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doi: 10.1111/j.1478-4408.2010.00269.

Evaluation of colour fastness and thermal Coloration migration in softened polylactic acid Technology fabrics dyed with disperse dyes of differing hydrophobicity
Ozan Avinc,a,* Mike Wilding,b John Bone,c Duncan Phillipsd and David Farringtone
a

Department of Textile Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Pamukkale University, 20070, Denizli, Turkey Email: oavinc@pau.edu.tr Textiles and Paper, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester M60 1QD, UK Strawberry Hill, Wyndham Road, Poole, Dorset BH14 8SH, UK Colour Synthesis Solutions Ltd, 7 White Birk Close, Greenmount, Bury BL8 4HE, UK

Society of Dyers and Colourists

d e

The Common, Quarndon, Derby DE22 5JY, UK

Received: 9 February 2010; Accepted: 3 August 2010


This paper addresses the relative effects of softeners having different properties and their method of application (exhaust vs pad) on the colour fastness of poly(lactic acid) fabrics dyed with a range of disperse dyes with different levels of hydrophobicity. A comparison was made with a correspondingly nished polyethylene terephthalate fabric. Possible relationships between the levels of hydrophilicity hydrophobicity of the dye, and softener, and the colour fastness were explored. Finally, the amount of dye thermally migrated into the nish on the softened poly(lactic acid) and polyethylene terephthalate fabrics was examined in comparison with their colour fastness. Softened poly(lactic acid) fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 167.1 exhibited more thermal migration, and hence lower colour fastness, than the corresponding polyethylene terephthalate fabrics. Conversely, softened poly(lactic acid) fabrics dyed with Dianix Deep Red SF exhibited less thermal migration, and hence better colour fastness, than the corresponding polyethylene terephthalate fabrics. Overall, no clear relationship was found between the hydrophobic nature of the disperse dye and the hydrophobic character of the softener on the colour fastness.

Introduction
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is the rst melt-processable synthetic bre-forming polymer to have been successfully produced entirely from renewable resources [1]. Its biocompatability, and especially its ability to be composted, have led to its rapid adoption in applications such as disposable packaging, but its potential value as a source of sustainable textile products is equally well recognised, and it is also steadily gaining acceptance in this industry. In terms of their physical form and microstructure, PLA bres undoubtedly have more in common with conventional synthetics than they do with natural bres [2], although their properties effectively span those of both classes, making them suitable, in principle, for a wide range of textile products. However, the wet-processing and nishing, in particular, of PLA-based fabrics presents various technical difculties arising from the polymers low melting point and certain other characteristics, and it is a subset of these problems that this paper seeks to address. PLA fabrics often receive some form of chemical aftertreatment (e.g. softening) following dyeing and reduction clearing, and this may entail heating. Post-heat-setting (stentering) is in any case generally carried out in order to

produce dimensionally stable fabric to a specied width. Because PLA has a relatively low melting point, typical industrial practice is to heat-set it at 130 C for 30 s, whereas polyethylene terephthalate (PET), for instance, would usually be treated at 180 C for the same duration [3]. Associated with such heat treatments is the phenomenon of thermomigration (or thermal migration), in which some of the disperse (and hence chemically unbound) dye travels from the interior of the bre to accumulate on the fabric surface, with perhaps some sublimation to the surrounding atmosphere [411]. The degree to which thermal migration occurs and the amount of loose dye remaining on the surface are important factors in determining the subsequent wet fastness, both of PET- and PLA-based fabrics. Depending on their composition, method of application and concentration, chemical nishes such as softeners, antistatic agents and lubricants applied to dyed polyester are known to increase the severity of thermal migration, presumably by acting as a carrier and or receptor for the mobile dye. For example, Sheth [12] used specic electrical conductivity measurements to investigate the strength of interaction between dye and surfactant applied to polyester bres and found a strong attraction, which tended to enhance thermal migration.

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Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

The overall picture is unclear, however, for example one might expect this nish-assisted thermal migration to produce a further reduction in colour fastness, but it has been reported that the degree of thermal migration in itself is not necessarily reected in the results of fastness tests [13]. Moreover, some studies indicate that thermal migration occurs more readily in the presence of nonionic treatments than it does when ionic products are used [8,11], yet Von der Eltz [7] identied both nonionic and ionic surfactants as exacerbating thermal migration. There are also other subtleties; for instance, Richter [14] found that thermal migration increased when ethoxylated fatty alcohols were present on the bre surface. Apart from the active ingredient, the choice of emulsier used in a nishing product can also have a major inuence. For example, it has been shown that the widely used ethoxylated emulsier in silicone softeners is a major cause of thermal migration of dye and that alkylpolyglycoside-type emulsiers could be an effective alternative, in that they appear not to exacerbate thermal migration [1517]. Considering PLA in comparison with PET, Yang and Huda [18] reported that a selected set of disperse dyes exhibited lower washing and rub fastness on PLA than on PET, while Phillips et al. [10] found the wet fastness of PLA to be generally lower than that of PET after heat treatment, in spite of the lower temperature used (130 C for PLA compared with 180 C for PET). They attributed this to a greater propensity to thermal migration in PLA than in PET, speculating that it is attributable in part to the absence of pp bonding forces between the dye and polymer chain, which might otherwise impair the movement of dye [10]. This view is supported by the research of Nakamura et al. [19], who also interpreted the increased severity of thermal migration in PLA in terms of a signicantly higher diffusivity of the disperse dyes in the PLA substrate as compared with PET. In the current paper, we describe the effects of softeners of differing chemistries and of using different methods of application (specically, pad vs exhaust) on the colour fastness of PLA and PET fabrics dyed with a range of disperse dyes. A particular objective was to investigate whether the hydrophobicity of the dyes and softeners can be correlated with the degree of thermal migration occurring during nishing, and its subsequent effect on colour fastness. To this end, the chosen set of dyes encompassed several levels of hydrophobicity.

Table 1 Properties of disperse dyes studied Name (dye number) CI Disperse Red 73 (1) CI Disperse Red 167.1 (2) CI Disperse Blue 284 (3) CI Disperse Brown 19 (4) Dianix Deep Red SF (5) Heat fastness (sublimation class) Medium High Medium Mediumhigh High

Chromaphore Azo Azo Azo Azo Azo

log P (hydrophobicity) 3.7 4.1 4.1 5.1 6.9

can be assessed in terms of the octanolwater partition coefcient [20,21] and, for the selected disperse dyes, it was determined by the manufacturer. The ve dyes used were single component products; that is, the coloured component is one molecular type and the log P refers to the particluar dye molecule. The higher the log P-value, the greater the hydrophobicity of the dye (Table 1). Softeners Five commercially available softeners (details summarised in Table 2) were selected for the study. These differed in respect of their ionicity and chemical type. They were provided by Rudolf Chemicals Ltd (UK) or Ciba (Switzerland), as appropriate. Experimental procedures Preparation of substrates for dyeing Greige PLA and PET fabrics were prescoured in a bath containing 1 g l of Kieralon Jet B (a nonionic surfactant produced by BASF, UK) and 1 g l of sodium carbonate at 60 C for 15 min. After scouring, the fabrics were rinsed with cold water for 10 min and dried at room temperature. Dyeing Initially, the build-up properties of the dyes on the two fabric types (PLA and PET) were determined. This was necessary in order to facilitate subsequent comparison of the colour fastness of the selected dyes on the two
Table 2 Details of softeners used Identier (sample code) Softener 1

Experimental
Materials employed Fabrics The study employed two sets of identically constructed single-jersey knitted fabrics provided by NatureWorks LLC and derived from 20-tex PLA (Ingeo bre) and 20-tex PET spun yarns, respectively. Dyes The two sets of fabrics were divided into ve subsets, each being dyed with a different disperse dye. Table 1 presents details of these dyes, which were chosen so as to cover a range of hydrophobicity levels. This property
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Softener chemistry OH-functional PDMSb with hydrophilic polyester resin Reactive fatty acid amide Aminofunctional PDMS microemulsion Fatty acid condensation product Aminofunctional PDMS microemulsion

Ionicitya 0

Exhaustibility No

Softener 2 Softener 3 Softener 4 Softener 5

+ 0+ + + (slight)

Yes Yes Yes No

a +, cationic; ), anionic; 0, nonionic b PDMS, polydimethylsiloxane

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Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

substrates at the same visual depth of shade. The amount of dye required to achieve approximately the same heavy depth of shade (K S % 20) on the two substrates is shown in Table 3. Dyeings were carried out according to the procedures shown in Figures 1 and 2 using a laboratory-scale Mathis Labomat Infrared dyeing machine (Werner Mathis, Switzerland) with a liquor to goods ratio of 10:1 and at temperatures of 130 and 110 C for PET and PLA, respectively [22]. Dyeing auxiliaries, Ludigol AR (antireducing agent from BASF) and Setamol BL (anionic dispersing agent from BASF) were added to the dyebath at the outset of each dyeing operation, along with acetic acid and or sodium acetate as appropriate. These latter were used to adjust the pH to that recommended: pH 4 for PET; pH 5 for PLA. Having been dyed, the fabrics were rinsed for 5 min with warm water followed by 2 min with cold water and then dried at room temperature.

Alkaline reduction clearing Alkaline reduction clearing was carried out in order to remove loose dye from the surface of the dyed fabrics. For PET, this was achieved using a bath containing 3 g l of sodium dithionite and 3 g l of sodium hydroxide, with a liquor ratio of 20:1 at 70 C for 15 min, these conditions being commonly used in the industry. However, in the case of PLA, it is advisable to use milder conditions, so as to allow for its lower glass transition temperature (Tg) and greater alkali sensitivity. For this reason, the PLA fabrics were treated with 2 g l of sodium carbonate and 2 g l of sodium dithionite for 15 min at 60 C [23]. Both fabrics were then rinsed in warm, then cold water until neutral, and air-dried at room temperature. Application of softeners to dyed substrates All softeners (Table 2) were applied by pad application to the air-dried fabrics at a concentration of 30 g l and at pH 5.05.5 (adjusted where necessary using acetic acid) with a pick-up of 90%. In addition, softeners 2, 3 and 4 were applied to the fabrics by an exhaust application method. This was carried out using a laboratory-scale Mathis Labomat infrared dyeing machine (Werner Mathis) at a liquor to goods ratio of 10:1 and a concentration of 3.0% (on mass of fabric) at pH 5.05.5 and 40 C (according to the product recommendation) for 20 min. The softened fabrics were dried on a Werner Mathis AG DHE-18874 stenter at 110 C for 30 s and then heatset under typical industrial conditions: 30 s at 130 C for PLA; 30 s at 180 C for PET. Several unsoftened fabrics (Table 4) were added to the evaluation as controls. Assessment of fastness Wash fastness to domestic laundering (C06) was carried out according to the ISO 105-C06:1994 test standard in a Roaches Washtec P machine (Roaches International, UK). The test was performed at 50 C with (C06 B2S) sodium perborate. Alkaline perspiration fastness was determined according to the ISO 105-E04:2008 (colour fastness to

Table 3 Applied dye and visual colour yield PET fabric Dye conc. (% owf) 1.50 1.35 2.70 1.87 1.88 PLA fabric Dye conc. (% owf) 1.56 1.13 2.46 1.85 1.43

Dye CI Disperse Red 73 CI Disperse Red 167.1 CI Disperse Blue 284 CI Disperse Brown 19 Dianix Deep Red SF

K Sa 21.9 21.8 20.0 18.3 19.8

K Sa 22.8 22.4 21.2 19.8 20.9

a K S values after alkaline reduction (see later for conditions)

PET fabric Setamol BL (BASF) (1 g/l) 2 g/l Ludigol AR (BASF) with CI Disperse Blue 284 only Acetic acid to pH 4

130 C

45 min

3 C/min 2 C/min

50 C 20 C
Figure 1 Disperse dyeing procedure used for the PET fabric

PLA fabric Setamol BL (BASF) (1 g/l) 2 g/l Ludigol AR (BASF) with CI Disperse Blue 284 only Acetic acid/sodium acetate to pH 5

110 C

30 min

1 C/min

3 C/min

50 C 20 C
Figure 2 Disperse dyeing procedure used for the PLA fabric 2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 126, 353364 355

Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

Table 4 Pad application of unsoftened (control) fabrics used Sample code Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 Type of control Dyed only Dyed; padded with distilled water Dyed; padded with distilled water Description treatment Dyed-only fabric (no softener; no water) Padded; dried (110 C); not heat-set Padded; dried (110 C); heat-set (130 C) pH of pad processa

5.05.5 5.05.5

a pH adjusted by means of adding acetic acid

perspiration) protocol. The wet-rub fastness testing was performed following the ISO 105-X12:2001 protocol. The assessment of colour fastness of the softened fabrics to washing and to alkaline perspiration (via staining of adjacent nylon in a multibre strip) and wet rubbing (via staining of cotton rubbing fabric) was carried out using ISO grey scales. Determination of fabric wettability The times of wetting (referred to hereafter as wettability values) of the softened PLA and PET fabrics were measured using an M286 wettability tester, following the British Standard drop test BS 4554:1970 (method of test for wettability of textile fabrics). This was performed under standard laboratory conditions (20 2 C; 65 2% relative humidity) and used distilled water containing 0.1 g l sodium chloride and 2.5% stock AATCC standard detergent. Each test was repeated 10 times. According to BS 4554:1970, fabrics are considered to be unwettable, and therefore hydrophobic, if they exhibit a wettability time of greater than 200 s. The shorter the wettability time, the more absorbent, or more hydrophilic, the fabric. Assessment of thermal migration resulting from heat-setting The assessment of thermal migration was perfomed by solvent extraction of surface dye using toluene, the concentration of dye in solution being determined via measurement of optical density. Although the main purpose of our study was to quantify any thermal migration occurring as a result of heat-setting, it was also important to attempt to gauge its relative severity. This necessitated knowledge of the amount of dye that had been present in the fabrics immediately prior to heatsetting: i.e. following the alkaline reduction-clearing stage. It was achieved, for both the PLA and PET fabrics, by extracting all the dye from a given weight of fabric with monochlorobenzene using Soxhlet extraction. It was therefore necessary to obtain two sets of calibration data for the commercial dyes used: one appertaining to toluene; the other to monochlorobenzene. These were subsequently used to estimate the amounts of dye extracted from the PLA and PET fabrics. However, in both extraction processes, pure dye only is removed from the fabric, i.e. the solution contains none of the other components (such as dispersing agents) that may have been present initially in the dye formulation. Hence, it was important that the calibrations applied to pure dye, as distinct from the product as supplied by the manufacturer. To this end, samples of all the commercial dyes used were puried by means of Soxhlet extraction. In this procedure, approximately 10 g of dye was
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placed in the thimble and the dye was continuously extracted for 2 h using 250 ml of monochlorobenzene. The monochlorobenzene was then removed using a rotary evaporator. The puried dye was washed with hexane for 1 h to remove any remaining traces of monochlorobenzene and ltered using Whatman ltration paper. The puried dye was dried in an oven at 40 C for 24 h. Calibration curves were generated from the puried disperse dyes as plots of optical density at kmax vs concentration. The curves for both solvents (monochlorobenzene and toluene) were found to be linear, indicating adherence to BeerLamberts law. Considering the assessment of dye contained with the fabrics prior to heat-setting, in the case of PET, the extractions were straightforward and were continued until the fabrics were judged to be colourless (white in appearance). However, a problem was encountered with the PLA fabrics in that the solvent also attacked the bre, resulting in a coloured solution of dye and PLA in monochlorobenzene. In order to allow for this phenomenon, a further set of calibration curves was generated using solutions in monochlorobenzene of the puried dye together with 1.2 g l of PLA bre. This was also found to conform to BeerLamberts law, despite the presence of dissolved polymer, and was therefore used in place of the original calibration set for the PLA in monochlorobenzene. The amount of unxed surface dye can be established by treating the dyed PLA and PET fabrics in an appropriate solvent. Various researchers have proposed different solvent systems and procedures for estimating the amount of dye residing on the fabric surface, as distinct from that contained within the bre structure. Phillips et al. [10] used cold toluene to remove the surface dye from both PLA and PET fabrics. Although it was the surface dye specically that was of interest to them, they found it impossible to prevent some of the internally dispersed dye from also being extracted. However, this process is relatively slow, whereas the surface dye is quickly removed. In order to separate out the surface dye component, therefore, Phillips et al. measured the absorbance as a function of time, extrapolating the results back to zero treatment time to quantify the amount of dye that would have been on the fabric surface initially. We have employed the same procedure in our study. A piece of dyed fabric (0.3 g) was immersed in 20 ml of cold toluene and the absorbance (optical density) of the solution was measured at time intervals of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 120 min. The weight (in grams) of surface dye associated with a given weight (1 g) of fabric was calculated with the aid of the relevant calibration graph referred to previously. The

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Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

relative amount of dye that had migrated to the bre surface as a result of the heat treatment was considered to be the difference between the weights of surface dye yielded from the reduction-cleared fabrics before (W1) and after (W2) heat-setting. Instrumentation All values of optical density were determined using a Camspec M350 double beam ultravioletvisible spectrophotometer (Datacolor International, USA).

Table 6 The effect of softener application method on the wettability of PLA fabrics Dyed PLA fabrics softened with Pad softener 4 Exhaust softener 4 Pad softener 2 Exhaust softener 2 Pad softener 3 Exhaust softener 3

Wettability (s) 1.4 1.3 >200 >200 >200 >200 0.6 0.5 s s s s

Results and Discussion


Wettability of softened PLA fabrics Table 5 presents measured values of wettability time for the softened and control PLA fabrics. Those that had been softened with softeners 2, 3 and 5 were evidently unwettable (i.e. hydrophobic), whereas those treated with the remaining products were wettable (i.e. hydrophilic). Three of the softeners used in the study are recommended by their manufacturers as being suitable for either pad or exhaust application. In order to assess the extent to which this choice affects the ultimate wettability of the fabric, we have used both methods of application for these products (Table 6). The reason for doing this was that, when a softener is applied by padding, all its components (including, for example, the emulsifying agent) tend to remain on the fabric surface and could potentially alter the treated fabrics hydrophilicty. In contrast, when the softener is applied by exhaustion, these auxiliary components are generally retained in the bath. Therefore, they should not be not present on the fabric. The results indicate no signicant inuence of the application method on wettability for these three products. We conclude therefore that it is overwhelmingly the active softening agent rather than any other component that imparts either hydrophobic or hydrophilic character to the PLA fabrics. Relative fastness of PLA and PET fabrics dyed to the same visual colour yield Measured values of the various fastness indicators for the softened and unsoftened control PLA and PET fabrics dyed with disperse dyes having different levels of hydrophobicity are shown in Tables 79. The potential
Table 5 Wettability of control and softened PLA fabrics Controls softeneda PLA fabrics Control 1 (dyed only) Control 2c Control 3d Softener 2 Softener 3 Softener 5 Softener 4 Softener 1 Wettabilityb (s) 39.8 7.0 44.0 8.1 28.4 4.4 >200 s >200 s >200 s 1.4 0.6 0.9 0.4

inuence of the softeners on the fastness performance of the fabrics will be addressed presently, but it is appropriate rst to consider the unsoftened controls. Unsoftened fabrics All the PLA and PET fabrics used in our study, including the unsoftened controls, had been reduction cleared in order to remove loose dye from the surface (which would otherwise be detrimental to colour fastness). The results of Tables 79 indicate that, where reduction clearing was the only post-dyeing treatment applied (as represented by control 1), all fastness indicators (i.e. washing, perspiration and wet-rub fastness) were assessed at level 5, irrespective of which dye had been used. Thus, it may be asserted that the clearing operation was successful with respect to both PLA and PET fabrics. The control 2 fabrics had been subjected to an additional stage of blank softening, which comprised padding with water alone, followed by drying at 110 C. There is an indication that this procedure brought about a slight lowering of the wash fastness of both PLA and PET fabrics, depending on the dye used, but it has no measurable effect on the wet-rub fastness of either polymer type. In the case of PET, the perspiration fastness is also unaffected, although for PLA it may have been lowered very slightly. (It could be speculated that this minor difference between the behaviour of the two bre types is associated with the fact that PLA has a signicantly lower Tg than PET, enabling a degree of thermal migration to occur during drying.) The control 3 fabrics were similar to controls 2, except for being nally heat-set for 30 s at 130 C, in the case of PLA, and at 180 C for PET. Tables 79 show that this extra heat treatment may have induced a small lowering of wash fastness, the extent of which depends on the dye used and the polymer type. For example, the wash fastness of PLA dyed with CI Disperse Red 73 fell by approximately 1.5 points as a result of heat-setting, but by 0.5 of a point, at most, for the other three dyes. For PET, heat-setting caused no more than a 0.5 reduction in wash fastness for any of the dyes. The perspiration and wet-rub fastness of both bre types appears to have been largely upheld following heat-setting for all dyes. The various reductions in fastness noted for the unsoftened fabrics are assumed to arise, in the main, from a degree of thermal migration occurring during the heating stages. However, it is worth highlighting the fact that these changes are generally small: the observed drop in wash fastness from 5 (in control 1) to 2 (in control 3) of the PLA fabric dyed with CI Disperse Red 73 was not
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a Padded with softener at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C and heat-set at 130 C b Mean 1 SD c Padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C d Padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C and heat-set at 130 C

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Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

Table 7 Wash fastness of softened PLA and PET fabricsa Increasing dye hydrophobicity Wettability time Dyed with Fabric Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) of the softened fabric 39.8 7.0 44.0 8.1 28.4 4.4 0.9 0.4 1.4 0.6 >200 s >200 s >200 s 16.6 4.4 19.5 3.5 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.4 >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s 5 34 2 12 12 12 2 23 5 45 4 2 23 23 23 3 5 34 3 2 23 2 23 34 5 45 4 23 3 23 3 34 5 45 4 23 34 34 4 4 5 45 45 34 4 4 45 45 5 45 45 23 34 3 4 4 5 5 5 34 45 34 45 45 5 5 45 4 45 45 45 5 5 5 45 4 4 4 4 45 Wash fastness (C06 B2S) (stain on polyamide) Dye 1 3.7 Dye 2 4.1 Dye 3 4.1 Dye 4 5.1 Dye 5 6.9

Increasing hydrophobicity PLA Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener PET Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener

1 4 2 3 5

1 4 2 3 5

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 1: dyed, reduction cleared and dried at room temperature without heat treatment c Control 2: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s without heat-setting d Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET e Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

Table 8 Alkaline perspiration fastness of softened PLA and PET fabricsa Alkaline perspiration fastness (E04) (stain on polyamide) Dye 1 3.7 39.8 7.0 44.0 8.1 28.4 4.4 0.9 0.4 1.4 0.6 >200 s >200 s >200 s 16.6 4.4 19.5 3.5 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.4 >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s 5 34 34 23 3 23 3 3 5 5 45 34 34 34 34 45 Dye 2 4.1 5 4 34 3 34 34 34 4 5 5 45 34 34 34 45 45 Dye 3 4.1 5 4 34 3 3 3 34 34 5 5 45 34 4 4 45 45 Dye 4 5.1 5 45 4 23 23 23 34 34 5 5 45 3 23 23 34 4 Dye 5 6.9 5 5 45 3 34 23 34 45 5 5 45 23 2 23 23 34

Wettability time Dyed with Fabric PLA Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener

1 4 2 3 5

PET

1 4 2 3 5

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 1: dyed, reduction cleared and dried at room temperature without heat treatment c Control 2: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s without heat-setting d Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET e Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

only the worst case, but very much an isolated one. Thus, we can conclude that, while the basic wet and heat processing of the fabrics may be associated with some
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loss of fastness through thermal migration, this is not a major effect for either polymer type. We now turn to the softened fabrics.

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Avinc et al. Colour fastness and thermal migration in softened PLA fabrics

Table 9 Wet-rub fastness of softened PLA and PET fabricsa Wettability time Dyed with Fabric PLA Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Control 1b Control 2c Control 3d Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener Pade softener 39.8 7.0 44.0 8.1 28.4 4.4 0.9 0.4 1.4 0.6 >200 s >200 s >200 s 16.6 4.4 19.5 3.5 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.4 >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s Wet-rub fastness (X12) (cotton staining) Dye 1 3.7 5 5 45 2 4 34 45 5 5 5 45 4 45 4 45 5 Dye 2 4.1 5 5 45 2-3 4 3 4 45 5 5 45 3 45 34 4 45 Dye 3 4.1 5 5 5 23 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 45 45 45 5 5 Dye 4 5.1 5 5 4 2 34 3 34 45 5 5 45 23 23 3 34 45 Dye 5 6.9 5 5 4 2 4 23 4 4 5 5 45 23 2 2 3 34

1 4 2 3 5

PET

1 4 2 3 5

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 1: dyed, reduction cleared and dried at room temperature without heat treatment c Control 2: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s without heat-setting d Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET e Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

Softened fabrics: wash fastness The results indicate that, with some exceptions, the additional effect of applying softener to the PLA fabrics is to reduce the wash fastness by between 0.5 and 1.5 points with respect to the control 3 fabric (Table 7). The exceptions include some instances where a somewhat greater reduction occurred: for example, the fabric dyed with CI Disperse Brown 19 and softened with softener 1 showed a 2-point drop; but more signicantly, several combinations of dye and softener produced no measureable deterioration. This is particularly true of the fabrics dyed with Dianix Deep Red SF, where none of the softners appeared to have had an effect. Considering the other four dyes only, it is also seen that the PET fabrics fared slightly better than the PLA fabrics. Surprisingly, however, in the case of Dianix Deep Red SF, the performance of the PLA fabrics was actually better (by approximately 0.250.5 points) than that of the PET fabrics. A further observation is that the wash fastness of softened PLA and PET fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Brown 19, Dianix Deep Red SF and CI Disperse Blue 284 was higher than that of the respective fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 73 and CI Disperse Red 167.1. (This result is not unexpected because these three dyes were in fact designed to produce high fastness to washing by solubilising of unxed dye under alkaline washing conditions [24]). Softened fabrics: alkaline perspiration fastness As in the case of wash fastness, the application of softeners appears either to cause a lowering of, or to have no effect on, the perspiration fastness of both PLA and PET fabrics (Table 8). Once again, however, the extent of

the inuence depends on the dyesoftener combination: in most cases, the lowering relative to control 3 was in the range 0.51.5 points, but some combinations produced a fall of more than 2.0 points. As was observed with respect to wash fastness, the perspiration fastness of the softened PLA fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 73, CI Disperse Red 167.1 and CI Disperse Blue 284 were generally below those of the PET fabrics (by 0.251.5 points, depending on the dye softener combination). In the case of fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Brown 19, the performance of the two polymer types was similar. Once again, however, the PET fabrics seem to have been more severely affected than the PLA fabrics when Dianix Deep Red SF was used. There is some indication that the alkaline perspiration fastness of both softened PLA and PET fabrics dyed with hydrophobic disperse dyes exhibits a greater drop than when hydrophilic dye is used. In other words, it seems that, the more hydrophobic the disperse dye, the greater is the loss of alkaline perspiration fastness of both softened PLA and PET fabrics, irrespective of the hydrophilicity of the softener applied. Softened fabrics: wet-rub fastness A generally similar pattern of behaviour emerges for the wet-rub fastness as was seen for the perspiration fastness: for softened PLA fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 73, CI Disperse Red 167.1 and CI Disperse Blue 284, the observed values were 0.252 points lower than those of the corresponding PET fabrics, again depending on dye softener combination; and, in the case of CI Disperse Brown 19, the performance of the two polymer types was similar, whereas softened PLA fabrics were approximately
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0.252 points better than softened PET fabrics in the case of Dianix Deep Red SF. In contrast to the perspiration fastness, however, there appears to be no obvious relationship between the hydrophobic nature of the disperse dye and the hydrophobic character of the softener on the wet-rub fastness for either PLA or PET fabrics. There is a suggestion from the (admittedly limited) data of Table 9 that, the more hydrophobic the disperse dye, the more severe is the deterioration in wet-rub fastness of the softened PET fabrics, irrespective of the nature of softener applied. This is not seen in the results for PLA, and on the face of it is counterintuitive: one might envisage a relatively strong hydrophobic attraction to occur between the hydrophobic PET substrate and the more hydrophobic disperse dyes. This would imply lower thermal migration, and hence better fastness, than when more hydrophilic dyes have been used. We are not currently able to account for this observation, which clearly merits further investigation. Softened fabrics: inuence of softener ionicity No clear correlation seems to exist between the ionic nature of the softener and the observed reduction of wet fastness in nishing for either PET or PLA fabrics. Of the two softeners which generally caused the greatest deteriorations in fastness, softener 2 is cationic, whereas softener 1 is nonionic. This lack of correlation is consistent with the ndings of Von der Eltz [7], who reported that thermal migration in polyester is basically unaffected by the ionicity of the applied softeners. Softened fabrics: inuence of chemical formulation of softening agent It would appear that products based on pure aminofunctional polydimethylsiloxane (i.e. softeners 3 and 5) generally cause less deterioration in fastness than those based on fatty acids, and also less than was seen for softener 1. This is true for both PET and PLA fabrics. Softener 1 is based on OH-functional polydimethylsiloxane and incorporates a hydrophilic polyester resin. It is possible that this resin could intensify the thermal migration process, leading to poorer colour fastness, although this is, of course, speculation. Softened fabrics: inuence of softener and dye hydrophilicty Irrespective of which dye had been applied, there appears to be no clear relationship between the lowering in wet fastness (on pad application of softener) and the hydrophilic hydrophobic nature of the softener on the PLA fabrics. Nor was there any obvious effect of the hydrophilic hydrophobic nature of the dye. Softened fabrics: inuence of softener application process on colour fastness Three of the softeners (softeners 2, 3 and 4) are suitable for application to polyester by either exhaustion or padding methods. This presented the opportunity to investigate whether the fastness of the dyed PLA and PET fabrics depended in any respect on the method of
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application, and an additional set of fabric samples was therefore prepared that had been softened with these particular products via exhaustion. The results of Tables 1012 indicate that exhaustion gives rise to somewhat better colour fastness than does padding, for both PLA and PET fabric specically, by 0.250.75 points for wash fastness, 0.251 point for alkaline perspiration fastness and 0.251.25 points for rub fastness. This superiority of exhaustion over padding is observed for all three softener types in the subset. Pad application leaves not only the active softening agent on the fabric surface, but also other components of the softener formulation (emulsifying agents, wetting agents, etc.). We believe that this unwanted material can act as a solvent reservoir for thermally migrating dye. By contrast, in the exhaustion process, it is essentially only the active softening agent that is retained by the fabric (other components remaining in the bath), so there should be less free dye at the surface and, consequently, less impairment of fastness. The advantage in colour fastness resulting from exhaust application varies from product to product and is dependent on the nature of emulsier and wetting agents or other components included in the softener formulation. The largest effect was found in the alkaline perspiration and wet-rub fastness of PLA and PET fabrics, which had been softened with softener 2, with softeners 3 and 4 appearing to be less inuential. This is presumably a factor of the products differing emulsiers and or other components. This aspect will be considered further in relation to the quantication of thermal migration taking place. Quantication of thermally migrated dye following softening and related treatments It has been demonstrated that the wet fastness of the dyed PLA and PET fabrics is inuenced (often signicantly) by the softening and or other processing treatments applied. It was tacitly assumed that this is a factor of the amount of loose dye residing on the fabric surface resulting from thermal migration into the nish during the various processes. The nal part of our study aimed to test this hypothesis using a further set of treated fabrics. For this purpose, CI Disperse Red 167.1 was selected as being representative of the typical pattern of fastness performance: that is, softened PET fabrics being superior to softened PLA fabrics. We also examined Dianix Deep Red SF because, exceptionally in this case, the colour fastness performance of the softened PLA fabrics was found to be superior to that of the softened PET fabrics. A reduced set of softeners was also employed. Table 13 presents data relating to the amount of dye which had apparently been transported into the nish as a result of heat treatment of the softened and control PLA and PET fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 167.1 and Dianix Deep Red SF. With regard to the unsoftened but heat-treated controls, it can be seen that the PLA fabrics exhibited more thermal migration (expressed as a percentage) than did the PET fabrics, for both CI Disperse Red 167.1 and Dianix Deep Red SF dyes.

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Table 10 Inuence of the softener application process on the wash fastness properties of PLA and PET fabricsa Wettability time Dyed with Fabric PLA Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener 28.4 4.4 1.4 0.6 1.3 0.5 >200 s >200 s >200 s >200 s 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.4 2.5 1.5 >200 s >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s Wash fastness (C06 B2S) (stain on polyamide) Dye 1 3.7 2 12 2 12 2 2 23 4 23 34 23 3 23 34 Dye 2 4.1 3 23 23 2 23 23 3 4 3 34 23 3 3 4 Dye 3 4.1 4 34 4 34 34 4 45 45 4 45 4 45 45 45 Dye 4 5.1 45 34 45 3 34 4 45 5 45 45 34 45 45 45 Dye 5 6.9 45 45 45 45 45 45 5 45 4 45 4 45 4 45

4 2 3

PET

4 2 3

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET c Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET d Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air dry exhaust softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

Table 11 Inuence of the softener application process on the alkaline perspiration fastness properties of PLA and PET fabricsa Alkaline perspiration fastness (E04) (stain on polyamide) Dye 1 3.7 28.4 4.4 1.4 0.6 1.3 0.5 >200 s >200 s >200 s >200 s 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.4 2.5 1.5 >200 s >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s 34 3 34 23 3 3 34 45 34 4 34 34 34 4 Dye 2 4.1 34 34 34 34 34 34 45 45 34 45 34 45 45 45 Dye 3 4.1 34 3 34 3 34 34 4 45 4 45 4 45 45 45 Dye 4 5.1 4 23 34 23 3 34 4 45 23 23 23 34 34 45 Dye 5 6.9 45 34 34 23 34 34 45 45 2 23 23 34 23 45

Wettability time Dyed with Fabric PLA Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener

4 2 3

PET

4 2 3

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET c Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET d Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry exhaust softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

On the one hand, the softened PLA fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 167.1 clearly exhibited more thermal migration than the PET fabrics. Up to 0.5 point lower colour fastness was recorded for PLA than PET in this case. On the other hand, the softened PLA fabrics dyed with Dianix Deep Red SF exhibited less thermal migration than the PET fabrics, with up to 1 point better colour fastness being obtained. This reects the original

nding, in which Dianix Deep Red SF was seen to behave differently from the other dyes in the evaluation. These results therefore suggest a strong correlation between thermal migration and loss of colour fastness. It is, however, impossible to attempt a detailed interpretation of the atypical effect of Dianix Deep Red SF on the thermal migration characteristics, as the chemical structure of this dye has not been disclosed to us [25].
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Table 12 Inuence of the softener application process on the wet-rub fastness properties of PLA and PET fabricsa Wettability time Dyed with Fabric PLA Hydrophobicity of disperse dyes (log P) Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener Control 3b Padc softener 4 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 2 Exhaustd softener Padc softener 3 Exhaustd softener 28.4 4.4 1.4 0.6 1.3 0.5 >200 s >200 s >200 s >200 s 26.1 6.3 1.2 0.4 2.5 1.5 >200 s >200 s 85.8 12.5 >200 s Wet-rub fastness (X12) (cotton staining) Dye 1 3.7 45 4 45 34 45 45 5 45 45 45 4 5 45 5 Dye 2 4.1 45 4 4 3 4 4 45 45 45 45 34 45 4 45 Dye 3 4.1 5 4 45 4 5 5 5 5 45 5 45 5 5 5 Dye 4 5.1 4 34 4 3 34 34 45 45 23 34 3 34 34 4 Dye 5 6.9 4 4 45 23 34 4 45 45 2 23 2 3 3 45

4 2 3

PET

4 2 3

a An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value b Control 3: padded with water at pH 5.05.5 and dried at 110 C for 30 s and heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET c Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET d Dye reduction clear at 60 C (PLA) and 70 C (PET) rinse air-dry exhaust softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA and 180 C for PET

Table 13 Thermal migration levels of disperse dyes on PLA and PET fabricsa,b Heat treatmentor softener application Control 3c Padd softener Padd softener Control 3c Padd softener Padd softener Control 3c Padd softener Padd softener Control 3c Padd softener Padd softener Dye migrated to bre surface (g 10)5) 4.85 2.84 7.77 2.33 2.70 6.92 4.87 2.80 7.21 5.82 8.13 15.0 Dye migrated to bre surface (mol 10)7) 0.96 0.56 1.54 0.46 0.53 1.37 0.89 0.51 1.32 1.07 1.49 2.76 Dye migrated to bre surface (%) 1.41 0.83 2.26 0.50 0.58 1.49 1.09 0.63 1.61 0.98 1.37 2.53 Wash fastness (C06 B2S) 3 34 2 4 34 23 45 5 45 45 45 4 Alkaline perspiration (E04) 34 4 34 45 45 34 45 45 23 45 34 23 Wet-rub fastness (X12) 45 45 3 45 45 34 4 4 23 45 34 2

Dyed with Dye 2

Fibre (1 g) PLA

5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2

PET

Dye 5

PLA

PET

a To achieve a colour depth of K S 20; comparison with the colour fastness properties (all calculations of the amount of dye on the surface or in the bre are based on 1 g dyed fabric) b An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value c Control 3: dye reduction clear rinse air-dry pad water dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA, 180 C for PET d Dye reduction clear rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C for PLA, 180 C for PET

With regard to the comparison of softeners used, softener 5 clearly caused less thermal migration than softener 2 on both PLA and PET fabrics, irrespective of which dye had been used, which again mirrors what was observed in relation to the colour fastness results. Both of these softeners imparted a hydrophobic character to the PLA fabrics. (Softener 5 is based on pure aminofunctional polydimethylsiloxane microemulsion, whereas softener 2 is based on a reactive fatty acid amide.) Pad vs exhaust Table 14 shows the inuence of softener application method on the amount of dye thermally migrated into the
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nish of the PLA fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 167.1 (for which the typical colour-fastness behaviour had been observed). Exhaust application of softeners 2 and 3 resulted in only approximately half the amount of thermal migration seen when the pad method was used, and with a corresponding improvement in colour fastness of 0.51 point. Evidently, the emulsier or other components in the softener formulation do indeed contribute signicantly to thermal migration of dye into the nish. It has been reported [16,17] that the ethoxylated emulsier in the silicone softener could increase thermal migration of dye. Softener 3 contains ethoxylated fatty

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Table 14 Inuence of the softener application process on the thermal migration levels of CI Disperse Red 167.1 and colour fastness properties of PLA fabricsa,b Heat treatment or softener application Control 3c Padd softener 2 Exhauste softener 2 Padd softener 3 Exhauste softener 3 Dye migrated to bre surface (g 10)5) 4.85 7.77 4.41 5.92 3.02 Dye migrated to bre surface (mol 10)7) 0.96 1.54 0.87 1.17 0.60 Dye migrated to bre surface (%) 1.41 2.26 1.28 1.72 0.88 Wash fastness (C06 B2S) 3 2 23 23 3 Alkaline perspiration (E04) 34 34 34 34 45 Wet-rub fastness (X12) 45 3 4 4 45

a To achieve a colour depth of K S 20; comparison with the colour fastness properties (all calculations of the amount of dye on the surface or in the bre is based on 1 g dyed fabric) b An underlined gure indicates that the grading was probably within 0.25 points of that value c Control 3: dye reduction clear rinse air-dry pad water dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C d Dye reduction clear rinse air-dry pad softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C e Dye reduction clear rinse air-dry exhaust softener dry 30 s at 110 C heat-set 30 s at 130 C

alcohol (510%), which could be the explanation for observed reduction in colour fastness and increase in amount of thermally migrated dye (Details of emulsifying system employed in softener 5 were declared by the manufacturer.).

the the the not

presence on the fabric surface of emulsier and or other components, in addition to the active softening agent.

Acknowledgements
We are greatly indebted to NatureWorks LLC, DyStar, Ciba Speciality Chemicals, BASF plc, LJ Specialities Ltd and Rudolf Chemicals Ltd for providing the materials used in this study and for their valuable advice. We also would like to thank Colin Philpott for his substantial advice.

Conclusions
C06 B2S wash fastness values of softened PLA fabrics were 0.251.25 points lower than the corresponding values on PET fabrics for all dyes tested, except Dianix Deep Red SF. Alkaline perspiration fastness and wet-rub fastness of softened PLA fabrics were 0.252 points lower than the corresponding values on PET fabrics for all dyes tested, except for CI Disperse Brown 19 and Dianix Deep Red SF. Softened PLA fabrics dyed with CI Disperse Red 167.1 exhibited more thermal migration (and hence lower colour fastness) than the corresponding PET fabrics. In contrast, softened PLA fabrics dyed with Dianix Deep Red SF showed less thermal migration (hence better colour fastness) than the corresponding PET fabrics. No clear relationships were found among the hydrophobic nature of the disperse dye, the hydrophobic character of softener used and the wash and wet-rub fastness of softened PLA fabrics. However, the hydrophobic nature of the dye may have had a slight inuence on the alkaline perspiration fastness: the more hydrophobic the dye, the greater the reduction in alkaline perspiration fastness of both PLA and PET fabrics softened with either hydrophilic or hydrophobic softeners. The ionic nature of the softener applied appears not to have inuenced any of the fastness indicators studied for either fabric type. For softeners which could be applied by either exhaustion or padding processes, exhaust application of a given softener gives higher wet fastness (up to a 1.25point improvement in colour fastness) than pad application. The amount of thermally migrated dye on the surface following the exhaust method was less than that after the pad method had been used, for both softeners studied, implying better colour fastness. In the case of pad application, it is believed that thermal migration is further exacerbated by the increased

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