GCE suggested solution in New Way Chemistry Book 1

Part 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry (Book 1, p. 86 – p.88)

16
16. (a) For 8 O:
Type of particle Number Charge Location
proton 8 +1 nucleus
neutron 8 0 nucleus
electron 8 –1 electron shell
surrounding nucleus

74
(b) For 32 Ge:
No. of protons = 32, no. of neutrons = 42, no. of electrons = 32.
Electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2

17. (a) An ideal gas is one which obeys the ideal gas equation, pV = nRT. The
gas particles have negligible volume and intermolecular forces of attraction.

(b) No, the gas would not behave as an ideal gas. This is because butane
molecule with molecular mass of 58 which is not negligible in size and
intermolecular forces are significant because it liquefies partially.
(c) As the pressure is increased the molecules become closer together, so that
intermolecular van der Waals’ forces of attraction can overcome the kinetic
energy of the molecules, thereby causing the gas to liquefy.
(d) The main forces that occur between molecules of butane are van der
Waals’ forces of attraction due to induced dipole attraction.
(e) Using the ideal gas equation,
m
pV = nRT = M RT
r

m
→ Mr = PV RT

0.200 × 8.31 × (20 + 273)

= 1.02 × 105 × 96.0 × 10 − 6

0.200 × 8.31 × 293

= 1.02 × 105 × 96.0 × 10 − 6

= 49.7
(f) Propane is used instead of butane because propane is a smaller
molecule, thus it is more volatile (lower boiling point) and vaporizes more easily
than butane.
18. (a) Possible answers are as follows:
m/e Ion
162 ( 127 I 35 Cl) +
164            ICl +
 ( 127 I 37 Cl) + 
197 ( I Cl 2 )
127 35 +

 
199 ( 127 I 35 Cl 37Cl) +      ICl 2 +
 201 ( 127 I 37 Cl 2 ) + 
 232 ( I Cl 3 )
127 35 +

 234 ( I Cl 2 Cl) 
127 35 37 +
 236   ICl 3+
 ( 127 I 35 Cl 37Cl 2 ) + 
 238 ( 127 I 37 Cl 3 ) + 

(b) ICl3
Oxidation number of I = +3
Mr of ICl3 = 127 + 3(35.5) = 233.5
127
% by mass of I = 233.5 × 100 = 54.4%

(c) (i) ICl3 + 3I– → 2I2 + 3Cl–

(ii) 2 mol S2O32– ≡ 1 mol I2

2 mol I2 ≡ 1 mol ICl3
⇒ 4 mol S2O32– ≡ 1 mol ICl3
v ×1
4
1 = 1 (where v = volume of S2O32– in dm3)
233.5

v= 0.0171 dm3 = 17.1 cm3

2.047
19 Number of moles of BaSO4 = 233.4 = 0.008 77 mol

1
∴ Number of moles of Al2(SO4)3 = 3 (0.008 77) mol

1
Mass of Al2(SO4)3 = 3 (0.008 77) × 342.3

= 1.00 g

1.00
% = 5.00 × 100 = 20.0%
20. (a) isotope: atoms of the same element with same number of protons (same
atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons (different mass numbers).
relative atomic mass: the weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of its
natural isotopes on the carbon-12 scale.
(b) 27 is the atomic number of cobalt, which is the number of protons
contained in the nucleus of the atom.
60 is the mass number of cobalt, which is the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
(c) Radioactive decay is a first order reaction. The half-life is the time taken
for the radioactivity of a radioactive substance to drop to half of its initial value
and it is a constant.

As the half-life of 60Co is known, the time taken for the initial radioactivity to
drop to a level that requires replacement can be calculated.

21. (a) 2 peaks

m/e 35 37
35
Ion Cl+ 37
Cl+
Rel. abundance 3 (most intense) 1

(b) 3 peaks
m/e 70 72 74
Ion (35Cl2)+ (35Cl37Cl)+ (37Cl2)+
Rel. abundance 9 6 1

(most intense)

22. (a) Isotope of elements is atoms with the same number of protons but with
different numbers of neutrons.
79 81
(b) 35 Br, 35 Br
(c) Relative atomic mass = 79 × 0.505 + 81 × 0.495
= 79.99
= 80.0 (3 sig. fig.)
 (d) (i)

(ii) m/e 158 160 162

Ion (79Br2)+ (79Br81Br)+ (81Br2)+
∼ Rel. abundance 0.5 × 0.5 0.5 × 0.5 × 2 0.5 × 0.5
i.e. 1 2 1

23. (a) Relative atomic mass = (32 × 0.95) + (33 × 0.0076) + (34 ×
0.042) + (36 × 0.000 2)
= 32.09
36
(b) No. of neutrons in 16 S = 36 – 16 = 20

24. (a) 232 Th → 224 Ra + 2 4 He + 2 0 e

90 88 2 −1

2 α particles give 2 × 4 amu.

Total mass no. on RHS = 224 + 8 = 232.
2 β particles give –2 charge.
Total no. of protons on RHS = 88 + 4 – 2 = 90.

t t t
1
1 1
1 1
1
(b) n →
2
n →
2
n →
2
n
2 4 8
3 t1
2 = 10.92

t1
2 = 3.64 days
 224 220 4
(c) (i) 88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He

(ii) Rn is an inert gas (gp VIII) with an octet configuration.

Hence Rn is unreactive.
However, its nucleus has a very high neutron/proton ratio and
is therefore unstable. It will undergo radioactive decay to give smaller
nuclei.

220
(iii) 86 Rn is radioactive. It emits α particles and has a short half-life of
about 4 days.
Radiation from Rn makes it hazardous to our health.

25. (a) H2X + 2NaOH → Na2X + 2H2O

25
(b) (i) No. of moles of NaOH = 1 000 × 0.1 = 2.5 × 10–3 mol

1
(ii) No. of moles of H2X = 2 (2.5 × 10–3) = 1.25 × 10–3 mol

500
(iii) No. of moles of H2X in 500 cm3 = 1.25 × 10–3 × 25

= 2.5 × 10–2 mol

2.25
Mr = 2.5 × 10 − 2 = 90 g mol−1

(iv) conc. H2X = 2.5 × 10–3 × 2 mol dm−3

= 5.0 × 10–3 mol dm−3
6.3
90 + 18 y = 5 × 10
–3

y=2

Part 2 The Electronic Structure of Atoms and the Periodic Table (Book 1, p.136 –
p.138)

13. (a) Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron(s) from the atom
in the gaseous phase.
(b)
 It is because the increase in nuclear charge with atomic number across period,
there is a general increase in 1st ionization enthalpy across a period. Due to
additional electrons across a period, there is an increase in effective nuclear
charge, more energy is required to remove an electron form the atom.
For the Ne atom, since it is very stable due to the completely filled orbitals, it
has the highest 1st I.E.. For the Group I elements (Li, Na), the last s electron
enters a new electron shell which is further away from the nucleus. Therefore,
the 1st I.E. for Group I elements are relatively low. However, Group III element
(B) has [He]ns2np1 electronic configurations. It is easier to remove the
outermost p electron because it is shielded from attraction of the nucleus by
fully filled s orbitals. Therefore, there is a sudden decrease in I.E. for boron
atom comparing with Beryllium.
Similarly, oxygen atom have [He]2s22p4electronic configurations. There is one
electron more than the half-filled p orbitals. Thus, a relatively small amount of
energy is required to remove an electron from oxygen atom compared with
nitrogen atom.

(c) Sodium has to form gaseous atoms before ionisation to produce its
characteristic orange colour.
Neon, which is already in gaseous form, ionises first and therefore its red
color appears before the orange colour of sodium.

14. The answer is N2O. O N→N

m/e Ion responsible

 14 N+
16 O+
28 N2+
44 N2O+

15. (a) (i) The first ionization energy of an element is the energy expressed in KJ
mol-1
required for X(g) → X+(g) + e−
(ii) The first ionization energies decrease in magnitude on descending
Group II
because the outermost electron is further from the nucleus and are better
shielded by the inner electron shells. Therefore, it is less strongly attracted
by the nucleus and less energy is required to remove the electron.

(b) (i)

(ii) Mg 1s22s22p63s2
Al 1s22s22p63s23p1
The first ionization energy of Al is less than that of Mg because less
energy is required to remove a 3p electron in Al than a 3s electron in Mg
since the 3p electron is further away from the nucleus.
(iii) The first ionization energy of Tl is greater than that of Ba because Tl has a
higher nuclear charge and the outermost electron is poorly shielded by the
4f and 5d shbshells.
(c) To make Ba2+, energy = 1st I.E. + 2nd I.E.
= (502 + 966) kJ mol−1
 = 1468 kJ mol−1
To make B3+, energy = 799 + 2420 + 3660
= 6879 kJ mol−1
Barium compounds are ionic because of the lower energy required to make Ba2+.
However, it is energetically more favourable for boron to share electrons in
boron compounds.

16. (a) Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2

Ca2+: 1s22s22p63s23p6
(b) The atomic radius of Ca is significantly greater than the ionic radius of
Ca2+ because Ca has one more electron shell (an outer 4s orbital which is absent
in Ca2+). Besides, Ca2+ has two electrons less than Ca. and thus its outer electrons
are pulled in closer to the nucleus by the larger effective nuclear charge.

17. (a) Co: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Co2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7

(b) (i) As electrons are removed successively, effective nuclear

charge increases (no. of protons remains the same but no. of electrons decreases).
Hence successive I.E. increase.

(ii) Ga: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1

Ga, which is a gp III element, has a completely filled inner

3rd Quantum shell of electrons.
There is a sharp increase between the 3rd and 4th I.E. of
Ga as the 4th electron comes from the inner 3rd Quantum shell and therefore
requires a much higher amount of energy to remove.

Co, which is a transition element, has incompletely filled

3d orbitals. The difference in energies between the 4s and 3d electrons is small.
Hence there is no sharp increase in I.E. in the removal of the first 4 electrons.

18. (a) Mg has a higher 1st I.E. than Na.

∴ Mg has a greater effective nuclear charge than Na.
(1 more proton but similar shielding effects by inner core
electrons)
 (b) Mg: [Ne]3s2, Al [Ne]3s23p1
The irregularity (Al has a smaller 1st I.E. than Mg) is due
to the fact that the electron removed from Al is a 3p electron which is further
away from the nucleus and therefore it requires less energy to remove. The
electron removed from Mg is a 3s electron which is nearer the nucleus and more
strongly attracted.

(c) 2nd I.E. of Mg: [Ne]3s1 → [Ne]

2nd I.E. of Al: [Ne]3s2 → [Ne]3s1

Al+ ion is more stable than Mg+ ion because A1+ ion has a fulfilled 3s subshell
which gives more stability to the ion. Thus the 2nd I.E. of Mg is less than that of A1.

(d) 3rd I.E. of Al: [Ne]3s1 → [Ne]

4th I.E. of Al: [He]2s22p6 → [He]2s22p5

The 4th electron removed from Al belongs to the completely filled 2nd
Quantum shell. As the electron is closer to the nucleus, the very strong attraction
resulted in a very high 4th I.E. compared to 3rd I.E.
Part 3 Energetics (Book 1, p.176 – p.178)

1
12. (a) (i) C(s) + 2 O2 (g) → CO(g) = –110 kJ mol−1

C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) = –393 kJ mol−1

∆H
(ii) C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO
∆H =Σ (products) – Σ (reactants)
= [(2 × (–110)) – [(–393) + 0]
= +173 kJ mol−1

(iii) The reaction is endothermic.

High temperature is necessary for reasonable yield (e.g.
heat coke to red hot).

(b) Pass mixture into aq. KOH to remove CO2.

2OH– + CO2 → CO32– + H2O
 (c) (i) *Pb(s) + PbO2(s) → 2PbO = –157 kJ mol−1
** C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO = +173 kJ mol−1

∆H < 0 in * ⇒ +2 oxidation state of Pb is more stable than

+4
∆H > 0 in ** ⇒ +4 oxidation state of C is more stable
than +2

“Inert pair” of valence s electrons in Pb are strongly

attracted to nucleus and are not readily available for bonding because
of ineffective shielding by the more diffuse inner d and f orbitals. As a
result, only the 2 valence p electrons are readily available for bonding
⇒ +2 oxidation state.
(ii) CO2 is an acidic gas while CO is neutral.
Separation using absorption of CO2 in an alkali is
convenient. PbO2 and PbO are both amphoteric solids, and soluble in
acids and alkalis. Hence separation is not so straight-forward.

13
13. (a) C4H10(g) + 2 O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) = –3 000 kJ mol−1

(b) Let mass of H2O = m g

1.2
Heat from butane = 24 × 3 000 kJ = 150 kJ

∴ m × 4.2 × (100 – 20) = 0.8 × 150 × 1 000

m = 357 g

(c) Estimate the mass of container of butane

5
(d) (i) C4H10(g) + 2 O2(g) → 4C(s) + 5H2O(g) = –1 400

kJ mol−1

(ii) Complete combustion of C4H10 gives CO2 and evolves

more heat. Incomplete combustion gives only C which evolves less
heat. Further combustion of C to CO2 evolves more heat.
 (iii) Difference in ∆H = –3 000 – (–1 400) = –1 600 kJ is the
enthalpy change for
4C(s) + 4O2(g) → 4CO2(g)
1
i.e. ∆H (combustion of C) = 4 (–1 600) = –400 kJ mol−1

14. (a) Standard enthalpy change of combustion is the change in enthalpy for one
mole of substance burning completely in oxygen under standard conditions.

(b) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

(c) Q = mc∆θ
 1 
= 100 × 4.2 × (65 – 15) =  46 × ∆H c × 1 000  × 0.7
 
⇒ = –1 380 J mol−1

(d)

–1 380 + = (2 × –393.5) + (3 × –285.8)

= –264.4 kJ mol−1

Alternative method:
(C(s)) = (CO2(g)) = –393.5 kJ mol−1
(H2(g)) = (H2O(l)) = –285.8 kJ mol−1

(C2H5OH(l)) =Σ (prods.) – Σ (reactants)

–1380= [2(–393.5) + 3(–285.8)] – [ (C2H5OH)]
−1
(C2H5OH(l)) = –264.4 kJ mol

(e) Combustion of 1 mole ethanol involves breaking of 1 C—C, 5 C—H, 1 C

—O, 1 O—H and 3 O=O bonds and formation of 4 C=O and 6 O—H bonds.
 Heat absorbed in bond breaking is less than heat evolved in bond
formation ⇒ overall combustion of ethanol is exothermic.

15. (a) (i) Standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound is

the enthalpy change when one mole of compound is formed from the
reactants/constituent elements under standard conditions.

(ii) 2C(s) + 3H2(g) → C2H6(g)

(b)

+ (–1 560) = 2(–393) + 3(–286)

= –84 kJ mol−1

Alternative method:
(C2H6) = Σ (prods.) – Σ (reactants)
–1560= [(2(–393) + 3(–286)) – [ (C2H6)]
= –84 kJ mol−1

16. (a) The standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound is

the enthalpy change for making 1 mole of a compound from its constituent
elements in their standard states (at 25oC and 1 atm).
(b)
17. =∑ (product) – ∑ (reactants)
= 8(–394) + 9(–286) – (–250) – 0
= –5476 kJ mol−1

18. (a) The standard enthalpy change of formation, , of a

compound is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the compound is formed
from its elements under standard conditions (at 25oC, 1 atm).
(b) 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
∆H = ∑ (product) − ∑ (reactants)
−1
= 0 – 2(−286) kJ mol
= +572 kJ mol−1

19. (a) Standard enthalpy of formation is the enthalpy change of reaction when one mole
of a
substance is formed from its constituent elements in their standard states under
standard conditions.

(b) C6H10(l) + H2(g) → C6H12(l)

∆H =Σ (prods.) – Σ (reactants)
= –156 – (–36)
= –120 kJ mol−1

(c) C6H6(l) + 3H2(g) → C6H12(l)

Assuming C6H6 contains 3 C=C,
∆H (hydrogenation) = –120 × 3
 = –360 kJ mol−1
(d)

( ) has a lower enthalpy level than ( ). Therefore it is more

stable.

Stabilisation of ( ) is achieved as a result of delocalisation

of π electrons or resonance.

Part 4 Bonding and Structure (Book 1, p.292 – p.295)

29. (a) Bond energy—

It is the energy required to break 1 mole of bonds in gaseous
molecules to form gaseous atoms under standard conditions.
e.g.
∆H
CH4(g) → C(g) + 4H(g)
1
Bond energy (C—H) = 4 × ∆H.

(b) H and P have similar electronegativities, P—H bond is purely

covalent.
⇒ P—H covalent bond length = covalent radius of P + covalent
radius of H
1 1
= 2 (P—P) bond length + 2 (H—H) bond length.

Since bond energy depends on bond length (inversely),

 1 1
bond energy (P—H) = 2 BE (P—P) + 2 BE (H—H)

1
i.e. BE (P—H) = 2 (BE of P—P + BE of H—H)

Cl is more electronegative than H. H—Cl has covalent and ionic

character (It is stronger than a pure covalent bond because of the stronger
attraction between the 2 atomic nuclei).

1 1
⇒ H—Cl bond length < 2 (H—H) bond length + 2 (Cl—Cl) bond

length
1
∴ BE (H—Cl) > 2 [BE (H—H) + BE (Cl—Cl)]

(c) Large amount of energy is required to break triple bonds (N≡N) in

N2 molecules for reaction to occur.
⇒ High activation energy

30. (a) The main features of the electron pair repulsion model for accounting the shapes
of molecules are
(1) electron pairs in outermost shell of the central atom in a molecule will stay
as far apart as possible to minimize the electrostatic repulsion between
electron pairs in the valence shell.
(2) the electrostatic repulsion decreases in order:
lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bond pair > bond pair-bond pair
(b) F2O: 2 bp, 2 lp

V-shaped or bent

H3O+: 3 bp, 1 lp
 Shape: Triangular pyramid

ClF4–: 4 bp, 2 lp

Shape: Square planar

(c) Square based pyramid ⇒ 5 bp + 1 1p

⇒ Total 12 e around Sb
Sb has 5 e (gp V), 5 e from 5F
⇒n=2 ⇒ we have SbF52–
∴ O.N of Sb = +3

31. (a) F2(g) → 2F(g)

Bonded energy of F—F is the energy required to break 1 mole of F—F
bonds in gaseous F2 molecules to form free gaseous F atoms under standard
conditions.
SF4(g) + F2(g) → SF6(g) ∆H = –434 kJ mol−1

Energy required for bond breaking in reactants = 4 × BE (S—F) + BE (F

—F)
= 4 × BE (S—F) + 158

Energy evolved in bond formation in products = 6 × BE (S—F)

∴ ∆H = –434 = [4 × BE (S—F) + 158] – [6 × BE (S—F)]
BE (S—F) = + 296 kJ mol−1
Assumption: same BE (S—F) in SF4 and SF6

(b) (i) SF2

 V-shape

SF6

Octahedral

(ii) CsF SF6

Ionic covalent
– high mp – low mp (weak Van der Waal’s force
between molecules)
– conducts electricity when melted – non-conductor
– soluble in water – soluble in non-polar solvents
insoluble in non-polar solvents e.g. C6H6
insoluble in water

32. Ne and Ar — simple ‘molecular structure’ with atoms attracted together by very weak
instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces. Hence both Ne and Ar have very low
melting points.
Strength of intermolecular forces increases with no. of electrons.
Ar is a bigger atom and has more electron than Ne.
⇒ Ar has a higher melting point than Ne.

H2O — polar molecule. Strong H-bonding exists between H2O molecules.

Ice, simple molecular structure with each H2O molecule
H-bonded to 4 other H2O molecules to give an open network structure.
 ⇒ Ice or H2O(s) has a low melting point compared with ionic solids or giant covalent
compounds. However, because of strong H-bonding, its melting point is higher than
other simple molecular substances with similar molecular mass.
NaF — giant ionic structure, Na+ and F– held in lattice sites by very strong ionic bonds.
Large amount of energy is required to separate ions for melting to occur ⇒ very high
melting point.

Diamond — giant covalent structure with C atoms covalently bonded to each other.
Each C atom is strongly bonded to 4 other C atoms to give a giant network of C atoms.
Therefore, infinite no. of strong covalent bonds are to be broken in melting ⇒ very
high melting point.

33. (a) (i) A: CH4, non-polar molecule

Discrete molecules held together by weak instantaneous
dipole — induced dipoles ⇒ very low boiling point.

D: SiH4 similar to A
Weak intermolecular force (instantaneous dipole — induced
dipoles) ⇒ very low boiling point.
Since SiH4 has more electrons than CH4, the strength of
intermolecular forces is stronger. ∴ boiling point of it is higher than CH4.

B: NH3 — polar molecule with highly electronegative atom

N. Strong H-bonding between NH3 molecules ⇒ boiling point is higher
than A and D.

C: H2O — polar molecule has highly electronegative atom O.

H-bonding between H2O molecules is stronger than NH3 because O is
more electronegative than N.
Hence bp of H2O is higher than NH3.

(ii) b.p. of H2O > b.p. of HF > b.p. of

NH3
(forms more H (F more
bonds than HF) electronegative than
N)
 bp of GeH4 > bp of SiH4
GeH4 has more electrons.
∴ stronger Van der Waal’s forces.

(b) (i) C6H12O6 H2O

% by mass 80 20
Mr 180 18
Rel. no. of moles 80 20
180 18
Ratio 1 : 2.5

(ii) H-bonds

34. NaCl — giant ionic structure with very strong ionic bonds holding Na+ and Cl– ions in
lattice. A large amount of energy is required to separate ions to melt the solid ⇒ very
high melting point.

AlCl3, CCl4, SiCl4 — all non-polar covalent molecules with simple molecular lattices.
Discrete molecules are attracted by weak Van der Waal’s force (instantaneous dipole-
induced dipoles). Their melting points are generally much lower than that of ionic
solids like NaCl.
However AlCl3 forms dimer Al2Cl6 with a large electron cloud with many electrons ⇒
fairly strong van der Waal’s forces
∴ Its melting point is much higher than CCl4 and SiCl4

SiCl4 though having more electrons than CCl4, it tends to sublime partially and
therefore has a lower melting point than CCl4.

35. (a) (i) A: Enthalpy change of atomisation of sodium

B: First ionisation energy of sodium
 C: Enthalpy change of neutralisation

(ii) D: Enthalpy change of hydration of gaseous sodium ion and

electron affinity of H+(aq).

(b) (i) B: ∆H = +494 kJ mol−1

(ii) –58 – 494 – 107 + ∆HE = –850

∆HE = –191 kJ mol−1

36. (a) (i) CaCl2

Ionic bonds between Ca2+ and Cl– ions

(ii) CH4

Covalent bonds between C and H atoms.

(iii) Na(s)
Metallic bonding — valence electrons of Na atoms form a
delocalised electron cloud. Electrostatic attraction between negatively
charged electron cloud and layers of positively charged sodium ions forms
metallic bonding.

(b) (i)
 (ii) Face-centred cubic structure

(iii) C.N.(Na+) = 6
C.N.(Cl–) = 6

(c) Incorrect statement

Boiling of CCl4 requires separation of CCl4 molecules and hence breaking
intermolecular attractions between CCl4, i.e. instantaneous dipole — induced
dipole forces, which are weak. Hence ionic bonds are stronger than van der
Waal’s forces, but not covalent bonds.

(d)

Lone pair of electrons on N in NH3 is donated to H+ to form a dative bond.

(e) Alkali metals form giant metallic lattices with weak metallic bonding. All
have body-centred cubic crystal structures.
The other metals have stronger metallic bonding and they can have
different crystal structures.

37. PF3: 3 bp, 1 lp

Shape: trigonal pyramid

CS2: ‘2 bp’ 0 lp

Shape: linear

XeF4: 4 bp, 2 lp
 Shape: square planar

PBr4–: 4 bp, 1 lp

Shape: seesaw

38. (a) (i) Dative covalent bond

A covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between 2
atoms, one of which has a lone pair of electrons, which is donated.
e.g.

(ii) Ionic bond

An electrostatic attraction exists between oppositely charged
ions, which are formed by electron lost by a metal atom and electron
gained by a non-metal.
e.g.

Na → Na+ + e–
Cl + e– → Cl–

NaCl
 (b) (i) Phase change from solid state to vapour state without passing
through the liquid state.
(ii) AlCl3, a covalent substance hydrolyses in water:
AlCl3 + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + 3HCl
or
AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) → [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl–(aq)

The process (hydration of ions) is exothermic, releasing

energy to overcome H-bonds between H2O molecules ⇒ AlCl3 dissolves
readily in water.

I2 — non-polar molecule forms weak dipole-induced dipole

attractions with water. These weak forces are unable to replace the strong
H-bonds between H2O molecules ⇒ I2 is insoluble in H2O.

(iii)

Invert a filter funnel over an evaporating dish containing

mixture of NaCl and I2. Heat the mixture. I2 sublimates

anand condenses on cool filter funnel above. NaCl(s) remains in

dish.

(iv) At 200°C, aluminium chloride exists as a dimer Al2Cl6.

Covalent and dative covalent bonds

39 (a) (i)

Trigonal pyramidal
(ii)

1
BE (P—P) in P4(s) = 4 (1 272.4) kJ mol−1 = +318.1 kJ mol−1

1 3 –303
(iii) → PCl3(g)
4 P4(s) + 2 Cl2(g)

Energy absorbed in bond breaking in reactants

3
= +318.1 + 2 (242) = 681.1 kJ

681.1 – 3 × BE (P—Cl) = –303

BE (P—Cl) in PCl3 = 328.0 kJ mol−1

–93
(iv) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) → PCl5(g)
Assuming the 3 P—Cl bonds in PCl3 remain intact in PCl5,
BE (Cl—Cl) – 2 × BE (P—Cl) = –93
2 × BE (P—Cl) = 242 + 93
BE (P—Cl) in PCl5 = 167.5 kJ mol−1

(b) (i) The 2 axial P—Cl bonds are longer than the 3 equatorial P—
Cl bonds ⇒ axial P—Cl bonds have smaller bond energies than equatorial
P—Cl bonds.

1
(ii) Average bond energy = 5 [(3 × 328) + (2 × 167.5)]

= 2 63.8 kJ mol−1
 (iii) N, a period 2 element, does not have vacant low-lying d-
orbitals in its valence shell. Hence N cannot accommodate more than 8
electrons. To form NCl5, 10e has to occupy its valence shell ⇒ NCl5 does
not form but only NCl3.

P, period 3 element, has vacant 3d orbitals. Hence P forms

PCl5 as well as PCl3.

40. (a) K+(g) + Br–(g) → KBr(s)

Enthalpy change: Lattice energy of KBr

(b)

L.E + 90 + 424 + 112 + (–348) = –392

−1
L.E (KBr)= –670 kJ mol

(c) Acidic white fume of HBr followed by reddish brown fumes of Br2 vapour
will be observed.
Conc. H2SO4 displaces HBr and further oxidises it to Br2.

(d) Acidify solution with dil. HNO3, and then add aq. AgNO3.
If a cream colored ppt which is insoluble in aq. NH3 is formed ⇒ Br–
exists.