSrinavas et al., 2005; Black and Mendenhall, 1991; Parker and McEvoy, 1993). Our findings seem to suggest that there may be less of learning over time regarding performance, at least in case of business expatriates in Greater China.

That time as an expatriate does not have any relationship with any type of expatriate performance is less surprising. Although previous research has emphasized that international experience is a critical factor influencing expatriate adjustment (cf. Black et al., 1991; Parker and McEvoy, 1993), more recent research is less definite about the impact of previous expatriate experience on current expatriate adjustment. Typically, no direct facilitating effect of prior international experience on current expatriate adjustment has been found. Instead, previous expatriate experience has been suggested to be a moderator rather than an antecedent to adjustment (cf. Bhaskar-Srinivas et al., 2005; Selmer, 2002; Takeuchi et al., 2005b). So even if there very well should be a positive association between adjustment and performance by expatriates as suggested by many studies (Bhaskar-Srinavas et.al., 2005), being an experienced business expatriate may not improve ones performance. However, the seemingly most surprising result may be the negative relationship between one of the control variables, corporate tenure and expatriate performance. However, one may speculate that it may have something to do with the classical question in international management whether a successful manager at home may also be successful in another cultural context without adapting his or her managerial behavior (Black and Porter, 1991). Expatriates with a long corporate tenure may be more indoctrinated by the corporate view of the right way of managing than their colleagues with a shorter time at the corporation. After all, since the literature has almost unanimously stressed the importance of an adaptable managerial behavior of expatriates (cf. Harrison and Shaffer, 2005; Kraimer et al., 2001; Shin et al., 2007) it may be little surprising that individuals that presumably could be more unwilling to adapt are less efficient as managers in the new cultural environment of Greater China. Limitations As always, this study has some limitations to be considered in evaluating its findings. Single-source bias (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986; Spector, 2006) could have affected the results of the investigation, since all data were collected through a self-report questionnaire. Although the general condemnations of self-report methods have been found exaggerated (Crampton and Wagner, 1994), to lessen any potential problem of single-source bias, items of all scales were assigned to the instrument in random order to make it more difficult for the respondents to give uniform answers. This may generate more reliable responses as it avoids the problem of respondents depending on a cognitive set of rules in evaluating items intended to measure constructs that are supposed to be conceptually different (Lord and Maher, 1991). In addition to taking these precautionary steps before gathering the data, after the data set was collected, it was examined for the presence of single-source bias. The social desirability aspect of single-source bias often leads to compressed response range (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). However, upon inspection, it was found that the data did not seem to depict any compression of response range. This suggests that single-source bias was not a serious concern in the current study. Another possible weakness of the study is the cross-sectional methodology employed. The method employed here only used measures of the average level of performance for the studied groups of expatriates at a certain point in time. A potentially more rich data source would have been to employ a longitudinal approach where performance patterns over time could have been identified and compared. However, longitudinal studies pose other serious methodological challenges (cf. Menard, 1991).

Age and expatriate job performance 141

CCM 16,2

Yet another potential shortcoming of this study is the respondents relatively long mean stay (7.7 years, SD 6.1) at their respective locations in Greater China. This is clearly beyond the high end of previously reported typical tours of duty of between three and five years (cf. Harvey, 1997; Tung, 1988). That may make our sample less representative of the average business expatriate, thus limiting the generality of the findings. Implications There are both theoretical and practical implications as well as implications for future research. First, in theoretical terms, there may be a good idea to build on the notion of matching personal characteristics of expatriates with salient features of the host culture. Much of the expatriate literature focus on personal characteristics, such as for example, personality (cf. Caligiuri, 2000; Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997, 1999), social and biological characteristics (cf. Mamman, 1995; Mamman and Richards, 1996), previous overseas experience (cf. Black et al., 1991; Selmer, 2002; Takeuchi et al., 2005b), crosscultural training (cf. Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Kealy and Protheroe, 1996; Waxin and Panaccio, 2005) and family factors (cf. Shaffer et al., 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2002) and whether such characteristics may facilitate or mitigate expatriate adjustment in general. An alternative approach followed by this study would be to try to match expatriates personal characteristics with salient features of host cultures, or, at least, try to avoid such mismatches. Another theoretical issue associated with the findings of the study is that personal characteristics of expatriates may include both permanent attributes, that are never or very seldom subject to change, and temporary characteristics that are more amenable to manipulation. The former category includes biological properties such as race, gender and age (Mamman and Richards, 1996). The latter group of personal qualities may entail skills and personal experiences such as language capabilities and intercultural knowledge (Graf, 2004). Such a theoretical categorization of personal characteristics may constitute a basis for future research within the current domain of study as discussed below. Secondly, in practical terms, firms may want to amend their policies both on expatriate selection and cross-cultural training. Companies sending expatriates to Greater China could introduce age among other selection criteria. Although the dominance of technical ability as an expatriate selection criterion in practice has been repeatedly established in the literature (cf. Franke and Nicholson, 2002; Teagarden and Gordon, 1995), which may even favor younger expatriate candidates fresh out of school, there may be good reasons to select older individuals destined for an assignment within a Chinese cultural context. So, it may be justified to prefer an older candidate instead of a younger one, other things being equal or similar. However, companies may be treading on dangerous ground if they follow this seemingly logical advice. Many countries employment laws are against age discrimination, young or old. So, at least, it can be argued that companies should not discriminate against older candidates when considering expatriate selection for Greater China. The findings may also have practical implications for cross-cultural training. For expatriates destined for a Chinese cultural context that are unaware of the potential reactions of HCNs to their mature age, learning and practice how to exploit and take advantage of such behavior of the locals may be beneficial. This may also be in the best interest of the assigning firm since business expatriates are sent to foreign locations to perform certain work tasks. To make the expatriates aware of how they can perform

142

better on the job in a Chinese cultural setting by making use of their older age could be a priority by the parent company. Thirdly, regarding future research, this study could be both replicated and extended. Future replications could try to improve on the potential limitations of the current investigation, as discussed above, such as, making use of multiple sources, apply a longitudinal approach and collect data from a sample more representative of the average business expatriate. Furthermore, since the current investigation only directly covers the association between age and work performance of expatriates, there is a good idea for replications to include potential moderating variables such as to what extent HCN colleagues and subordinates show respect for older expatriates and to what degree cultural outsiders are treated as insiders in a Chinese cultural context. There is no lack of studies on temporary personal characteristics of expatriates, such as their skills and experiences, and potential effects of such qualities (cf. Selmer, 2002; Takeuchi et al., 2005b; Waxin and Panaccio, 2005). However, empirical investigations on more permanent personal attributes such as race, gender and age are much less common (Mamman and Richards, 1996). Therefore, future extensions of this investigation may test the effect of other permanent personal characteristics besides age on expatriate outcomes in other cultural settings. Since the gender of expatriates already has attracted a fair amount of research (cf. Owen et al., 2007; Selmer and Leung, 2003; Sinangil and Ones, 2003), race would be another interesting biological attribute to include in future investigations attempting to extend the current theme. Although there is a gigantic academic literature on race-related issues, few, if any, empirical studies have linked this personal characteristic to expatriate work outcomes. Conclusion The current study aimed to explore the relationship between the age of business expatriates and their job performance in a Chinese cultural context. The results of the investigation of Western business expatriates in Greater China provided a partially affirmative support to the research question since contextual/managerial performance, including general managerial functions applied to the foreign subsidiary, had a positive association with the age of the expatriates. The theoretical and practical implications of this finding are straightforward and contribute to the literature on both selection and cross-cultural training of business expatriates. Instead of exploring personal attributes for generally facilitating or mitigating factors to expatriate outcomes, it may be worthwhile to try to match expatriates qualities with salient features of host cultures, or, at least, try to avoid such mismatches. The message for firms sending expatriates to Greater China is evident. It could be worthwhile to introduce age among other selection criteria as well as modify the content of crosscultural training of such expatriate candidates to train them how to make use of their older age to further enhance their job performance at the foreign location.
Note 1. Since Chronbachs alpha to a certain extent is a function of the number of items, the inter-item correlation may be a better measure of reliability for two-item scales with a minimum level of iic 0.25 (Nunnally, 1978). References Adler, N.J. (1984), Women in international management: where are they?, California Management Review, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 78-89.

Age and expatriate job performance 143

CCM 16,2

144

Adler, N.J. (1987), Pacific basin managers: a gaijin, not a woman, Human Resource Management, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 169-91. Anderson, B.A. (2005), Expatriate selection: good management or good luck?, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 567-83. Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D.A., Shaffer, M.A. and Luk, D.M. (2005), Input-based and timebased models of international adjustment: meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 257-81. Bjorkman, I. and Schaap, A. (1994), Outsiders in the middle kingdom: expatriate managers in Chinese-Western joint ventures, European Management Journal, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 147-53. Black, J.S. and Mendenhall, M. (1990), Cross-cultural training effectiveness: a review and a theoretical framework for future research, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 113-36. Black, J.S. and Mendenhall, M. (1991), The U-curve adjustment hypothesis revisited: a review and theoretical framework, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 225-47. Black, J.S. and Porter, L.W. (1991), Managerial behaviors and job performance: a successful manager in Los Angeles may not succeed in Hong Kong, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 99-113. Black, J.S., Mendenhall, M. and Oddou, G. (1991), Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: an integration of multiple theoretical perspectives, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 291-317. Brown, A.S. (1990), The Social Processes of Aging & Old Age, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Caligiuri, P.M. (1997), Assessing expatriate success: beyond just being there, in Aycan, Z. (Ed.), Expatriate Management: Theory and Practice, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 117-40. Caligiuri, P.M. (2000), Selecting expatriates for personality characteristics: a moderating effect of personality on the relationship between host national contact and cross-cultural adjustment, Management International Review, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 61-80. Caligiuri, P.M., Phillips, J., Lazarova, M., Tarique, I. and Burgi, P. (2001), The theory of met expectations applied to expatriate adjustment: the role of cross-cultural training, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 357-72. Chang, B.L., Chang, A.F. and Yung, A.S. (1984), Attitudes toward aging in the United States and Taiwan, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 15, pp. 109-30. Chappell, N.L. (2003), Correcting cross-cultural stereotypes: aging in Shanghai and Canada, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 18, pp. 127-47. Chappell, N.L. and Kusch, K. (2007), The gendered nature of filial piety: a study among Chinese Canadians, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 22, pp. 29-45. Chen, M.-J. (2001), Inside Chinese Business: a Guide for Managers Worldwide, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Chow, N. (1999), Diminishing filial piety and the changing role and status of the elders in Hong Kong, Hallym International Journal of Aging, Vol. 1, pp. 67-77. Crampton, S.M. and Wagner, J.A., III. (1994), Percept-percept inflation in microorganizational research: an investigation of prevalence and effect, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79 No. 1, pp. 67-76. Datamonitor (2004), Taiwan: Country Profile, Datamonitor, London, pp. 9-11. Datamonitor (2005), Singapore: Country Profile, Datamonitor, London, pp. 10-12. de Keijzer, A.J. (1992), China: Business Strategies for the 90s, Pacific View Press, Berkeley, CA. Early, P.C. (1994), Self or group? Cultural effects of training on self-efficacy and performance, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 39, pp. 89-117.

Engholm, C. (1991), When Business East Meets business West: the Guide Top Practice and Protocol in the Pacific Rim, Wiley, New York, NY. Fang, T. (1999), Chinese Business Negotiating Style, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Franke, J. and Nicholson, N. (2002), Who shall we send? Cultural and other influences on the rating of selection criteria for expatriate assignments, International Journal of CrossCultural Management, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 21-36. Giles, H., McCann, R., Ota, H. and Noels, K. (2002), Challenging intergenerational stereotypes across Eastern and Western cultures, in Kaplan, M.S., Henkin, N.Z. and Kusano, A.T. (Eds), Linking Lifetimes: A Global View of Intergenerational Exchange, University Press of America, Honolulu, pp. 13-28. Giles, H., Noels, K.A., Ota, H., Ng, S.H., Gallois, C., Ryan, E.B., Williams, A., Lim, T.-S., Somera, L., Tao, H. and Sachdev, I. (2000), Age vitality across eleven nations, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, Vol. 21, pp. 308-23. Graf, A. (2004), Expatriate selection: an empirical study identifying significant skill profiles, Thunderbird International Business Review, Vol. 46 No. 6, pp. 667-85. Harris, H. and Brewster, C. (1999), The coffee-machine system: how international selection really works, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 488-500. Harris, P.R. and Moran, R.T. (1991), Managing Cultural Differences, 3rd ed., Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Harrison, D.A. and Shaffer, M.A. (2005), Mapping the criterion space for expatriate success: taskand relationship-based performance, effort and adaptation, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 16 No. 8, pp. 1454-74. Harvey, M. (1997), Dual-career expatriates: expectations, adjustment and satisfaction with international relocation, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 627-58. Harwood, J., Giles, H., McCann, D., Somera, L.P., Ng, S.H., Gallois, C. and Noels, K. (2001), Older adults trait ratings of three age-groups around the Pacific Rim, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 16, pp. 157-71. Harwood, J., Giles, H., Ota, H., Pierson, H.D., Gallois, C., Ng, S.H., Lim, T.S. and Somera, L. (1996), College students trait ratings of three age groups around the Pacific Rim, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 11, pp. 307-17. Ho, D.Y.F. (1996), Filial piety and its psychological consequences, in Bond, M.H. (Ed.), The Handbook of Chinese Psychology, Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, pp. 155-65. Hsu, F.L.K. (1972), Americans and Chinese: Reflections on Two Cultures and Their People, Doubleday Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. Hwang, E.R. (1987), Face and favor: the Chinese power game, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 92 No. 4, pp. 35-41. Ice, G. (2005), Biological anthropology and aging, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 20, pp. 87-90. Ikels, C. (2002), Constructing and deconstructing the self: dementia in China, Journal of CrossCultural Gerontology, Vol. 17, pp. 233-51. Ikels, C. (2004), Introduction, in Ikels, C. (Ed.), Filial Piety, Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 1-15. Ikels, C., Keith, J., Dickerson-Putman, J., Draper, P., Fry, C., Glascock, A. and Harpending, H. (1992), Perceptions of the adult life-course: a cross-cultural analysis, Ageing and Society, Vol. 12, pp. 49-84.

Age and expatriate job performance 145

CCM 16,2

146

Jun, S. and Gntry, J.W. (2005), An exploratory investigation of the relative importance of cultural similarity and personal fit in the selection and performance of expatriates, Journal of World Business, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 1-8. Kay, M. and Taylor, W.G.K. (1997), Expatriate culture shock in China: a study in the Beijing hotel industry, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 12 No. 8, pp. 496-510. Kealy, D.J. and Protheroe, D.R. (1996), The effectiveness of cross-cultural training for expatriates: an assessment of the literature on the issue, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 141-65. Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J. and Jaworski, R.A. (2001), Sources of support and expatriate performance: the mediating role of expatriate adjustment, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 54, pp. 71-99. Legge, J. (2004), The Hsiao King or Classic of Filial Piety, Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish, MT. Liu, S.H. (1996), Confucian ideals and the real world: a critical review of contemporary neoConfucian thought, in Tu, W.M. (Ed.), Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Loh, C. (2004), Democracy in Greater China: a comparative study, The Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 69-80. Lord, R. and Maher, K. (1991), Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Processes, Unwin & Hyman, Boston, MA. Mamman, A. (1995), Expatriates intercultural effectiveness by chance of birth, in Selmer, J. (Ed.), Expatriate Management: New Ideas for International Business, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 137-55. Mamman, A. and Richards, D. (1996), Perceptions and possibilities of intercultural adjustment: some neglected characteristics of expatriates, International Business Review, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 283-301. Manheimer, R.J. (1989), The narrative quest in qualitative genrontology, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 231-52. Menard, S. (1991), Longitudinal Research, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. Newman, K.L. and Nollen, S.D. (1996), Culture and congruence: the fit between management practices and national culture, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 27 No. 4, pp. 753-79. Ng, A.C.Y., Phillips, D.R. and Lee, W.K. (2002), Persistence and challenges to filial piety and informal support of older persons in a modern Chinese society: a case study, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 16, pp. 135-53. Nunnally, J.C. (1978), Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Ones, D.S. and Viswesvaran, C. (1997), Personality determinants in the prediction of aspects of expatriate job success, in Aycan, Z. (Ed.), New Approaches to Employee Management: Expatriate Management Theory and Research, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 63-92. Ones, D.S. and Viswesvaran, C. (1999), Relative importance of personality dimensions for expatriate selection: a policy capturing study, Human Performance, Vol. 12 Nos. 3-4, pp. 275-94. Owen, C., Jawalgi, R. and Scherer, R. (2007), Success strategies for expatriate women managers in China, Review of Business, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 24-31. Palmore, E.B. and Maeda, D. (1985), The Honorable Elders Revisited, Duke University Press, Durham, NC. Parker, B. and McEvoy, G.M. (1993), Initial examination of a model of intercultural adjustment, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 17, pp. 355-79.

Pitsilis, E., Woetzel, J. and Wong, J. (2004), Checking Chinas vital signs, The McKinsey Quarterly, Special issue, pp. 7-15. Podsakoff, P.M. and Organ, D.W. (1986), Self-reports in organizational research: problems and prospects, Journal of Management, Vol. 12, pp. 531-44. Roberts, D. (Ed.) (1992), Hong Kong 1992: A Review of 1991, Government Information Services, Hong Kong. Sawchuk, K.A. (1995), From gloom to boom: age, identity and target marketing, in Featherstone, M. and Wernick, A. (Eds), Images of Ageing: Cultural Representations of Later Life, Routledge, London, pp. 188-208. Selmer, J, (2001), Expatriate selection: back to basics?, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 12 No. 8, pp. 1219-33. Selmer, J. (2002), Practice makes perfect? International experience and expatriate adjustment, Management International Review, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 71-87. Selmer, J. and Leung, A.S.M. (2003), International adjustment of female vs. male business expatriates, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 14 No. 7, pp. 1117-31. Sergeant, A. and Frenkel, S. (1998), Managing people in China: perceptions of expatriate managers, Journal of World Business, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 17-34. Shaffer, M.A., Harrison, D.A., Gilley, K.M. and Luk, D.M. (2001), Struggling for balance amid turbulence on international assignments: work-family conflict, support and commitment, Journal of Management, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 99-121. Shin, S.J., Morgeson, F.P. and Campion, M.A. (2007), What you do depends on where you are: understanding how domestic and expatriate work requirements depend upon the cultural context, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 64-83. Sinangil, H.K. and Ones, D. (2003), Gender differences in expatriate job performance, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 461-75. Spector, P.E. (2006), Method variance in organizational research: truth or urban legend?, Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 221-32. Streib, G.F. (1987), Old age in sociocultural context: China and the United States, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 95-112. Sung, K. (1998), An exploration of actions of filial piety, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 369-86. Takeuchi, R., Wang, M. and Marinova, S.W. (2005a), Antecedents and consequences of psychological workplace strain: a cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 58 No. 4, pp. 925-48. Takeuchi, R., Yun, S. and Tesluk, P.E. (2002), An examination of crossover and spillover effects of spousal and expatriate cross-cultural adjustment on expatriate outcomes, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87 No. 4, pp. 655-6. Takeuchi, R., Tesluk, P.E., Yun, S. and Lepak, D.P. (2005b), An integrative view of international experience, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp. 85-100. Teagarden, M.B. and Gordon, G.D. (1995), Corporate selection strategies and expatriate manager success, in Selmer, J. (Ed.), Expatriate Management: New Ideas for International Business, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 17-36. Tung, R.L. (1988), The New Expatriates, Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, MA. Tobin, J.J. (1987), The American idealization of old age in Japan, The Gerontologist, Vol. 27, pp. 53-8. Vasil, L. and Wass, H. (1993), Portrayal of elderly in the media: a literature review and implications for educational gerontologists, Educational Gerontology, Vol. 19, pp. 71-85.

Age and expatriate job performance 147

CCM 16,2

148

Wang, D. (2004), Ritualistic coresidence and the weakening of filial practice in Rural China, in Ikels C. (Ed.), Filial Piety, Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia, Vol. 16-33, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA. Wang, M. and Takeuchi, R. (2007), The role of goal orientation during expatriation: a crosssectional and longitudinal investigation, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 92 No. 5, pp. 1437-45. Warner, M. (1995), The Management of Human Resources in Chinese Industry, Macmillan, London. Waxin, M.-F. and Panaccio, A. (2005), Cross-cultural training to facilitate expatriate adjustment: it works, Personnel Review, Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 51-67. Whyte, M.K. (2004), Filial obligations in Chinese families: paradoxes of modernization, in Ikels, C. (Ed.), Filial Piety, Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 106-27. Williamson, J.B. and Deitelbaum, C. (2005), Social security reform: does partial privatization make sense for China?, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 19, pp. 257-71. Zhan, H.J. (2006), Joy and sorrow: explaining Chinese caregivers reward and stress, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 20, pp. 27-38. Zhang, Y. and Goza, F.W. (2006), Who will care for the elderly in China? A review of the problems caused by Chinas one-child policy and their potential solutions, Journal of Aging Studies, Vol. 20, pp. 151-64. Zhan, H.J. and Montgomery, R.J.V. (2003), Gender and elder care in China: the influence of filial piety and structure constraints, Gender & Society, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 209-29. Zhang, A.Y. and Yu, L.C. (1998), Life satisfaction among Chinese elderly in Beijing, Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Vol. 13, pp. 109-25. Yang, M. (1994), Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: the Art of Social Relationships in China, Cornell University Press, New York, NY. Corresponding author Jan Selmer can be contacted at: selmer@asb.dk

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.