SPI.

Geography

1. Territorial authorities and special regimes

The Republic of Panama is a unitary State according to its Political Constitution, which is territorially organized into
provinces, districts, corregimientos and special regimes.1

As of February 27, 2018, the political-administrative division of the Republic of Panama comprises 10 provinces,2 81
districts (or municipalities), 5 indigenous comarcas (3 of them at the provincial level) and 674 corregimientos of which
two are comarcales.34

Provinces of the Republic of Panama, in 1904.

With the proclamation of the Republic of Panama in 1903, the country was organized into provinces, which in turn were
divided into municipalities according to the provisions of the Panamanian Constitution of 1904.5

Article 192 of the Political Constitution of 1946 introduced the denomination district, which is the name given to the
territory to which the action of the municipality extends. In this way, territory and government integrated the district.
However, in that constitution, the district was not part of the territorial organization of the country, since, as stipulated
in Article 5, the territory was divided into autonomous municipalities grouped into provinces. On the contrary, Article
232 of the current political constitution conceives the municipality as the autonomous political organization of the
community established in a district. That is, the district is determined by the community established in a territory subject
to the action of the municipality.

Regarding the corregimientos, they were introduced for the first time in the 1941 Political Constitution, Article 5 of
which empowered the provincial town councils to subdivide the districts into corregimientos. After having been
eliminated from the 1946 constitution, they became effective in article 5 of the 1972 constitution, which recognized
them as the political base of the State, with broad representation and political belligerence in the context of the
corregimiento itself, in the municipality, the provincial council and even in the Legislative Body. However, this
preponderance was eliminated when the provision was reformed in 1983, reserving its representation to the local and
provincial level.

Regarding the creation of special regimes, they were established for the first time in the legislative act of 1928, which
modified article 4 of the Panamanian constitution of 1904, declaring the possibility of creating comarcas with territories
segregated from the already existing provinces.

Provinces

Provinces and indigenous regions of Panama

The province is the largest political division into which the territory of the Panamanian State is divided, made up of the
legally established districts.1

For the creation of provinces, the following is required

 That the territory of the future province has a minimum population of 15% of the total population of the
country according to the last census.
 A territorial extension of at least 4,000 square kilometers.
 The physical delimitation of the provincial territory.
 A socioeconomic and financial report from the Ministry of Economy and Finance.
 The favorable decision of the citizens and authorities of the districts, through popular consultation in situ.
 A report of the technical study conducted by the National Commission on political-administrative boundaries.
 The territorial district from which the territory is taken must have a population and territorial extension at
least equal to that of the new province.
In each province there is a Governor, freely appointed and removed by the executive branch, who is the representative
of the executive branch in his constituency. Each governor has an alternate appointed by the Executive Branch.

Each province has a provincial council, made up of all the representatives of the townships of the respective province.

Districts

Map of Panama, divided into districts in 2015.

The district is the political-administrative division of the territory of the province subject to the jurisdiction of a
municipality, made up of townships, over which the municipal government exercises jurisdiction.1

The Political Constitution of Panama recognizes the municipality as the autonomous political organization of the
community established in a district. It is considered the fundamental entity of the political and administrative division of
the State, with its own democratic and autonomous government, and is responsible for providing public services and
building the public works determined by law.It is responsible for providing public services and building public works as
determined by law, ordering the development of its territory, promoting citizen participation, as well as the social and
cultural improvement of its inhabitants and fulfilling other functions assigned to it by the constitution and the law.

The creation of a district requires

 A resident population in the territory of 25,000 inhabitants, of which 1,500 must reside in the head of the
district.
 the physical delimitation of the district territory.
 A socioeconomic and financial report from the Ministry of Economy and Finance.
 A prior report from the municipal governments involved.
 The favorable decision of the citizens and authorities of the districts, through popular consultation in situ.
 A report of the technical study conducted by the National Commission on political-administrative boundaries.
 The territorial district from which the territory is taken must have a population and territorial extension at
least equal to that of the new district.

Regarding the authorities, in each district there is a mayor, head of the municipal administration, and a vice-mayor,
elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term.

In each district there is a corporation called a municipal council, made up of all the representatives of the
Corregimientos that have been elected within the district.

Corregimientos

The "corregimientos" are territorial districts that form part of a district that legally correspond to it.

For the creation of a corregimiento it is required:

 In urban areas, a resident population of not less than 3,000 inhabitants, of which at least 500 must be
domiciled in the capital city. In rural areas, a population of not less than 1,000 inhabitants, of which at least
250 must be domiciled in the capital city.
 the physical delimitation of the corregimiento territory.
 A proposal signed by at least 10% of the citizens of the future township, collected through on-site popular
consultation.
 A socioeconomic and financial report from the Ministry of Economy and Finance.
 A report of the technical study conducted by the National Commission on political-administrative boundaries.
 The territorial district from which the territory is taken must have a population and territorial extension at
least equal to that of the new corregimiento.

In the case of densely populated urban townships, the new proposal for the creation of the township must have a
minimum of 20,000 inhabitants and a territorial extension, more or less, equal to that of the township from which it is
segregated.
Also, townships with a smaller population base may be created for reasons of territorial extension, poverty levels and
difficult accessibility.

Each corregimiento is administered by a representative who is elected by direct popular vote for a period of five years.
The representatives of townships may be reelected indefinitely.

Special regimes

Indigenous regions

Currently, Law 65 of 2015, establishes that for the creation of special regimes, the requirements established in the
constitution and the law must be observed.

The first special regime to be created was the comarca of San Blas (today Guna Yala) by means of law 16 of December
19, 1953; it was followed by the Emberá-Wounaan (law 22 of November 8, 1983), Madugandí (law 24 of January 12,
1996), Ngäbe-Buglé (law 10 of March 7, 1997) and Wargandí (law 34 of July 25, 2000).

2. Origin of the Isthmus according to Smith Sonians Institute Panama

The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute points out that 15 million years ago Panama emerged as an archipelago; 8
million years ago, it extended to South America and four million years later, the isthmus had already emerged. There
were only three marine corridors between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
Research has led to the conclusion that the Panamanian isthmus separated the ocean from the sea only three million
years ago.

3. Limits of Panama

Panama is bordered on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by the Republic of
Colombia and on the west by the Republic of Costa Rica.

4. Regional location according to climate zone

Due to its geographic location, in the intertropical region close to the Earth's equator, and its configuration as a narrow
strip of land oriented from east to west and bathed on its coasts by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Panama has two
main climatic zones

It has two seasons, a rainy season, from April to December, and a dry season in the months of December, January,
February and March. However, the dry season is not very marked, especially on the Caribbean coast.

Pacific coast temperatures are somewhat lower than those of the Caribbean. Temperatures are noticeably cooler in the
higher parts of the sierras, and cooler in the western sierras. Despite the narrowness of the country, there is an
enormous rainfall dissymmetry between the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, where it rains less than half as much.

5. Extreme points where our territory ends

 6. Extreme points of the national territory

North: Tambor Island, located north of Isla Grande, Province of Colon.

South: Jicarita Island, located south of Jicarón Island, Veraguas Province.
East: Auxiliary Landmark #10, located in Alto Limón, Province of Darien.
West: Auxiliary Milestone #60, Located in San Bartolo, Province of Chiriqui.

7. The world location places us on the continent

The country is located in Central America between parallels 7° 11' and 9° 37' north latitude of the American continent.

Panama, officially the Republic of Panama, is a country located in southeastern Central America.

8. Mountain system backbone of the isthmus

The Cordillera Central is a mountain range located in Panama and is composed of two sections. The first, in the western
region of Panama, is the continuation of the Talamanca mountain range that enters from Costa Rican territory. It is a
mountainous arc that constitutes the dorsal of the geographical relief of Chiriqui and Bocatán, being the dividing line
between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. It extends from the border with Costa Rica, passing through the
provinces of Bocas del Toro, Chiriquí, the Ngäbe-Buglé region and part of the province of Veraguas. The second, less high
section, also called the Tabasará mountain range, comprises part of the Tabasará region, east of the Ngäbe-Buglé region,
the provinces of Veraguas and Coclé, culminating approximately at the eastern end of the Omar Torrijos National Park.

The mountain range is home to the highest elevations of the isthmus of Panama, such as the Barú volcano (3,475 m and
maximum height of the country), Fábrega hill (3.376 m), Itamut hill (3,279 m), Echandi hill (3,163 m), Picacho hill (2,874
m), Santiago hill (2,862) and Pando hill (2,468 m) among others.

On both sides of the mountain range there are numerous plains such as the Chiriquí plain. Also in this mountain range
are born many important rivers that flow into both slopes as the Chiriqui Viejo, the San Felix, the Tabasará, the San
Pablo, the Chico and the Grande on the Pacific slope, and the Teribe, the Changuinola and the Cricamola, on the slope of
the Caribbean Sea in Bocas del Toro.

In its western sector, it is home to the Panamanian portion of La Amistad International Park and Volcán Barú National
Park.

9. Microplates in Panama

The Isthmus of Panama is located on a tectonic microplate called the 'Microplate of Panama', which is surrounded by
four major tectonic plates: the Caribbean Plate to the north, the Nazca Plate to the south, the South American Plate to
the east and the Cocos Plate to the southwest. Most of its boundaries are convergent edges. It is made up, for the most
part, of the nations of Panama, Costa Rica and the western part of the Department of Chocó in Colombia.
 10. Province and Counties

Provinces

Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui, Veraguas, Los Santos, Herrera, Colon, Panama Oeste, Panama, Cocle, Darien.

Counties

Ngobe-Buglé
Embera-Wounaan
Guna Yala
Kuna of Madungandi
Kuna of Wargandi

11. Territories with special rules with the objective of maintaining culture
12. Territorial authority whose function is to provide legal guidance to the townships.
13. Consequence of the emergence of the isthmus

The Isthmus of Panama is a type of geographical feature which is located between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans as
well as in southeastern Central America. The consequence of the emergence of the isthmus in Panama is the
change of climate and in turn the exchange of flora and fauna between the territories.

The formation of the Andes Mountains began at the end of the Late Cretaceous epoch and was promoted by the
subduction of the Nazca plate. The consequence of the formation of the Andes Mountains are the changes in the
relief.

14. State organs and their authority

The Republic of Panama According to Article 2 of the Political Constitution of Panama "Public Power emanates from the
people. It is exercised by the State as established by this constitution through the organs: the Legislative Body (National
Assembly of Panama), the Executive Body (President of the Republic and Cabinet Council) and the Judicial Body
(Supreme Court of Justice).

The Government of Panama is defined in its Political Constitution as open, republican, democratic and representative. It
is indicated that the Public Power only helps the people and is exercised by the State through the Legislative, Executive
and Judicial Organs, which act in a limited and separate manner, but in harmonious collaboration.

Executive Body

The Executive Body is made up of:

The President of the Republic Laurentino Cortizo

Vice President of the Republic José Gabriel Carrizo

Also by the Cabinet Council, made up of the following ministries of state

Legislative Body

The National Assembly is the legislative body of the nation.

It is composed of 71 Deputies elected by popular vote every five years. The 71 Deputies represent their political parties
and constituents, forming a corporation called the National Assembly of Panama, which has legislative, judicial and
administrative functions. The National Assembly meets in Panama City (capital of the Republic) by right in sessions that
last 8 months in a year, divided into two ordinary legislatures of four months each. During the recess of the Assembly,
the Executive Branch may convene an extraordinary legislature for such time as it may determine, to deal with matters
also determined by the Executive Branch.
Judicial Body

The judicial body is the Supreme Court of Justice, as well as the lower courts and the Accusatory Criminal System. The
Public Prosecutor's Office is responsible for criminal investigations that must be shown in court hearings. The
magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice serve for 10 years, the President of the Republic appoints the magistrates
and the National Assembly elects them.

Spanish

1. Accent types

Spelling accent
This is the most common and well-known accent. The official spelling indicates it as a tilde or graphic accent.

The oblique dash (') indicates a phonetic feature. That is, it indicates that the syllable with a tilde should be pronounced
differently from the other syllables:
Examples: coffee, page, action, difficult.
Tilde is also called the horizontal dash on the -t and the undulation on the letter -ñ.

Spanish spelling accent rules

The spelling accent is undoubtedly the most commonly used. According to the position that the stressed syllable
occupies in the word, it is classified as follows:

1. Acute words are those with the accent on the last syllable:

Examples: underpants, action, will walk, baby, salmon, according to, dad, Peru, sofa, solution, will think.
Acute words are accented if they end in a vowel, -n or-s, but are not accented if they end in -ay, -ey, oy, or -uy as in
"Paraguay" or "buey".

2. Flat words are those that have a stress on the penultimate syllable:

Examples: agile, asp, bicep, biceps, corpse, dollar, ductile, tunnel, martyr.
Flat words have a tilde if they end in a consonant other than -n or -s. They are not marked if they end in two strong
vowels or in a diphthong, even if they are followed by -n or -s: mareo, correspondencia, malicia.

3. Sdrújulas are words with an accent on the antepenultimate syllable.

Examples. abacus, acerbic, baculum, broccoli, ebony, diabetic, democrat, pitcher, heuristic, computer, compass.
The accent marks are always added to the esdrújulas.

Oversyllabic words are those that have a stress on the syllables before the penultimate syllable:
Examples: nimbly, tell me, remind you.

Oversdrubular words are formed from an adjective plus the suffix -mente, or by adding two personal pronouns to a verb
form. They usually have a tilde unless the adjective from which they are formed does not have a tilde.

Other rules for the use of the tilde

Here are some general rules about the use of the tilde:

Words ending in a weak vowel such as -i or -u, followed by a diphthong and s, have a tilde on the weak vowel if the
accentuation force falls there: seris, tendríais.
Infinitives ending in -eir or -oir always have an accent (those ending in -uir do not): sonreír, desoír.
When a stress must be placed on a diphthong, the strong vowel (a,o,e) is stressed, if the diphthong is composed of two
weak vowels, the second vowel is stressed so as not to destroy the diphthong: huí.
Prosodic accent
Prosodic stress is the emphasis placed on the pronunciation of a syllable in a word. It is divided into :
Lexical stress, which helps to divide a sentence into words; in Spanish only one syllable in each word has a primary
lexical stress.
Sentence stress, which is the intonation that an utterance has when it is pronounced.
Examples of prosodic accent:

building.
dancing, singing, supporting, eclipsing.
clock.
Diacritical accent or diacritical tilde
This is a type of tilde whose function is to differentiate words that are spelled identically but define different concepts.
Usually used in monosyllables; in Spanish the most common pairs of these terms are: dé/de, si/sí, mas/más, se/sé, tu/tú,
mí/mi, el/él, si/sí, te/té.

Yes, that's mine / If you don't bring what you said, no deal.
Juan tripped and fell to the floor /I know I have to do intense research to write my thesis.
I've told you over and over again! / Would you rather have tea or coffee?
I tried to make it in a thousand ways, but it was impossible to finish it /I have to put more sugar in it!
Bring your coat to the front of the house / I have much more homework than you.
I came from the office straight to your house / Give an account of the facts please.
The glass is unoccupied / You have to tell him to listen.
I know I must return on time / All the conditions were met for the contract to be approved
I love to walk in the park / My mother is in the office.

2. Syllable division

The syllable is the group of sounds in a word that is pronounced in a single voice stroke. Syllables can be tonic or atonic.

The unstressed syllable of a word is the one we pronounce with the strongest voice: ár-bol, ca-sa, a-zul, cá-ma-ra.

The other syllables are unstressed.

These rules will help you to correctly divide a word into syllables:

How to separate consonants?

The letters gu, qu, ch, ll and rr do not separate: gu-sa-no, que-so, co-che, ca-lle, ca-rro

The letters cc can be separated: ac-ci-den-te, ac-cion.

In groups of three consonants:

- The last two belong to the same syllable when the third syllable is l or r: com-prar, tem-blar
- The first two belong to the same syllable in the other cases: cons-ti-pa-do, trans-for-mar

In groups of four consonants, two and two are separated: cons- truir

How to separate vowels?

Two open vowels (a, e, o) belong to different syllables and constitute a hiatus: ma- re-o, hé-ro-e.

An unstressed open vowel (a, e, o) and a stressed closed vowel (i, u) are pronounced in different syllables: ra-íz, pú-a

Two closed vowels (i, u) are pronounced in the same syllable and constitute a diphthong: Luis, rui-do

An open vowel (a, e, o) and a closed unstressed vowel (i, u), and vice versa, also form a single syllable and constitute a
diphthong: pie, hue-so

An open vowel (a, e, o) between two closed unstressed vowels (i, u) form the same syllable and constitute a triptone:
con-ti-nuéis, lim-piáis.

3. Classification of words according to accent

SHARP When they end in n, s and vowels.

GRAVES When they end in any consonant except n, s and vowels.
ESDRUJULAS They are always marked.
OVERCROSSWORD
They are always marked.
S

4. Diphthong, triptone and Hiatus

Diphthongs, triptons, hiatuses

Diphthong is the meeting of two vowels in the same syllable that are pronounced in a single
voice stroke.

Example: air, cause, oil, debt, beret.

Triptone is the meeting of three vowels that are pronounced in a single voice stroke.

Example: limpiáis, acariciéis, averiguáis, buey, miau.

Hiatus is when two vowels follow each other in a word but are pronounced in different syllables.

Example: lion, aerial, root, ugly, pedestal.

Accentuation rules for diphthongs, triphthongs and hiatuses:

Diphthongs and triphthongs generally follow thegeneral rules of accentuation and the accent
mark is placed on the vowel that sounds the strongest.

Examples: diocese, diaphanous, also, after, after, guest, nautical, shipwrecked, know, arrive,
clean, find out, take care of it, take care of me, pharmacist.

The silent "h" between vowels is considered non-existent with respect to the accentuation of
diphthongs.

Examples: evict, rehilar.

The final Greek "y" forms diphthongs and triphthongs but is never accented.

Examples: convoy, Eloy, Uruguay, Paraguay, viceroy, Valderaduey.

Hiatuses almost always follow thegeneral rulesof accentuation.

Examples: lion, aerial.

There is a special case of a tilde tobreak a diphthong that does not follow the general rules.

Examples: root, owl, trunk, Raul, uncle, river, Maria, would sing, refuse, hard, fall, iríais,
gather, act...

Diphthong: the combination of two vowels in a single syllable.

One of these vowels must beI orU,butwithout a tonic accent(i.e., the voice must not be
loaded on the vowel when pronouncing correctly the word that carries it).

There are fourteen combinations that form diphthongs:

ai pai-sa-je ai-res bai-lan-do

au pau-sa jau-la lau-rel
ei rein-ci-dir pei-nar rei-nar
eu reu-nion Eu-ro-pa seu-dó-ni-mo
oi he-roi-cos you are pa-ra-noi-co
ou Sou-za bou Cou-to
ia ma-gia to de-sa-fia-do
ie nie-ve vier-te always
io vio-le-ta vi-cio o-dio
iu triumph-far ciu-dad viu-da
ua cua-tas guar-da cuam-do
ue basin pue-blo re-sue-na
ui rui-do cui-dar a-mi-gui-tos
uo an-ti-guo a,-bi-guo cons-pi-cuo
Diphthongs are divided into rising, falling and homogeneous.

Increasing: those that begin with a closed vowel (i, u), because when pronounced, the opening
of the vowel increases from /i/ or /u/ to the following vowel, are:

ie ia io ua ue uo
Decreasing: those that end in a closed vowel and are:

ai ei oi au eu ou
Homogeneous: those beginning and ending with a closed vowel, are:

iu ui
IMPORTANT NOTE: If one of the vowels, I orU,is accented, there is no diphthong, it is
separated into distinct syllables and that letter or phoneme must have a tilde (that is, the tonic
accent must be marked with the tilde to become a written accent):

gui-a ha-i-a ca-pi-cú-a a-tes-ti-gu-ó

a-tri-bu-i-a river bo-hí-o som-brí-o
Triptone: is the combination, in a single syllable, of three vowels. The Real Academia de la
Lengua, in its "Ortografía", defines the triptone as "the set of three vowels that are pronounced
in the same syllable. Triptongs are formed by an open vowel (a, e, o) that occupies the
intermediate position between two closed vowels (i, u), neither of which can be tonic".

According to this definition, the following combinations can be used to form a triptone:

iau iai uai uau ieu iei

uei ueu iou ioi uoi uou
Some of them do not occur in any word, therefore, the most used in Spanish are:

iai a-viáis ex-piáis a-so-ciáis

iei a-viéis ex-piéis a-so-ciéis
uai a-mor-ti-guáis a-tes-ti-guáis a-ve-ri-guáis a-ve-ri-guáis
uei a-mor-ti-güéis a-tes-ti-güéis a-ve-ri-güéis a-ve-ri-güéis
ioi d-ioi-co
Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels that do not form a diphthong and therefore belong to two
different syllables.

ACCENTUATION OF DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS

If the tonic accent (the one that is "marked by carrying the voice") falls on a syllable that forms
adiphthongor atriplet,

the tilde (which "marks" the written accent) must be written on themost open vowel:

congratulations viaticum orphan

look at guest go to
you study santiguáis find out
associate diocese moving
If the diphthong is ui or iu, the accent mark is placed on the last vowel, except for flat words
such asfluido, reina, huida, etc.:
 take care ruin it I replaced
The accent is not placed on diphthongs of verbal monosyllables:

I went
gave was see
to
WHEN THERE ARE TWO VOWELS IN HIATUS

When the accent falls on a vowel that is in hiatus with another vowel, it is either accented or
not, according to the general rules:

peon poet theater poetic

If the stressed vowel in a hiatus is an i or a u, it will always have an accent:

vacuum to trunk coffin

root laugh streetcar drop
we were
corn Maria fry
coming
you
continue
capicua would garúa
d
win

5. The paragraph

History
1. Patriotic symbols
FLAG
The beautiful, beautiful and tricolor insignia that represents our nation, was created by Don Manuel E. Amador and
made by Doña María Ossa de Amador in 1903.
These are the meanings of the colors and stars:
Red: The liberal party
Blue: The Conservative Party
White: the long-awaited peace between the historical parties
Blue Star: Purity and Honesty
Red Star: Authority and Law
THE SHIELD
It was created by the artist Don Nicanor Villalaz in 1903.

The parts of the shield mean

Shovel and pickaxe: symbols of work

Wings: symbol of progress
Money: emblem of wealth
The rifle: farewell to civil wars, the cause of our ruin, forever.
Rivers and land: shows the Isthmus and the two oceans that bathe its coasts, the Atlantic and the Pacific.
The moon and the sun: thus the evening hour in which the secession of the Isthmus from the Republic of Colombia was
proclaimed on November 3, 1903.

THE NATIONAL ANTHEM

Its beautiful, vibrant, emotive lyrics are by the talented national carrier. Jerónimo Ossa and his consecrated musician and
teacher Don Santos Jorge when the hymn is sung before the flag pays homage to it and salutes it.

The hymn was written in 1903.

2. Christopher Columbus, arrival at the Isthmus of Panama

The isthmus of Panama was first visited by the Spanish conquistadors during the expedition of Rodrigo de Bastidas, the
scribe of Triana, in 1501. Bastidas sailed the Caribbean coast of the current province of Colon and the islands of the
archipelago of the Comarca de San Blas. Due to the poor condition of his ships, Bastidas suspended his expedition and
returned to Spain.

Christopher Columbus

On October 10, 1502, on his fourth voyage, Christopher Columbus reached the Atlantic coast of the isthmus, in the
current provinces of Bocas Del Toro and Veraguas. On November 2, he arrived at a beautiful bay in the present province
of Colon, which he named Portobelo or Puerto Bello.
Due to its geography, Panama occupies a strategic position. This was key for all the countries to which it belonged during
its history. Its slender silhouette measures only 80 kilometers in its narrowest areas, making this land the ideal figure to
join two oceans. This factor was of great interest to Spain, which from the beginning of the 16th century turned the
country into a crossroads between the seas and an important commercial center within its empire.

Spanish Empire

Spain transported its wealth by ship to the port of Portóbelo in the province of Colón. From there, mules and cayucos
carried the merchandise across the isthmus to Panama City for distribution to their colonies in the Americas.

This concentration of wealth attracted English pirates and corsairs such as Francis Drake, who ravaged Portóbelo in
1596, and Henry Morgan, who burned and plundered the first Panama City in 1671. It was moved to the current Old
Town of the capital, becoming a focus of development for the future republic.
Motivated by the airs of freedom in its neighboring countries, Panama gained its independence from Spain in November
1821. The matter was not surprising since their communication with Spain had deteriorated. However, the
independence process was so peaceful that Simon Bolivar himself commemorated it.

Airs of freedom

After independence from Spain, Panama voluntarily joined Gran Colombia, Bolivar's dream. The new nation consisted of
Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador.
In the beginning, this historic union greatly benefited the country, giving way to a new vision of Latin American leaders
who promoted a great regional development. This era marked a milestone in the world when the United States was
granted authorization to build the first transisthmian railroad.
But the Panamanian desire to become a free and sovereign republic and the support of the United States led Panama to
full independence from Colombia on November 3, 1903.

Panama Canal - the eighth wonder of the world

In 1904, the Americans began construction of the Panama Canal, a work considered the eighth wonder of the world. The
French began this gigantic project, but weather, tropical diseases and misappropriation of funds prevented them from
completing the work. The Americans decided to continue with the construction of the Canal and the development of the
Panama Canal Zone. This period changed Panama forever, transforming it once again into a bridge to the world and the
cradle of an economically rich society.

3. Invasion of Panama by the U.S.

The 1989 U.S. Invasion of Panama, internally codenamed Operation Just Cause, was a U.S. Army military
action carried out between December 20, 1989 and January 31, 1990.3 It was carried out during the
administration of U.S. President George H. W. Bush, in the provinces of Panama and Colon. On December 15,
1989, Panama, under the dictatorship of General Manuel Antonio Noriega, declared a state of war against the
United States.
The purpose of the U.S. action was to dismantle the Panamanian Defense Forces and capture Noriega,
military dictator since 1984, who was also a former collaborator of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and
was wanted by the U.S. justice system for extortion and drug trafficking.
As a result of the attack, a large part of the popular neighborhood of El Chorrillo was destroyed and other
important sectors of Panama City and Colon City were affected. In addition, an undetermined number of
civilian and military deaths occurred.4
In the midst of these events, Guillermo Endara, Ricardo Arias Calderón and Guillermo Ford were sworn in as
President and Vice-Presidents of the Republic at the Clayton military base, the virtual winners of the May 1989
elections.

Then U.S. President George Bush (Sr.) justified the invasion on four grounds:

 The protection of the lives of U.S. citizens residing in Panama.

 Restoration of the democratic system.
 Ensuring the proper functioning of the channel.
 The materialization of the capture of General Noriega to be taken to the U.S. justice system.
However, there were other reasons in the secret document, which differed from those stated by Bush:

 Abrogate the Canal Treaties.

 Ensure control of the Canal beyond 2000.
 Cancel contacts with Japan for alternatives to the Canal and cut off its rise to world power.
Although the US handed over control of the Canal to the Panamanian nation in 1999, as established in the Treaty signed
for that purpose by US President Jimmy Carter and dictator Torrijos in 1977, it achieved its objective of taking Japan out
of the game in the possible expansion works of this inter-oceanic waterway.
 4. The National Constitution in force
The constitution is the set of fundamental or supreme norms that organize the Panamanian State and from which all
other legal norms of the nation are derived and govern. It is also known as CARTA MAGNA.
The political constitutions that the Republic of Panama has had are as follows
Constitution of 1904
Constitution of 1941
Constitution of 1946
The 1972 Constitution (in force) has been reformed by the 1978 Reform Acts, the 1983 Constitutional Act and the 1993,
1994 and 2004 Legislative Acts.

5. Politically organized society with power to govern and rule its members.
The state is the politically organized society with the power to govern and direct each of the inhabitants of the
Panamanian territory. It performs a legislative (creating laws), executive (enforcing laws) and judicial (judging non-
compliance with laws) function. The state is political.

6. First to establish education in Panama

In 1872, the first Boys' Normal School of Panama was created and operated for 15 years, with Manuel José Hurtado as
its main promoter.
7. First city on the mainland founded by the Spaniards in 1519

Panama City was founded on August 15, 1519 by Pedro Arias Dávila, known as Pedrarias, being the first Spanish city on
the coasts of the South Sea or Pacific Ocean and the oldest mainland city that exists to this day as a city. Its foundation
replaced the previous cities of Santa María la Antigua del Darién and Acla, becoming the capital of Castilla del Oro.

8. Treaty initiating the North American interversions

One of the high points of the struggle for the rescue of national sovereignty is January 9. This historic feat of the
Panamanian people was not a spontaneous manifestation of rebellion against the greedy northern United States, but
the result of a process of struggle against the alienation of our geographic resource that began with the Hay-Buneau
Varilla Treaty of 1903. This treaty grants the United States in perpetuity the use, occupation and control of the lands and
waters necessary and convenient for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation and protection of the Panama
Canal; simultaneously allowing it to establish fortifications.

Under this concession, the United States exercised police and judicial jurisdiction within our country, while establishing a
colonialist enclave in the Canal strip through the establishment of a regime of segregation in employment, housing,
wages and education for the non-U.S. population. The differences were extremely marked: housing areas exclusively for
the Afro-Antillean population, better jobs and therefore better salaries for the U.S. population, schools and
commissaries exclusively for Americans, etc.

9. The struggle for sovereignty and the reversion of the canal

Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Treaty signed in Washington, United States, on September 7, 1977 between the head of the
Panamanian government, Omar Torrijos, and Jimmy Carter, President of the United States of America. The treaty
established the handover of the administration of the Panama Canal and the closure of all U.S. military bases in
Panamanian territory.

The treaties committed both countries to agree in a friendly and cooperative manner to provide for the proper
administration, operation and maintenance of the Panama Canal, consisting of the Torrijos-Carter Treaty, which consists
of a preamble, 14 articles, an annex and an act; and the Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Functioning of
the Panama Canal, which guarantees free transit and neutrality in perpetuity.and the Treaty Concerning the Permanent
Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal, which guarantees the free transit and neutrality of the Canal in
perpetuity.

10. January 9, 1964

January 9, 1964
Martyrs' Day was a movement that took place in Panama on Thursday, January 9, 1964, and whose objective was to
reclaim the presence and raise the Panamanian flag in the territory known as the Canal Zone, a strip of land around the
Panama Canal, which was ceded to the United States in perpetuity by the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty.
Causes:
Its cause goes back to 1903; but the immediate cause was the non-compliance with the agreement on the flying of the
Panamanian flags according to the Chiari-Kennedy agreement, which was not fully complied with. By means of the Hay-
Buneau Varilla Treaty in November 1903, Article II expressed that it granted in perpetuity to the United States the Canal
Zone, a strip of 5 miles long on each side of the Panama Canal. This generated a degree of dissatisfaction among the
Panamanian population due to the existence of a territory occupied by the Americans and dividing the country physically
into two parts.
Events:
On January 3, Zonian policeman Carlton Bell raised the U.S. flag without accompanying the Panamanian flag in front of
the War Heroes monument in Gamboa, considered a civilian site; on January 7, U.S. students at Balboa High School
raised the U.S. flag in front of the campus without accompanying the Panamanian flag. News of the actions at Balboa
High School reached the students of the National Institute, the most prestigious high school in Panama at the time. Led
by 17-year-old Guillermo Guevara Paz, between 150 and 200 high school students marched in the direction of Balboa
High School, carrying their school's Panamanian flag and banners proclaiming Panama's sovereignty over the Canal Zone.
Before starting their march, they informed the director of the Institute and the authorities of the Zone. His intention was
to raise the Panamanian flag on the flagpole at Balboa High School, where the Americans had raised theirs. At Balboa
High School, the Panamanian students were greeted by Zone police and a crowd of students and adults. After
negotiations between the Panamanian students and the police, a small group was allowed to approach the flagpole,
while the police kept the crowd away. Half a dozen Panamanian students, carrying their flag, approached the flagpole.
But residents of the Zone surrounded the flagpole, sang the U.S. anthem and rejected the deal between the police and
the Panamanian students, which started a riot. In the course of the discussion the Panamanian flag was torn to pieces. It
was a flag with historical significance, since the students of the National Institute had carried it in 1947, during
demonstrations against the Philo-Hines treaty and in demand of the withdrawal of the U.S. bases. As news of the flag-
breaking spread through the population, angry crowds of people began to approach the border between Panama City
and the Canal Zone. On several occasions, protesters entered the Zone, planting Panamanian flags, and were repelled
with tear gas fired by Zone police. The angry crowd started throwing stones, which caused minor injuries to several of
the police officers. The police responded by firing into the crowd. The violence continued for several hours in Panama
City: American-owned businesses were set on fire, and the recently inaugurated Pan American Airlines building (which,
although it housed a U.S. corporation, was owned by Panamanians) was completely destroyed. The next morning the
lifeless bodies of 6 Panamanians, probably trapped in the building while looting, were found in the rubble.
Characters:
Ascanio Arosemena, a 20-year-old student, was wounded at an angle in the back, through the shoulder and thorax. He
was the first of the Martyrs, as the dead of those days were called.
A 6-month-old baby, Maritza Avila Alabarca, died with respiratory problems while her neighborhood was bombarded
with tear gas.
A definitive count of all the deaths of those days has not been published and may never be. Although some Panamanian
sources give different names and numbers, the list of Panamanian martyrs can be found at the martyrs' monument in
Colon (where the remains of the Colon martyrs are located). The 22 listed here include:Ascanio Arosemena Chávez,
Gonzalo Antonio Crance Robles, Teófilo Belisario De La Torre Espinosa, Jacinto Palacios Cobos, Alberto Oriel Tejada,
Ezequiel Meneses González, Luis Vicente Bonilla Cacó, José Enrique Gil, Alberto Nichols Constance, Víctor Manuel
Iglesias, Rodolfo Sánchez Benítez, Víctor Manuel Garibaldo Figueroa, Gustavo Rogelio Lara, José Del Cid Cobos, Ricardo
Murgas Villamonte, Rosa Elena Landecho, Ovidio Lizandro Saldaña Armuelles, Etanislao Orobio Williams, Maritza Avila
Alabarca, Carlos Renato Lara, Evilio Lara, and Celestino Villareta.

Consequences:
The president of Panama at that time, Roberto Chiari, broke diplomatic relations with the United States, an
unprecedented event, since no nation in which the United States was present had dared to do so. This incident is seen as
the catalyst for the eventual abolition of the concept of 'in perpetuity' control over the Canal Zone by the United States.
With the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties in 1977, the Canal Zone was dissolved -a process that culminated in 1979-
and dates were set for the closing of the U.S. military bases and the transfer of properties. At noon on December 31,
1999, the United States government transferred control of the Panama Canal to the Panamanian government.
Highlights of January 9, 1964
This event was the trigger for the abolition of the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty and the entry into force of the Torrijos-Carter
Treaties.

11. Panama's Independence from Spain in 1821

This historical event was the emancipation process developed between November 10 and November 28, 1821, by which
Panama broke the colonial ties that existed between its territory and the Spanish Empire, thus ending 320 years of
colonial life.

The Panamanian movement for independence from the Spanish Crown began on November 10, 1821 with the
Independence of the Villa de Los Santos led by Segundo Villareal, which was supported by other cities in the province
such as Natá, Penonomé, Ocú and Parita.

The Independence of Panama was finally proclaimed on November 28, 1821 and immediately after, our country
voluntarily decided to join the Great Colombia of Simon Bolivar, (along with Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia), inspired
by the ideas of freedom of this liberator.

On December 1 of that same year, in the city of Santiago, the Independence of the Province of Veraguas from Spanish
power was proclaimed, which joined the independence movement of Panama and therefore, adhered to Gran Colombia.

12. Separation of Panama from Colombia (Reason)

There were several causes that led to the separation of Panama from Colombia on November 3, 1903. On the one hand,
the neglect in which Colombia kept the Isthmus throughout the 19th century caused frustration among our compatriots.
In reality, the Colombian government only perceived the Isthmus as the site of the future Canal that would one day be
built. In this sense, our territory was the greatest potential wealth that the Republic possessed, but it remained
materially neglected since 1821, without the promotion of education and health, the construction of roads and access
roads and public works, such as the aqueduct or sewage system and the paving of the streets of the main cities.
Undoubtedly, the centralist system implemented by the Regenerator Rafael Núñez, since 1886, aggravated the situation
even more.

The Isthmians, mostly of liberal and federalist convictions, saw their Federal State (1855-1885) transformed overnight
into another Department of the Republic of Colombia, their political rights curtailed, and with a Governor elected in
Bogotá at the head of their destinies. This, without taking into account the permanent civil wars that devastated the
Isthmian territory, as well as the reestablishment of customs and the increase in the tax burden, at a time when there
was strong speculation of the ruin of the French.

For three years the liberal and conservative armies depleted the already depressed wealth of the Isthmus. Not only
because the necessary arms to work the land were recruited to join the army, but also because the Isthmus was
transformed into a battlefield. Crops were destroyed, while cattle served as food for the neglected troops. The war came
to an end in 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Wisconsin, with the canal problem as a background because by then,
the United States could no longer postpone the construction of a canal.

Other factors also contributed to Panama's decision to renounce Colombian tutelage in 1903. At that time, Bogota and
Panama maintained structural differences that were impossible to disguise. The capital of the Republic was a city nestled
in a valley in the Andes that geography limited on all four sides. As such, it was closed to foreign influence and, to a
certain extent, remained attached to colonial patterns. Panama, on the other hand, was an isthmus stretched out over
the sea, open to foreign influences and focused on maritime trade. In addition to these differences, which created a
wide world of misunderstanding, there was the fact of difficult and erratic communications between the two points. The
Isthmus of Panama had no land communications with the Republic. The Darien jungle was an insurmountable barrier.

Already in the 50's of the 19th century, Justo Arosemena had wisely warned that "geography tells us that another
country begins there". Thus, these two cities lived back to back. Many of the laws passed by the Bogota Congress were
resisted in Panama because they were detrimental to the interests of the commercial bourgeoisie. For its part, the
central government perceived Panamanians as levantists and separatists. There was no trust and perhaps no great
affection between the two. But what is certain is that in Bogota, Panama's claims and requests were not understood or
heeded. The signing of the Herran-Hay Treaty in early 1903 was the opportunity that Panamanians had been waiting for
for a long time. Finally, Colombia and the United States signed a treaty for the construction of a Panama Canal.

13. Herrán Hay Treaty

Approved on January 22, 1903, the Herran-Hay treaty takes its name from Colombian doctor Tomas Herran and
American Secretary of State John Hay, who signed the treaty. This draft treaty with Colombia granted the United States
exclusive rights to build and operate the canal for 100 years, in exchange for US$10 million and an annual rent of
US$250,000 in canal tolls for Colombia. The pact was ratified by the U.S. Senate in March 1903, but the Colombian
Senate first requested greater economic compensation and then, in June, rejected the treaty. This rejection led
Roosevelt to negotiate directly with the rebellious Panamanians.

14. Panama the transitional zone of the Isthmus of Panama

The privileged geographical position of the Isthmus of Panama has been a primordial factor in the determination of our
historical function, which is 'transitism'.

In the mid-nineteenth century, during the 'gold rush' in the western U.S., the world's first interoceanic railroad was built
across the isthmus.

The French tried to link the oceans by this route without success. By 1889, malaria transmitted by the Anopheles
mosquito and the mismanagement of resources took their toll on the project and also on the reputation of the engineer
Ferdinand De Lesseps.

However, after a long political process and a bloody civil war, Panama achieved its separation from Colombia on
November 3, 1903, and a year later, the U.S.A. began the construction of the inter-oceanic route, discarding the route
through Nicaragua and bringing to the isthmus thousands of workers from the Antilles and all over the world. A year
later, the United States began the construction of the inter-oceanic route, discarding the route through Nicaragua and
bringing to the isthmus thousands of workers from the Antilles and all over the world, whose labor force, added to the
efforts of the Panamanian workers, culminated in August 1914, the construction of the Panama Canal.In August 1914,
the Panama Canal was completed, thus promoting, together with the transisthmian railroad, the use of our privileged
location in the world.
This immense achievement of human ingenuity, brought its own contradictions and injustices, reflected in the existence
of a 'colonial enclave' in the heart of Panamanian territory, which was called 'Canal Zone', which prevented the full
exercise of national sovereignty and the use by the Nation that opened its entrails for such a monumental work, of the
main natural resource of the isthmus: its geographical position.

Years of struggle, awareness and dignity expressed in various ways by different generations of Panamanians, vindicated
the justice of the cause of sovereignty. The heroic deed of January 9, 1964 was a milestone in the national history. This
'generational mountaineering' reached its peak when, on September 7, 1977, the Torrijos-Carter Treaty was signed,
establishing the terms for the disappearance of the colonial enclave and the reversion to Panama of the Canal, the
railroad, the ports, the lands and the airspace, all of which had been taken away from the U.S. until then.

A new relationship between States is thus structured as a result of an intelligent negotiation, embodied in a civilized
agreement and a transformation of the old economy in Panama, in which the transit activity was developed at the
margin of the national reality, since it operated within an 'enclave' that was part of a system administered according to
exclusive US interests.In this way, a new relationship between States was structured as a result of an intelligent
negotiation, which resulted in a civilized agreement and a transformation of the old economy in Panama, in which the
transit activity was developed at the margin of the national reality, since it operated within an 'enclave' that was part of
a system administered according to the exclusive interests of the United States and its Department of Defense.It
operated within an 'enclave' that was part of a system administered according to the exclusive interests of the U.S. and
its Department of Defense. This gradually gave way, starting in 1979, to what some of us call the new Panamanian
economy, in which transit and the instruments that strengthen our geographic position as the main natural resource are
now part of the domestic economy and diversify in content and routes.

In October 2006, under the presidency of the Republic of Martin Torrijos, Panamanians took another great step in the
right historical direction and through a national referendum, the expansion of the Canal through a third set of locks was
approved, whose works began in 2007, to be inaugurated the transit of neopanamax ships this June 26, 2016, producing
a positive impact, both in finances and in the economy of the country.In October 2006, under the presidency of the
Republic of Panama, Martin Torrijos, Panamanians took another great step in the right direction in history and through a
national referendum, approved the expansion of the Canal through a third set of locks, whose works began in 2007, to
be inaugurated for the transit of neopanamax ships on June 26, 2016, producing a positive impact on both national
finances and the global maritime transport economy.

This is Panama's historical function: The 'transitism', from which it would be illogical to divorce ourselves, which we must
take advantage of at this propitious juncture, in the best national interest, to strengthen the platform of global services,
increasingly complex, but that find in the isthmus the competition of creativity, adaptability, innovation and adjustment
of those who live here.

Finally, let us not lose sight of the fact that we have a channel of hope that is opening up to move towards an economy
articulated with global complexity, which requires an education for a different society than the one we had until 1999. A
society that must evolve and decipher its strengths, options and threats, in a transition process that requires us to be
prepared to transform reality and improve the quality of life and living conditions of society as a whole, with
development poles that are geographically articulated in the territory, for the creation of opportunities and well-being.

15. Gold mines

The first mining works in Panama were carried out by the pre-Columbian indigenous population. At that time,
Panamanian mines, gold and goldsmithing were of great importance. Due to the news of the abundance of gold on our
soil, Admiral Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage to America in 1502, deviated from his western course
through the Caribbean Sea, which would have led him to set foot on Mexican soil 17 years before Hernán Cortés, and,
after touching dry land at Cape Gracias de Dios in Honduras, he headed east in search of "Veragua", a region where -
according to an ancient Indian- he would have found the "Veragua".After touching land at Cape Gracias a Dios in
Honduras, he headed east in search of "Veragua", the region where, according to an indigenous elder, there was an
abundance of gold.

Once in the Veragua region, Columbus and his brother Bartholomew, at the head of 140 Spaniards, visited mines,
exchanged gold objects and violently stole jewelry in the indigenous communities of northern Veraguas and the western
part of what is now the province of Colon, where there was indeed an abundance of this precious metal.

According to the British-Panamanian archaeologist, Richard Cooke, "the discovery of several pieces (of gold) of Isthmian
manufacture in the Sacred Cenote of Chichén-Itzá (a Mayan city founded in the north of Yucatán in the IX century A.D.),
is clear archaeological proof of the extent of the network of Panamanian gold" (in pre-Columbian times).C.), is a clear
archaeological evidence of the extent of the network of diffusion of Panamanian gold" (in pre-Columbian times).

Julio E. Mérida, in his work: Contribución a la historia de la exploración y explotación minera en Panamá, tells us that
during colonial times alluvial and vein mines were exploited, being the XVI and XVII centuries those of maximum activity.
The mines of Santa Cruz de Cana, the Tucutí laundries and the Sábalo, Bagre, Troncoso, Tacayegua and Espíritu Santo
(the most important), which began before 1680 and was abandoned in 1724 for 150 years due to pirate attacks and,
finally, due to an indigenous uprising led by the mestizo Luis García. before 1680 and was abandoned in 1724 for 150
years due to pirate attacks and, finally, due to an indigenous uprising led by the mestizo Luis García.

In Veraguas, during colonial times, the mines of Santiago de Turlurú, Belén River, Candelaria River, Concepción and
Morgaja rivers, Santa Fe (Central mountain range), La Filipina, in San Juan de Mariato, near the Tabarabá river (south of
Veraguas) where the city of Nuestra Señora de la Regla was founded. There were also mines in Los Santos (Azuero
peninsula).
In Coclé there were in Natá and in the rivers Caimito, San Juan (where the now disappeared city of Nueva Lisboa was
founded), Coclé del Norte and Toabré.

At the beginning of the 17th century, after the inauguration of the Real de Minas de La Palma, on the banks of the
Palmilla River (Caribbean coast), mining activity stagnated. It was not until the 19th century that mining revived with the
mining center of San Francisco de la Montaña, the mines of Remance, Cancuas, Lajillas, Playas del Río Toro, Zapatero,
Veraguas-Viejo, Guasaro, Candelaria, Alto de la Mina and San Juan in the Central Mountain Range of Veraguas.

In 1885 California companies mined gold-bearing quartz seams in the vicinity of the Gulf of Parita. In 1887 the Espiritu
Santo mine was reopened and small activities in the Tuquesa River (Darien), Mina del Gallo (Herrera province), El Llano
(Panama province), in the Chiriqui Viejo river basin (Chiriqui province) and in Changuinola (Bocas del Toro province).

In 1895 the Caribbean Manganese Co. built a narrow gauge railroad from Playa de las Damas to the Soledad y Sainos
mine, south of Viento Frio, but the political upheaval of the Thousand Days War affected the work between 1902 and
1903. They were resumed in 1916.

From 1920 to 1932 applications were processed and 157 titles were issued to explore for gold, manganese, silver and
platinum. In 1934 and 1936 the Margaja, Cocuyo and Remance mines were reopened. During the same period, the
Espiritu Santo mine contributed 13,895 ounces of gold.

In 1931, the politician Jeptha B. Duncan denounced a gold and lead mine near La Pintada de Penonomé (Coclé province).
That same year the three times president of the Republic, Dr. Belisario Porras, denounced and acquired a platinum and
gold mine near Penonomé.

In the early 1940s mining stagnated due to World War II. However, some representatives of the Panama Corporation,
Ltd., jointly exploited the gold-bearing regions of the Pito River, Permé (Kuna Yala region) and Terable River (province of
Panama) with North American companies in the Canal Zone.

In 1957, the Cerro Colorado copper deposit was discovered in the eastern part of the western province of Chiriqui, one
of the largest in the world. Cerro Colorado also has traces of molybdenum and small amounts of gold and silver, as well
as large amounts of sulfur, mostly in crystalline combination with iron, a form of pyrite.

In 1969, geologists from ASARCO Mining located the Chorcha-Guaribiara copper and gold deposit in the district of San
Lorenzo (province of Chiriqui), northwest of Cerro Colorado and very close to the border with the province of Bocas del
Toro.

In February 1972, Panama exported iron for the first time: 20,400 tons of magnetite, obtained from the beaches of
Gorgona, on the Pacific coast (province of Panama).

From 1970 to 1981, the Canadian Pavonia, S.A., a subsidiary of Canadian Javeling; Texasgulf, Inc.; the Canada
Development Corporation, a state-owned diversified investment company; and the powerful Rio Tino-Zinc (RTZ), which
in May 1980 replaced Texasgulf as Cerro Colorado's transnational partner, were involved in the attempts to exploit Cerro
Colorado. In December 1981, the reduction of the project to care and maintenance status was announced.

In addition to the weak state of the copper market, the death of General Omar Torrijos, commander-in-chief of the
Panamanian National Guard, on July 31, 1981, probably weighed heavily in this decision, since he was the project's main
supporter and advocate. It is unclear whether RTZ has withdrawn from the project or is acting behind the scenes, as
currently, a small company (Panacobre S.A.), a subsidiary of the also small Tiomin Resources, Inc. (Canadian) has
acquired the contract to exploit the multi-million dollar Cerro Colorado colossus.

In recent years, mining activity has increased significantly due to the reform of the already flexible mining legislation and
due to the arrival to power of groups that in the 1970s were closely linked to this activity.
In 1992 the Chorcha-Guaribiara deposit was concessioned to GeoMinas. In December 1996, the contract for the
exploitation of the Cerro Quema gold mine (Los Santos province) was awarded and in January 1997 the concession for
the Cerro Petaquilla deposit (Colón province) was awarded to Cerro Petaquilla S.A., a subsidiary of Minamerica
Corporation, a company in which Inmet Corporation, Adrián Resources and Geo Resources are associated. Teck
Corporation, which conducted the feasibility study, has acquired 26% of the shares.

Currently, the gold mines of Santa Rosa and Remance, in Veraguas, are being exploited, where toxic substances have
been spilled and have contaminated rivers and streams, resulting in the death of fish, shrimp and other species.

On January 21, the communities neighboring the Cerro Petaquilla project signed an Ethical Pact with the mining
company: "For the Respect of the Rural Region of the Provinces of Colón and Coclé", to preserve the rights of these
communities. The national community is being surprised by this type of predatory projects, without knowing what to do
to stop or control them due to the powerful national and foreign interests behind them.

16. Portobelo Fairs

The Portobelo Fair was the scenario where most of the annual commercial exchanges between Spain and its territories
of the Viceroyalty of Peru took place for more than a century and a half between 1606 and 1739, held in the city of
Portobelo, located on the Caribbean coast of present-day Panama. The silver extracted from the mines of the
Viceroyalty of Peru, as well as slaves and other riches on their way to the American colonies during the period of
maximum splendor of the Spanish Empire, passed through there.

The fair
Portobelo was the meeting point for commercial expeditions coming from both ends of the crown territories.

The galleons were chartered in the metropolis with consignments of European manufactured goods, mostly belonging to
Spanish merchants, to be sold in the colonies. For security reasons, these vessels sailed armed, in groups and escorted
by warships.

In Lima, the Compañía del Mar del Sur loaded the merchandise and shipped the merchants to Panama City, in order to
coincide with the arrival of the fleet from the peninsula. Once arrived at the isthmus, the ships were unloaded and the
merchandise was transported with mules along the narrow strip of land until it reached its destination on the Caribbean
coast.

The main merchandise was silver brought from the mines of Spanish America and, to a lesser extent, items such as
cochineal, indigo, leather and cocoa. A high percentage of this silver had been collected as taxes for the Royal Treasury,
either as its legal share of the total extraction from the mines, or as tribute from the king's subjects. For their part, the
merchants who attended the fair were in charge of the capital raised for the occasion by businessmen from the colonies
to buy products from the metropolis and then sell them on the American market.

Once the galleons were docked, their holds were emptied on the beach and trade with the goods began. The royal
officials were in charge of supervising the volume and value of goods, as well as recording all exchanges in order to avoid
tax fraud. However, the prevailing confusion and the shortage of troops prevented them from doing their job properly.
In addition, the danger of attacks by corsairs or pirates meant that negotiations had to be accelerated so that the fair
would not be excessively prolonged, which made it even easier to circumvent the vigilance of the royal officials.

Initially, from 1544 onwards, the exchange of goods was done in Nombre de Dios. However, since 1597, this activity was
concentrated in Portobelo, which turned it into one of the most important towns in Hispanic America, becoming an
obligatory point for the exchange of merchandise between Spain and its colonies, whose transactions exceeded millions
of pesos.

Taking advantage of the geographical position of the town and the natural conditions of the port, during the reign of
Felipe III, it was decided to stimulate commercial activities by holding annual fairs, where all kinds of products were
traded. Tents were erected in all the streets, squares and on the seashore for the temporary storage of merchandise.
There was also a Board made up of a Chief Admiral of the Galleon Fleet, a representative of the King, a representative of
the Council of State, as well as the Governor and Captain General of Castilla de Oro, the President of the Royal Court, the
Chief of the Portobelo Plaza and several representatives of the merchants, who went to Portobelo to set the prices of
goods, oversee compliance with trade regulations and ensure order.

In addition to the famous Portobelo fairs, throughout the year, the riches coming from Peru and Ecuador were shipped
to Spain. These riches reached Panama City, then crossed the isthmus by mule trains to Portobelo, passing through the
Camino Real or the Camino de Cruces, the latter of which ran partly overland to the town of the same name and then
continued along a stretch of the Chagres River. Scholars such as Earl J. Hamilton and Pierre Chaunu, quoted by historians
Patricia Pizzurno, report that 60% of all the gold that reached Spain between 1531 and 1660 passed through Panama.

Pirate attacks
Despite the sea of riches that passed through this town, its permanent inhabitants were scarce. The riches that reached
Portobelo were a strong temptation for pirates like Henry Morgan, who before attacking Panama, capital of Castilla de
Oro, at the end of June 1668, attacked it by surprise. With an assault troop of 460 men, he managed to take Portobelo.
The few Spanish garrison took refuge in the castle of San Jeronimo, where they resisted the attack of the filibuster.
However, Morgan managed to overcome it with great difficulty.

Don Agustín de Bracamonte, Marquis of Fuente Sol, who provisionally governed Castilla de Oro, tried unsuccessfully to
gather a force to expel the pirates. Morgan demanded the payment of the sum of 100,000 pesos in order not to destroy
the population. With this message, Henry Morgan sent his pistol to the governor of Panama, with the message that he
had taken Portobelo with it, and that he would return to recover it in Panama. Governor Bracamonte gave him his
emerald ring and begged for mercy for the locals.

The ransom collected, Morgan withdrew, but in less than three years, he returned and fulfilled his promise to recover his
pistol, taking Panama City. With the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, England obtained the concession to send to the fairs of
Portobelo, a ship of 600 tons, in order to introduce merchandise into Spanish America. Nevertheless, pirates like Edward
Vernon continued to attack Portobelo.

At the end of the hostility between the kingdoms of England and Spain in the 18th century, commercial navigation
around Cape Horn, at the southern tip of the continent, became safe. Although the route through the Isthmus of
Panama was shorter, it was preferred to go around the continent, which led to the decline of Portobelo. The few ships
that still arrived in Panama did not generate the necessary income to satisfy the needs of the isthmus.

In 1737 the last fair was held in Portobelo. The economic decline that ensued in Panama, as a transit point dedicated to
commerce, lasted until the construction of the railroad in 1855.

Decline and end

In the 18th century, the better prices of the products of French smugglers and of the colonial manufactures themselves
caused peninsular imports to become uncompetitive. Although Spain legally had a monopoly on trade with its American
territories, the fact is that the inhabitants of the American territories increasingly tended to traffic in contraband
products, which, being free of tax burdens, offered greater profits in the market.

As a consequence of the slow decline of trade with the Indies, the Portobelo Fair lost relevance until, finally, the creation
of a new route around Cape Horn and directly to the Viceroyalty of Peru caused its disappearance in 1739.

17. The White Panama and Costa Rica ruling

The White Judgment (or Award) was a boundary arbitration ruling issued on September 12, 1914 by the then Chief
Justice of the United States Supreme Court, Edward Douglass White, in Washington, D.C., United States, to resolve the
boundary disputes between the Republics of Costa Rica and Panama.1

After examining the documentation submitted by the parties to the U.S. government, White issued his arbitration award
on September 12, 1914, defining the common boundary as follows:2
The demarcation of the White Judgment was rejected by the Panamanians, since it transferred the disputed canton of
Talamanca and its capital, Sixaola, to Costa Rica. In addition, Panama lost a considerable portion of its maritime coastline
in the Caribbean Sea.2 Following the judgment, the Republic of Costa Rica decided to execute the provisions of the
White Judgment, occupying the Coto region. This action caused discomfort to Panama, starting the Coto War on
February 21, 1921.

Mathematics

1. Multiplication of fractions

2. Percentage

3. Rule of three

4. Equivalent fractions
English

1. Vreb to be

2. Present - past - future

 3. There is - There are - There arent

Integrated Sciences
1. Parts of the Human Body
2. Digestive System

3. Respiratory System