Elements .

of Mechanics
of Elastic Solids
Thi. book is in the
ADDIS ON- WESLEY SERI ES IN
MECHANlCS AND THERMODYNAMICS
WEI
Cons'ulting EditOTS
HOVY. \RD W. EMMONS AN O nERNARD n UDIAN SKY
EDWARD SA
ADDIS
EleDlents
of Mechanics
of Elastic Solids
Department of jlfechanics, W EI LAI
R ensselaer
Polytechnic Instute EDWAR D SAIBEL
ADDISON -WESLEY. R eadi ng.
Preface
It seems redundant to say 1;hat modern I'cquirements imposed upon en
gi neering and technology demand t hat an intl'oductol'y course in engineering
emphasize ba.sic concepts and principIes rat,h l ' t han solutions to specifi c prob
lem8, It is in this spirit that the present t ext is written. In the past, an intro
ductory course dealing essentially wi h the response of elastic solida to force
syst ro was often called "Strength of Materials. " The treatment of the subject
ma.tter in "Str ngt h of Materials" has usuaIly been restrict.ed 1,0 one- and two
dimensional analysis. Since real problema are so complex, such simplifying
analyses have been made to yield simple useful resul ts. However, basic COD
cepts and principIes often elude us in these analyses. When it became neces
sary for students to learn precise concepts and principies iD the theory of
elasticity, so me of t he oversimplifying definitions in st,rength of materaIs prob
ably became more of a hi ndrance than a help. The writers believe, as do
many other teachers of mechanics, that, with t he greatly improved preparation
of the student in mathematics, it is possible to introduce precise concepts of
str ss and strain and the basic laws of elasti city in an introductory course in
mechanics of elas ic solida.
n this text, the student are assumed to be familiar with vector operations.
Chapler 1 introduces the concept of the stress tensor and eIementary ten 01'
manipuIation. Strain tensors and the law8 of elastostatics are presented in
Chapters 2 and 3 respectively. Tensor concepts are empha ized throughout
th dev Iopment of the theories in t he fi rst t hree hapters. Matrix notation is
used, and students who al' not familiar with t he matrix operations should study
the Appendix on matrices before starting Chapt.er 1. The matrix notation is
preferred over the indicial notation because the writ.ers feel that it heIps t he
beginner to grasp the concept of a set of elements representing a physical quan
tity. In the next three chapters exact sol ut iofis to the problems o simple exten
sion, torsion, alld pure bending are obtained by an inverse method. Methods of
analyzing important engineering problems are given following ea eh soIution.
The asL chapter deals with t he instability of column '. As we mentioned previ
ously, Lhe inphasi of t his text is on th basic concepts and principIes; it is not
the intenti n of thi text to cover all thc enginecring methods and details ordi
narily covercd in" Streng h of Materials. " These are left for the specialized
courses which come 1 ter in t hc ,urriculum, alld which, to some extent, depcnd
on the interests of the st ud ~ l t . The material included in the present work is
Con idered basic fol' aU students inte'ested in engineering and sciencc.
Tbe present mat rial has been used at tho Rensselaer Polytechnic In titute
in a two-semester, four-hour COUl'se for Sophomore students. The COlll'Se in
eludes statcs, the elemcnts of mechanics of elasLic solids, and dynamics, taught
in that. sequence. The ieaoher of mechani S will find no di fficulty in using the
pl'esent material fol' a one-scmester, three-hour course following a course in
vector statics and/ or dynamics.
The aut hors wish to acknowledge their indebtedncss to their colleagues,
Professors E. Fox, F. Ling, and M. Sadowsky, and to Professor W. Osgood of
the Catholic ni versity of Amerca, fol' their suggestions and crit.icisms. They
are also indebted to Mi s Elizabeth Doocey for her help in preparing the
manuscript.
Tl' oy, New Yo"/' : W. L.
Jllly 1965 E. S.
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.1.5
1.16
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Introdu4
Concept
Stress ve d
Stress mal
t,ate of sI
Symmctry
\ tres!! lIIal
na,te systN
COllcept 11
Rotation
Transorlll
The imujt
.\l.!;cbra ()
Principal
The thrm.'
O
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.1 5
1.16
Chapter 2
2. 1
2.2
2. 3
2.4
2.5
2. 6
2.7
Contents
Introduction
\ (
Concept of Stress
Stre s vector at a poi n t on aplane 3
Stress matrix at a point 4
State of st.ress a l a point . ;)
Symmetry uf the stress matrix 7
Stress matrix referred to another rectangular Cartcsian coordi
nate system 10
Concept of invariance of mathematieal entitics-tcnsol's 11
Rotation rnatri x. 1:<:
'1 ransformation law for Carte ian tenson 13
The importance of the tensorial concept 16
AIgebra of ten ors . 17
Principal stresse 20
The three Hcalar invariants for the stress t ensor 22
Orthogonality of pri ncipal dircetions 22
Principal stresses are the stational'y values of the normal stre es 23
Maximum shear stresses 27
Principal directions for problems 30
. 'T
..
Concept of Strain
The train matrix . 39
The strain tensor 41
Sta.te of strain at a point 44
Principal st rain and scalar invariants for strain tenson.; 44
Cubi c I diltttaticn . 45
P rincipal strains for two-dimenHional problems 45
E quations of compatibility 50
/
Chapter 3 Equations of Elastostatics Chapter 6
3.1 Differential equations of equilibrium 58
6.1
3.2 Boundary condition for the stre. >; tensor 59
6.2
3.3 Stre's--strain relation for i:sotropic homogcneous elastic materials. 60
6.3
3.4 Hooke's law . 60
3.5 The elastostatic problem 63
6.4
3.6 The principIe of superposition. 68
6.5
3.7 Strain energy 69
6.6
6.7
3.8 Possible states of stress 71
3.9 Saint-Venant's principie 72
6.8
6.9
Chapter 4 SiDlple Extension 6.10
6.11
4.1 Simple extension 82
6.12
4.2 Tcnsile-test diagram 84
4.3 Statically indct.erminate problems in tension and compression 86
Chapter 7
4.4 Encrgy met.hod . 89
7.1
4.5 PrincipIe of lcast work . 91
7.2
4.6 Tension 01' compressiofl in three perpenclicular directions . 92
4.7 Pure shear 93
7.3
Chapter 5 TOl'eion
7.4
7.5
5.1 TOl'l;ion of a circular bar 98
7.6
5.2 Maximum normal and shcaring stresses in a circular bar under
7.7
torsion 100
7.8
5.3 Deformation of a circular bar subjected to torsion 101
5.4 Torsion of a holJow circular bar 105

5.5 Torsion of :10 eIJiptical bar 106
5.6 Hollow clliptical shaft with ellipti cal boundaries 109
5.7 Torsion of a thin tubular shaft llO
Chapter 6 BeaDlB
6.1 State of stress in a beam in pure bending 116
6.2 Deformation of a betl,m under pure bending. 120
6.3 Beams acted on by axial forces as weIl as bending eouples at the
enda and on one of the principal planes 124
6.4 Beams acted on by a coplanar force system 125
6.5 Relation between load in ensity, shear force, and bending moment 128
6.6 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams . 129
6.7 Engineering beam theory . 130
6.8 Deflcction of a be1l. m 134
6.9 Deflection by use of the principIe of superposition . 140
6.10 Energy method . 142
6.11 Reciprocal theorem 144
6. 12 StaticaIly indeterminate beams 145
Chapter 7 ColuDlns
7. 1 Buckling of a column 155
7.2 Equilibrium confi gurat ions of a centralIy loaded fixed-free
column 155
7.3 Effect of eccentricity on the equilibrium configuration. 160
7.4 Maximum normal stres in a buckled fixed-free column 161
7.5 E uler's column formula for a fixed-free column 163
7. 6 E uler's column formula for other end conditions 164
7.7 Validity of buler' s formulas 167
7.8 E nergy considerations . 167
Appendix: Matrices 173
Answers to ProbleDls 185
Index 192
INTRODUCTION
The concept of rigid bodi es is introduced in statics. A rigi d body is one in
which the distance between any two points does not change under the action
of forces. Rigid bodies, of COUl'Se, exist only in concepto AH real bodies deform
when subjected to th action o f rces. Nevertheless, thc concept of rigid bodies
provides extremely u fuI models for analyzi ng many real problems concerning
the equilibrium as \Vell as the a celeratcd motion of real bodies. It is obvious
that, so-called rigid-bodll mechanics cannot provide any information regarulllg
the d formation of a body. Thi8 deformation is important not only it
is sometim -8 the controlling factor in the design of a structural member or
machine part , but algo becausc it is intimat ely connected with the distribution
of the forces inside the body. Effo!" attempti ng to obtain t his kind of informa
tion are embodied in a branch of science often referred to as t he mechanics oi
deformable bodies. The respons of a r al body to the action of forces is
complicated indeed. Many useful result , however, can be obtained by using
simplifying models. It has been observed experimentally that all structUf.:l.l
materials posscss to a certain extcnt the property of elasticity; that is, if external
forces producing d fonnation of a st ructure do not exceed a cert.ain limit, the
deformation disappears wit h the removal of the forces. It is natural thercfore
to introduce thc concept of perfectly elast ic bodies, that is, bodics which resume
their initial form completely after removal of forc s. Such bodies are the con
cern of this book.
1
CHAPTER 1
Concept of Stress
1.1 Stress Veotor at a Point on aPlane
We let <ig. 1.1 represent a body in general, and consider a point P in the
interior of the body. Let S be a pI ne wruch contains the point P and cuts
th body into t wo portions 1 and II. Consider portion 1 as a free body, and
let F be the resultant forcet acting on a small area A containing P and on
the plane S. W shall define the st ress vector (from II to 1) at the point P
on the plane S the Umit of the ratio F/ A when A -+ O, and shall designate
it by as. Thus
l
. F
-as = un - , A on S. (1.1)
6.A
Figure 1.1
t The assumption of a single re ultant force alone (without a resultant couple)
acting on tb> differential area A lea.ds to a theory o elasticity satisfactory for engi
neering
3
4 CONCF:PT OF 8THR. 1.2 1.3 STATE OF S1'III :,
If portion n is considered a free body, then by Newton's law o action and considered a uct illg
reaction we shall have a stress vector (from 1 to ll) at the same point on the portion n. T he matr
same plane, equal and oppositc to t hat givcn by Eq. (1.1).
It is important to note that the stress vector will be di fferent for differcnt
inclinations of the plane S. It would be meaningless therefore to speak of the
stress vector at a point without indicating the plane on which it acts. H owcver,
in the following discussion \Ve shall show that if the stress vectors at a point
on any three mutually p rpendicular planes are known, then the stress vector
on any other plane is uniquely determined. We shall then speak of the slale of
stress at a point, meaning any such set of three str ' s vectors for that point.
1.2 Stress Matrix at a Point
ThI'ough the point P , 1 t us imagine Lhe three planes Sx, S}) and Sz per
pendicular to the X-, y-, and z-axes of rectangular Cartesian coordinates, respec
tively. Each plane cuts the body into two portiolls, 1 and TI. (See Fig. 1. 2.)
Uy y Tzy
TZ.f
(a) (b)
Figure 1 .2
Tite ouLward normal at P fol' portion 1 in eaeh of the figures is in tite posiliv0
direction of one of the coordinat e axcs, whiie that. foI' portion n is in the cor
responding negative direction. The stress vectors at P on Sx, Sy, and S z ean
be decomposed iuto components along the coordinate axes as shown. Thus,
USillg row matrices for vectors, we have
iJs
x
= (J;rx, T
X
/1 T xz ),
iJsy = (T yx, (JI/Y' T yz),
s. = (Tu , T zy , (J zz).
(1. 2)
We shall use the folluwillg sign convention. Whenevcr the outward normal
is in the positive dil'ectioll of one of the coordinate axes, thOfl each of thc three
eompollcnts of the stress vector \ViII be cOllsidered positive if it is in the positive
direction of the coordinate axis. It follo\\'s fmm Jcwton's third law, as mentioned
in Section 1.1, that wh never the outward normal is ill tho llegative dil' ectioll
of one of the coordinate axes, the componcItts should be positivc
if thoy are in thc negative direction of tho coordinate axes. Note that tho
COlI1pOllcnts shown ill parts (a), (b), and (c) uf Fig. 1. 2 are all positive when
(j = 'T'lIr
is called thc stress 111
normal slresses amI tI
stre8ses are also eall"
stresses.
1.3 State of St
We shall now sIl( \\
stress matrix at thal
stress vector OIl uny j
Lct a sItlaIl tctmh
of its vel'tices (Fig. 1
to approach zero 80 t
limito The arca of
dircctioIt of :;, will 1I
the areas of the fa
IlAq and IlA" r PI
outward normal Vl'
plan e A Be be dellt
the area by IlA
s
, ni
iJ = (ux,uy,u,). ]o'
law, we thcJI haY('
[al
=
SillCC ma s =
proportional to t,hll
tetrahedroll
fas ter than the trl'll
fmm [a] in the lil1l i
t For the
in the derivatiouti.
:'\TATE OF I:!TRES:'\ AT A POI NT 5
considered as acting 011 portion J, and n gat ive when considered as acting on
portio n n. The matrix
UXX
(f = T /I% (1.3)
::: :::]
[
T
zx
T ' /I u"
is called the stress matrix at the point P. The diagonal elements are called
normal stresses and the nondiagonul elements shea"l'ing strcsses. Positive normal
stresscs are also called ?cnsile strc.f,S negative normal str sses, compressivc
stresses.
1.3 State of Stress at a Point
We shall now show that the state of stress at a point is characterized by the
stress matrix at that point, meaning that once the stress matrix is known, the
stress vector on any inclined pIane at that point is uniquely determined.
Let a small tetrahedron be isolated from the body, with the point P as one
of ts vertices (Fig. 1.3)0 The size of the tetrahedron will ultimately be made
to appn ach zero so that the inclined plane will pass through the point P in the
limi t o The area of the face P A B, whose SlUtward normal is in the negativc
direction of x, wiJI be denoted by and
the arcas of the faces PBoC and P AC bX
A
and respectivelyo Let the unit
outward normal vector rOl" the inclined
plane ABC be dcnoted by = (l, m, n),
the area by and t he stress vector by
li = (u
x
, U y, {1'z)o Prom Newton's second
law, we thcn have
[a] F
x
= - un _oT
yx

- Tzx + {1'x
- mass X x-accclcrationo
Figure 1. 3
Since mas = density X volullle, and the volul\lc of the tetrahcdron is
proportional to the product of three infinitesimal lengths, whcn the size of the
tetrahedron appl'Ouch zero, the right-hand side of Eqo [a] will approach zero
faster than the tem1S on the lefto Thus the acceleration tenll drops out exactly
[rom [a] in the limi to t
t For the same reason the wei ght of t,he i etrahcdrol1 (loes 1I0t uect! to be included
in the del'ivations.
l
6 CONCEPT OF STR ESS 1.3
We shall show that the areas .6A
x
, .6A y, and .6A
z
are related to the arca of
the inelined faee .6AN by the following relations:
[b] .6A
z
= n .6A,y.
A veetor method will be used. Referring to Fig. 1.3, we have
[e] BP X EA = 2.6A
x
i, BC X BP = 2.6A1Jj, cA X CP = 2.6A
z
k.
Therefore
[d]
The left-hand side of Eq. [d] is equal to the following:
BP X (EA - Ea) + cA X CP = BP X eA + cA X CP
.= cA X (PB + CP)
= cA X CE = 2(.6A
N
)N,
where
N = li + mj + nk.
ThereJore
.6A,y(li + mj + nk) = .6Axi + .6A1Jj + .6A
z
k,
from whieh the relations in Eq. [b] follow. Thus from Eqs. [a] and [b] we obtain
[e] U x = uxxl + Tyxm + Tzxn.
Two more equations ean be obtained from the other two equations of motion.
Thcyare
.
[f]
= T
xll
l + uyym + T
z1J
n, u
ll
Equations [e], [f], and [g] can be put in onf' matrix cquation:
(u
x
, U y, u
z
) = (t, m, n) T
lIx
(l.4)
[
u
xx
::: :::] ,
T
zx
T
zy
U
zz
or thcy can be written
(j = Nu. (1.5)
Equation (1.4) 01' (1.5) shows that for a given stress matrix (1, the stress vector
(j, on any inclined plane whose unit outward normal is N, is uniquely dctcrmined
by that equation.
1.4 SYMMETRY O" 1'111
1.4 SylDDletry o:
We shall now show ti
a symn etric matrix, t ti
We eonsider tlle fr\'1
from a body, as showll
aH axis passing througll
[a]
Dropping out the tC'rlll:
[b]
Whether or lIut th/
statie equilibriulil, : i
zero because the ar 't
l
proportiollul to tlle prl
ume and thc squarc (J
is t,herefore a small ql
order than the right-I
lb]. ThUl:l
[e] T."I1 = TI/r
Similar proofs will ~ ; "
(f =
t See Pl'Oblrm 1.1 2
1.4 SYMMETllY OF THE MATHlX 7
1.4 Sym.D'letry of the Stress Matrix
We sball now show that the stress matrix defined in Seet ioll 1. 2 is, in general,
a symrnetric matrix, t that is,
T:r;y = T yx, T xz = T u, T y % = T zy
We consider the free-body diagram of a differential parallelepiped isolated
fmm a body, as shown in ig. 1.4. Let us find the moment of all the forees about
an axis passing thmugh the eent r point A and parallel to the z-axis :
(
AY) . (AY)
- Tyx(Ax Az) "2 - (Tyx + ATyx)(Ax Az) "2 .
Dropping out the terms eontaining small quantities of higher order, \Ve obtain
Whether 01' not the element is in
static equilibrium, LMA is equal to
zero because the aecclerat ion term' is
proport ional to the product of the vol
ume and t he square of a length, and
is therefore a smaU quantity of higher
order t han the r ight-hand side of Eq.
lb] . Thus
[e]
T
Xll
= T lIx
(jx:;
/l y
TJ: y
T y;;
A
<1:tX+ /lUIX
/ll'
U,'1y
Figure 1.4
Similar proofs \ViII give the otber two equations. 'I hus, ineluding Eq. kL \Ve have
T;cy = T
1
/ X ,
(1.6)
EXAMPLE 1.1. With ref rence to t he X-, y-, and z-coordinates, the
state o stress at a certain point of a body given by the following matrix:
(J = [:: :
300
400
O
O
3:] psi.
- 100
F ine! the stress_ v<;:ct o[' acting 011 aplane passing through the point and
parallel to the plane x + 2y + 2z _. o.
t Se. P l' oblem 1.12 ror a e . in which the matri x is nonsymmetrie.
I
SYMM"E'I'UY OF
8 CONCEPT OF STRESS 1.4
Solulwn. If (Xl, Y, Zl) and (X2, Y2, Z2) are any two points on the plane,
then
Xl + 2y + 2z - 6 = O,
By subtraction, we have (x - xz) + 2(y - Y2) + 2(Zl - Z2) = O;
that is, the vector a = i + 2j + 2k is perpendicular to every vector
(Xl - x2)i + (y
,
- Y2)j + (z - z2)k on the plane, since thcir dot
product is zero. Thus a is a vector normal to the plane. Obviously-a
is also one. Sincc the 1ength of a is 3, therefore, in matrix llotation, unit
vectors normal to the plane are N = !). Thus, from Eq. (1.5),

= N"U = (k)(lOO)(l, 2,2) [:
3 0 - 1
(.!f-) (16, 4, 1) (533, 133,33.3) psi
or
(T = (533i + 133j + 33.3k) psi.
EXAMPLE 1.2. It will be shown in a later chapter that when a cylin
drical bar of cross-sectional area A is pulled by equal and opposite
forces P through the centroid of its end faces, the statc nf stress at any
poi nt Ilot too close to the ends can be characterized by the following
matrix:t
.
O O xyz
Find the stress vector (T arting on a plane S whose normal makes an
angle of ti> with the x-axis. (Se e Fig. 1..5.) Resolve (T illto normal and
shearing strDsses on the plane S, and show that the maxilllulll norlllal
stress is P/ A at ti> = O and the ml1XUl1um shear stress is HP/ A) at
ti> = 45.
!J

Figure 1.5
t The subscripts in the matrix indi cate the referente coordinates lH';ed.
1.4
S u/u/.'on. inl'l'
N = (1 01<
that is,
a.lId the
Thus
l '
EXAMPLE
= fI l-
u =
wltere p, p, allll
vector OH tlll' Q
Figure 1.(
1.4 YMMETRY OF T HE STRESS MATRIX 9
Solution. Since
N = (co', ti> , m, n) , thercfore, {j = NU = ( ~ cos ti> , 0, O) ,
that is,
P .
a = A COS PI.
The normal stress on S is
UN = ( ~ cos p) (cos tI = ~ . OS2 ti> ,
and th sbearillg stress on S is
p ) . lP'2
T =
(
A cos ti> sm p = 2 A Sin p.
Thus
at ti> = 0,
p
'T
mnx
= 2A '
EXAMPLE 1.3. If the distribution of thc statc o stress inside a body
is given by the matrix
_ - p + pglJ O
(j = O -p + pglJ
O
\Vhere p, p, and 9 a.re constants, what is tbo di tribution of the stress
vector on the ix faces of a rectangular block inside t,he body ( ig. l.G) ?
I
!I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/ }----
/ -
/
//
Figlue 1.8
nate by
.1;1
['.'.'
T:z; 'y'
r" "1
.1'
[a] (j' =
T y ' x ' UY'y' TY' ZI
z

Figure l..8

T z'u' x'y'z,'
If \Ve proceed as in Section 1.3 to fi nd the stress vector OH the same inclined
planc ABe in tel' ms 01 the new stress matriz, obviously we shall uLtain a formula
(l", 'm", n"), ct.c., r('pl
We shall no\V state t h
TeDllors. Th
same abstra('t,
are refcrred IQ
Scalars and the l' \\
they are sometimcs rr
Stress matrices are
10 CONCEPT OF STRE S 1. 5
Sollltion. We have
on x = 0, N = (-1,0,0), j = N'U = (p - pgy, O,O);
on x = a, N = (+1,0,0), j= N'U= ( - p + pgy, 0, O);
on y = 0, N = (0, -1, O), j = 'U = (0, + p, O) ;
on y = b, N = (0, +1, O), j = N'U = (0, -p.+ pgb, O);
on z = 0, ]V = (0,0, -1), j = N 'U = (0, 0, p - pgy);
on z = e, = (0,0, +1), {j = - ff = (0,0, -p + pgy).
y
Figure 1.7
A S tion of the istributiol of stress vector is sho\Vn iJl l<'ig. 1.7.
If the si x. faces are t h boundary faces of the body, thc stress vedors
on t he faces correspond t o hydrostatic prcssure aeting on tha block.
1.5 Stress Matrix Referre d to Another R ectangular
Cartesian Coordlnate SysteDl
With referel1ce to Section 1.2, if another set of mutually perpendicular planes,
'''' ' , Sy', and js used, whcre the x'-, y'-, z'- and X-, y-, z-coordinatJcs have
different orientations, as shown in ig. 1.8, and the
stress vectors at P 011 t he three plan s are decomposed y
into componellts along the x'-, y'-, and z'-directions, we !J I
arrive at another stress matrix hich \Ve shall desig
1.6 INVAR NCE uf !
of xactly the SSll nc f ,.
[b] {j' = ''
where
[e] j' =
and
[d] N' = (1', I
Since the plano A.RC
matrices .for t he san
fol' the same stress v('
th same atate of stM
components af thc tw<
1.6 Conoept of :
Entities-T.
If still other I't'C1!UI
unit normal vcetor 0./
(l", m", n") x"11" z" !l.111
P is no,," charaderzl'/
[aJ (j" = Tu'
T,'
The stress matric ii
really represent thl'
]
1.5 INVARIANCE OF MATHE MATICAL ENTITIES-TEN:;ORS 11
of exactly the same form as that of Eq. (1. 5). In fact,
lb) j' = N'(f',
whel'e
[c)
j'
and
[d] N' = (l', m', n
'
)x' 1J""
Since th plane ABe is the same as in Section 1.3, N and N' are diffcrent row
matl'ices .fol' the same normal vector, and j and j' are different row matric s
fol' the same stress vector. Therefore the stress matrices (f and (J' charactcl'ize
the sarne stat e of stress at the point under consideration, even though the nine
components of the two stress matrices are different.
1.6 Concept of Invariance of Mathe Dlatical
Entities- Tensors
If still other rectangular Cartesian coordinates x", y", and z" are used, the
unit normal vector and the stress vector for the inclined plane become N" =
(l", m", n");t;"V" z" and jI/ = (u
x
" , Uy", uZ") x"Y"Z", and the state of stress at
P is now characterized by
[a]
[
U x" x"
="
(J = T y"x"
TZII
X
" T Z" y"
Tx"
ll
"
TX"."]
Ty"z"
CF z, "z" x" y"zll
Uy"y"
Thc stress matrices (f, (fl, (f", etc., although they have different components,
really represent thc same statc of stress at P, just as (l, m, n), (l', mi, ni),
(tl/,m", nl/) , etc., represent thc same normal vector for the same inclined planeo
Wc ahall now state the following important definition.
Tensora. The totality of mathematical entities which describe 1,he
same abstract object regardless of the coordinate systems these entitics
are referred 1.0, is a tensor.
Scalars and the row matrices describing a vector are obviously such entities;
they are called tensors of the zeroth and the first order, respeetively.
Stress matrices al'e examples of second-order tensors 01' simply tensora.
12 CONCbPT OF ST HESS 1.7
1 .7 Rotation Matrix
Thc definition of tensors given in the last section is peIfectly gcneral. In the
next section we shall establish a transformation la\V for mathematical entities
describing the same object under a special group of coordinat systems, namely,
that of rectaugular artesian coordinates \Vith different orientations Such
entities are called Cartesian tensors. In this section we shall define a matrix, the
rotation matl'ix, which determines completely the relativ orientation of the
rectangular Cartesian coordinates. It will be needed in the establishment of the
transforrnation law.
In Fig. 1.9, xyz and x'y'z' represent two rectangular
y
y'
Cartesian coordinates of different orientation; i, j, k
a qd i', j', k' are unit vect ors in the directions shown.
Wi th reference to the X-, y-, and z-coordinates, the unit
vectors i', j', and k' can be expressed as follows:
[a] i' = Illi + Id + h.ak,
j' = lzli + IZ2j + 123
k
,
k' = l
3I
i + 132j + 133k,
Figure 1 .9
l.8 TUANfiHlHMATll
If H* dellotcR the tra
'RH =
that is,
[d] 'RR* = }
and thcreforc
R* = W
1.8 Transform
We shall use tll!'
Cartcsian seeond-ord
we note that. the sil
where (1
11
, l1 2, lI3), (l21' l22, l23), and (l31' l32, l33) are obviously direction
cosin s of the x'-, y'-, and z'-axes, respcctively, with reference to the :r-, y-, and
z-cool'dinates. The matrix
[
ll1 l12 1
13
R = 121 l22 l23
l31 132 133 xyz
(1.7)
whieh determincs completely the relative orientation of the t\Vo coordinatcs,
\ViII be called thc Tolalion nwlrx for the two systcrns of coordinates. It has the
very important propel'ty that its inverse is equal to its transpose; \Ve shall now
prove this statclllcnt. First wc note that from Eqs. [a], sinee
i' . i' = j' . j' = k' . k' = 1,
\Ve have
[b]
Also, since i' . j' = i' . k' = j' . k' = 0, \Ve have
[e] 111 721 + 112122 + l13123 = 0,
121 1
31
+ 122132 + 123133 = O.
2 22
131 + + In = 1.
normal vector rOl' 11\1
along either t he i-, j -
N = li
Nowsincei' = llli

[a]
or, in matrix 1
Postmultiplying
\vc abo ha ve
TRANSFORMATlON LA W FOR CARTE IAN TENSORS 1 3
If R* denot es the transpose of 11, then from Eqs. lb] and [e] we have
I1R* = [ : ~ : . ~ ~ : . :::] [ ::: ::: :::] = [ ~ ~ ~ ] ,
la1 l32 laa lla l23 la3 O O 1
that is,
[d] I1H* = E,
and therefore
- J 'Ve. '
R* = 11-
1
. (1.8)
1.8 Transtormation Law for Cartesian Ten sora
We shall use the stress tensor to establish the transformatioll law for a
Cartesian 8econd-order tensor. Referring again to the tetrahedron in Fig. 1.3,
we note that the stress vector a P on the inclined plane and the outward
normal vector for the same plane have been expre88ed in terms of eomponeuts
along either the i-, j-, k- or i'-, j'-, k' -direetions. In faet,
u = uri +uyj + uzk = ux,i' +uy,Y +uz,k',
N = li + mj + nk = l'i' + m'j' + n'k'.
Now sinee i' = li + l2j + l13k, etc., we have
u",i + uyj +uzk = ux,(li + ld + l sk) + u
y
,(l2i + lZ2j
+ l2 3
k
) +O'z,(l3 1
i
+ ld + la3
k
).
Thcrefor
u'" = lIU"" + l2lUy' + 1310'."
[a] Uy = 1120'""" + l22Uy' + 1320'.' ,
U - lI 30'"",' + 1230'Y' + 1330'z'
01' , in mat rix notation,
= d'R. (1.9a)
Postmultiplying both sides of Eq. (1.9a) by R* and remembering that I1R* = E!
we also have
(1.9b)
Pl'emultiplying tile aboye equation by R*, postmultiplying by R, and notillg
again that TF* = E, we also haye
(LlOb)
'Ve shall now define Cart esinn tensors in terms of the transformation la\\'.
First- order Cartealan tensor (veotor). The totality of al! ordered
triplets (al, 0.2, a3) xyz, (a;, etc., is a
Cartcsian tensor of the first ordcr if it satisfies the transfOrIllatiol1 la",
a' = aR*.
(1.11)
Second-order C artesian t e nsor. The totality of al! matrices,
[ a"
0.\2
a,,]
[a'"
a'12
a:" 1
[a"
a"
a'{, 1
1\ 12
0.:
1 a22 " a'22 a'2'J 0.2\ 0.22
a23 '
a23
,
a Z I
0.32 a.33) .e' y' z' a.'j\ a'j2
" 0.31 0. 32 0. 33 xyz 0.31 a3J X" Il"Z/ '
cte., is a Cartesian tensor of the seeond order if it obeys the trallsfol'lI1a
tion Iaw
(1.12)
If we let t' d note the row lI1atrix, refcrred to X-, y-, and z-coordinates, of the
the seeond-Ol'der
the X-, 71-, and
a
'

Thesc ccuatiolls
ho\\' cycr, rat.hcl'
obtaillcd. Thc
statc of
Cf =
tllld ar' I ', T
y' i il1 ti\(\
AIso find
i .e'.
14 CONCEPT OF STRESS 1.8
Similarly, the l'OW rnatriees N and N' for the veetol' N are related by
[b] N = N'R,
[e] N' = NR*.
1<'r0111 Eqs. (1.9b), (1.5), alld lb],
But (j' = N'Cf', alld therefore
N'(J' = N'R(JR*,
01'
[d] N' (Cf' - R(JR*) = O.
Sinee Eq. [d] is to be valid for al! N, we have
(J' = 'Un*, (LlOa)
l.8
vector i', tha s, !'
Thus
and similarIy, with
""
J
R
\ =-
Thus \Ve have the
TRANSFORMATION LAW FOR CARTESr A N TEN ons 15
vector i', that is, 1,' = (lll, l12, 1
13
) , then
t"ll* = (1, O, O) and

Thus
and similarly, with J' = ([ 21,1
22
, 1
2
:\), we have
)' R* = (0, 1, O),
T hus we have the foll owing nine formulas rel ating eaeh of the eomponents of
the second-order tensor refen ed to the x'-, y'-, and z'-axes to those referred to
the x-, y-, and z-axes:
I -' ,=1,*
all = '/, a'/, ,
= J' 't'*,
ar = k'o.1,' *,
I -, ,- -,,*
a22 = J aJ ,
a2 = ]'(iJ' *,
aa = 'i'ak' *,
- - *
= j'(Jk' ,
a3 3 = k'(jJc'*.
These cquations are nothing more than the singlo equation (1. 12) . They arc,
howov r, ratber convoni ent to use when only ono of tho components is to be
obtaincd. Tho abovo ni n equations (1. 13) can al so be writtcn. as
3 3
= L: L: 1;a1j {jaa {j.
( 1.14)
(j = l 1
EXAMPLE 1.4. With reference to the x-, y-, and z-eoordinates, if tho
statc of str> a t a point i8 gi vell by
" 100
fincl T
x
' 1J' , allcl T
x
'.', wher x' is in the directjon of 2i + 2j + k,
y' i in the di retion of i - j , a nd z' is in the clirection of i +j - 4k.
Also {i lld the magnitude of the sheariug stre s 011 the plane ",hose normal
l ' J
l
'
16 CONCEPT OF STRESS l.9
Solution. We shall use Eqs. (1.13) to find the desired stress components.
Since the x'-axis is in the direction of 2i + 2j + k, we have
i' = !(2i + 2j + k) or = !(2, 2,1).
Similarly,
J' = (1, -1, O),
le' = 1 (1,1, -4) .
V18
Thus
(J"x 'x ' = = 2,1)
[-:
133 psi,
-1, [;]
118 psi,
e
OO
V2) (4, -1, 6)
The magnitude of the shearing stress on the plane whose normal is the
x'-axis is
T= 204 psi.
1.9 The IDlportance of the Tensorial Concept
Before we proceed to obtain certain very important properties regarding
l '
tcnsors, let us pause for a moment to ask the question: "\Yhy do we need to
introduce the concept of a tensor? The tensorial concepto has several importaIlt
aspcets. First, it a unili ed treatment of physical or geometrical quanti
ties exprcssiblc in the sarnc mathelllatical cntities. In the next chapter we shall
filld t,hat thc dcforml1tion of a body can be characterized by a matrix which is
also a symmetric secoIld-order tensor. A further example is thc inel'tia tensor.
"\Yhatever mathematical properties we derive for, say, the stress tensor, will
therefore be shared by all the other second-ordel' symmetric tensors. Second,
::lince tellsors are mathcmatical enti ties describing the sall1e object regardless
1.10 ALGEll ltA OF Tf
of the coordinatc syl
the formulati on ni t.hl
requirement of di mCI
law. This requirclilc
not be dependent 011
law is expre ed. Ul
study of many phy::;il
physical laws is th
of the equation mUHt
law described by tlH'
We shall make use u(
in the n xt chaptcr.
means of transfonnll l
nat es into other COOJ'(
Although in olitair
to rectangular Curtc':
space, th xtell8iou
ordinates dnes lIut pr
more rnathematical He
1.10 Algebra 01 '
We shall now cslru
which will be necdl'd
l . The SUlll llt
of the sallle ()I"
Proof: Let .1
1
same point. r'
A' = f,'
2. A tensor
lllultiplied by
If a is a sea
a.1'=
/
1.10 ALGEBRA OF TENSORS 17
of the coordillatc system used, they therefor provide an important guide to
the formulation of the correct form of physicallaws. We are all familiar with the
requin!I1lent of dimensional homogeneity in an equation descri bing a physical
law. This requirement is to ensure that the law described by the cquatioll will
not be d pendent on the units chosen for the parameters in terms of which the
law is expressed. bservance of this requirement often grcatly facilitates the
study of many physical problems. Equally important for equations dCl'lcribing
physical laws is the fulfillm nt of t ensorial homogeneity; that is, every term
of the equation must be a tensor oI the same order. This is to ensure that the
law described by the equation will not depend on the coordinate systen used.
We shall make use of this requircment to formulate a stress-strain relationship
in the next chapter. Third, thc tensorial concept also provides a convenient
means of transfonning an equation obtained with rcspect to one set of coordi
na tes into other coordinates.
Although in ootaining tho transformation law we have restricted ourselves
to rectangular Cartesian coordinate systems in a three-dimellsional EucJidean
space, the extension to tensOl'S whch are invariant with respect to general co
ordinates does not present any conceptual difficulty. However, it does rcquire
more mathematical sophistication and is beyond the scope of this book.
1.10 Algebra of Tensors
We 8hall now establish several theorems cOllcerning operations with ten8ol'S,
which will be needed in the next chapter.
1. The sum of two Cal'tesian tensors of the same order is again a tensor
of the same order a the given tensors.
Proof: Let A l and 2 be second-of'der Cartesian tensors defined at the
samc point. From the transformatioll law,
ji,! .4'2= RA IR* RA
2
R* = R(AI A2)R*;
t!lat iS,jil Az also t ransforms accordillg to the same law. Thercfre
14
1
+ Az is a second-order tensor too.
2. A tensor multiplied by a scalar (that is, each component of the tensor
multiplied by the same scalar) is again a tensor of the same order.
Proof: If ~ 1 is a sccond-order tensor, then
ir' = R R*.
If (X is a scular, then
( X ~ 1 ' = R(a./i ) R*. Q.E.D.
18 OF 1.10
3. If Al and A
2
are vectors, then AtA
2
is a t ensor.
p,oo!: Since
- - - *
A'I = AIR ,
4. If Al and A
2
are second-order tensors, then AA
2
is also a
order tensor.
Proo!: Sin ce
A'I = HA IR , A2 = RA 2R*, therefore
A'u42 = RA
l
*nA
2
R* = R(A
I
A2)R*. Q.E. D.
5. If A i a vector and 13 is a second-order tensor, then AB is a vector
(first-order tensor).
Proof: mce
A' = AR*,
ji' = RBR*, therefore
6. If )i is a sccond-ordcr tensor, then A is also a second-order tellsor.
Proo!: Since
L1' = A R*, therefore
A'* = O'? AR*)* = RA*R*. Q.E.D.
7. The unit matrix E is a second-order tensor.
Proo!:
RER* = RR* = E'. Q.E.D.
EXAMPLE 1 .6. Show that second moments and thc negl1tive of the
products of in rtia of an area are components of a two-dill1ensional
second-order t ensor.
Solution. Let r denote the length of the position vector l' = (x, y), and
E the two-dimer: onal unit ll1atrix. Since E i a second-order tensor and
1'2 a tcalar, r
2
E is a s cond-order tensor. . Iso, from Theorem 3, i'*r is a
second-order tensor. Thus from Theorell1 1, 1' 2E - 1'*1' is a sccond-ordcr
tensor. Now
2
+ r
2
E= ( X
y2
)G X
2
:y2)
1.10 ALmal RA 01'
and
i=
EXAMPLE
Fig. 1.10,
Ir.'.t ' =
and the
area, \Ve ()
Find Ix:.'
Ix'u' =
1.10 ALOEBRA OF T ENSORS
and
1'*1' = (X) (x, y) = (X
2
X
y
),
y yx y2
and therefore
-xv).
2
X
19
If we mult iply each element of the tensor by dA and integrate over t he
area, wc obtain t he t wo-dimensional inertia tensor
1 =
fy 2 dA
- fVXdA
-f xy dA] ( In - lo:v)
fX 2 d ~ = -Iz ll 1 yy '
y
EXAMPLE 1.8. For the area shown in
F ig. 1.10, we have
1/1
12:% = fi(1)(2)3 = ! in\
I !lY = \(2) (1 )3 = (in
4
,
l"'----+---+------L-_ X
1 i n.
1
z1l
= O,
L--....1....--I -.l
I I I
~ in . ! in. Figure 1.10
Find Iz' x' and 1,"'11"
Solution. We have t' = (cos 30, sin 30) = !-(0 , 1), J' = (- sin 30,
cos 30) = t ( -1, 0 ),
l ~ 7'i1' ~ . (0 ,1) (! ~ ) ( ~ ) ~ ~ ( ~ , i ) ( ~ )
= () e:) = ~ ! in
4
,
~ ) ( ~ )
o . 4
- T
In
,
20 CONC';PT OF 1.11
1.11 Principal Stres ses
We have shown that when the stress tensor (J at a point is known with respect
to the X-, y- , and z-coordinates, the same tensor in any other rectangular coordi
nate>,; x', y' , and z' can be obtailled by the equation
(J' = R(JR*.
We now wish to find particular x
'
_, y'_, and z'-coordinates such that (J' is a di
agonal matrix, that s,
o
(J' (1.1 5)
U y'y'
o
PhYi:iieally Ihis means that we look for three parti cular planes (whose I10rmals
are in the dircction of x' , y', and Z') on which there are no shearing stresscs. t
These planes will be called principal planes, and the directions of the normals
to the planes are the principal directions. The normal stresses on these pla nes
will be call ed principal stresses. Let e = li + mj + nk be a ullit veetor in one
of the principal dircdion , and let uee be tohe eorresponding normal stress.
The stress vector on the inelined plan e, whose normal is e, is theli simply
U
e
= U eee or
[a] (f e = ue;e.
1"rol11 Eq. (1.5) of Section 1.3, we have
[b] (f e = eG'.
Therefore
[e] ea' = ue;
01"
Id] e(J - u eeE) 0,
that is,
T xz
(l, m, n) [uxx U ee
1
[e] U
yy
- U
e
o.
U U
T.;r; z T
yz zz ee
t Reganling the existtmee of three su eh mut ually perpendi cular planes, see the
footnote on p. 22.
1.11 PRINCIPAl, .''T'fl
Carrying out
(fIn - O
T:J; yl
Tr: l
One (trivial) solutil
equations in t, m, R
sincc e = (1 , 1/1, n) ji
Thus the so-called ti
For Eqs. (1.1 ti) t,
mjnant tT - u EI ,
O fIn
T.rU
Tu
Equatioll (1.18) i
expalldillg the det('r
+(11"
- (11
t We rerull thul
al :!' +bl Y 1 r
d:\
When the js
:c y
1.11 PRINCIPAL STRESSI,S 21
Carrying out the matrix multiplication, we obtain
(U
xx
- uee)l + T xym + Tx.n = O,
Txyl + (Uyy - u)m + Ty.n = O, (1.16)
Tx.l + T/I.1/1, + (U - u )n = O.
One (trivial) solution of the above system of linear homogeneous algebraic
equations in l, m, and n can be obtaillcd by putting l = rn = n = O. But
since e = (l, m, n) is a unit vector, we must have
(1.17)
Thus the so-called trivial solution of Eqs. (1.16) is not acceptable.
For Eqs. (1.16) to have nont.rivial solutions it is necessary that the deter
minant lO' - u EI vauish, t that is,
- u
xx
U
ee
O. (1.18) T
xy T y
Tx Ty U
zz
- (f ee
Equation (1.18) is caBed the charactel'istic equatioll of the matrix 0'. On
cxpanding the determillant, we obtain
222
+ (UxxUJ/Y + U
1
/ yU " + UxxUz - T y - T xz - T x y)Uee
- " (Ux xU yyU ,. + 2 T
yz
TxzT
xll
- - - UuT;y) = O.
(1.19)
t \Ve recall that for the system of linear algebrai c ecuations,
GX + by + CZ = dI, a 2X + b2Y + C2Z = d2, a3X + b 3Y + d 3,
I
al b
l CI dI b
l CI
, et c. X = d2 b2 C2 az b 2 C2
a 3 b3 ca
Whcn the system is homogeneous (that "is, dI = d2 = d3 O), then
d3 b3 C3
al b CI
is zero. X =
Y
= z = O unl es a2 b2 C2
a3 b : C3
22 CONCEPT OF STRESS 1.12 1.1
The three roots o Eq. (1.19) give the val ues of the three principal str s.t
Let thesc root:1 be denoted by O"ll, 0"22, and 0"33. Th prin ipal dir ctions ' 1'1'
sponding to them ean be obtained from Eq. (1.16) and Eq. (1.17) by 8ub
stituting for O"ee the valucs 0"11,0"22, and 0"33 individually.
Il.lltl fl'UIII
1.12 Tbe Tbree Scalar Invariants for the Stress Tensor
The principal stresses should not depend on thc coordinat axes cho eH fol'
the stress tensor cr; therefore the eoeffieients of Eq. (1.19) must not d p nd on
the orientation of the X-, y-, and z-axes. They are caJl d the sealar invarianLs
of the stress tensor. We denote them by 1
1
, [2, and 13. Th Eq. (1.19) can
be wl'itten
Sine!
Ir
(1.20)
lt is not hard to v rify that the 1's can be written in the foll owi ng fonn , which
. are llIore rcadily remembered:
O"xx + O"yy + O"n ,
100yy TI/ ZI + 100xx Tx'l + 100zx TXy l '
T ~ y 0" T u O" n T
II
% O" l/ Y
T",z
O"xx
T
XII
13 T
y x O"YlI T y
T
zx
T
ZIJ
O" u
1.13 Ortbogonality of Principal Directions
Let the principal direetions eorresponding to O" l and 0"22 be e l =
and e2 = (l2, 'ln2, n2), respeetively. Tnen
and
Thus, from Eq. [a], we have
[e] 1!ltTli; = 0"11li11!;.
(1.21 )
1.22)
(1.23)
t('IIROI' H
(l1 / Inil n I)
hl
t It can be lihown that the roots of the charact,eristic equation uf a r al symm t.rie
ilJ
matri x are real. The proof is beyond the scope of t his book. It i sufIkient to say thal
the xistence of three real roots of Eq. (1.19) ,Iarantecs the existence of thr e principal
lel
direction. . The proof that these directions are orthogonal to eac: h othel' is given in
Section 1.1 3.
1.14 !5TATIONARY VALU ES OF NORMAL STHESSE;S
Taking the transpose of both sides of Eq. [e], we obtain
and from Eq. lb),
[e)
Subtraeting Eq. [e) frOI11 Eq. [d), we have
e2(0' - O'*)er = (lT22 - lTlJ)e2Cr
Si nee O' is a symmetrie tensor, O' = 0'*, and thus
Therefore, provided lT22 ~ lT, we havet
23
(1. 24)
or, in vector notation; e2 . el
other.
O. Thus e and e2 are perpendieul at' t o each
1.14 Principal Stresses are the Stat ionary Val ues
of t he Norxnal Stresses
If we let the X-, y-, and z-axes be in th pri ncipal direetions, then t he stress
tensor referred to these axes is a diagonal mat rix, that is,
lT xx O
O 1 [a) (j= O O 'P/!
O .
O O a zz xyz
The normal stress on any inelincd plane whose unit normal is = (l, m, n) is
(1.25)
One of the stational'y values oE lT,v,v can be obtained by differentiatillg (NN
in Eq. [b] with re pect t 'In and n, and stating that they must be zel'O:
[e]
t 'ee Example 1.8 for the case 0"22 = O"ll.
1.14
24 CONCEI'T OF STRE S 1.14
Thus
m = 0, n = 0, 1 = 1, (1.26a)
Two other stationary values of UNN can be obtained in the same manner by
n
2 2
1
2
substituting m
2
= 1 - l2 - and n 2 = 1 - m - individually in E q.
(1.25). Theyare
1 = 0, m = 1, n = 0, (1.26b)
1 = 0, m = O; n = 1, (1.25c)
In other words, the principal directions are those corresponding to which the
normal stresses are the stationary valucs. They include a maximum and a
minimum.
EXAMPLE 1.7. With reference to x-, y-, and z-coordinates, the state
of stress at a point is
55.6 943
-157]
(j ='-' 943

333 psi.
-157 3 3 ; ~ 444
Find the three scalar invariants alld the principal stresscs and directions.
Solution. The three sealar invariants are:
11 ~ 7 55.6 + 444 = 500 psi,
55 6 157 55 6 3
12 = 1 3331 + 1 .
- 1 + 1 . 94 1 -1,000,000,
333 444 -157 4441 943 0
55.6 943 -lb'1'
943 333

- 157 333 444
FrOll1 Eq
thaL I ~ ,
and r"(1111
Th('1l
The charaeteristic equation is
3
U - 500u
2
- 1,000,000u + 5 X 10
8
= O.
he principal strcsses are the roots of this equation, which are u = 5 0,
1000, and -1000 psi. To find tho principal direction corresponding to
u = 500, we use the first two of equations (1.16) and Eq. (1.17):
(55.6 - 500)l + 943m - Lj7n = 0, (i)
9431 + (O - 500)m + 333n = 0, (ii)
l2 + m
2
+ n
2
= 1. (iii)
\ , '7
1.14 STATION ARY VALU F.S OF NORMAL STR SSES 25
From Eq. (i),
l = (943m - 157n) 1 . (iv)
From Eq. (ii),
lli(943m - 157n) - 500m + 3 3 ~ n = O,
that is,
~ 1550m = O, .".In = O;
then from Eq. (iv),
l = - Hin,
and from Eq. (iii) ,
2 1
1
n = 1.06 = 0.942.
n = 1. 125 '
Then
l = TO. 333
that is, the principal direction corresponding to the principal stress
( = 500 psi is e l = (0.333i - 0.942k). For the direction corre
sponding to ( = 1000, we have
(55.6 - lO(0)Z + 943m - 157n = O,
943l + (O - 1000)m + 333n = O,
Z2 + m
2
+ n
2
= 1.
The solution is
e2 = (0.666i + 0. 707j + 0.236k) .
For the direction corresponding to ( = - 1000 psi,
e 3 = (0.666i - 0.707j + 0.236k).
EXAMPLE 1.8. Determine the principal axes for the following stress
tensor:
o
A
O
CONCEP'!' OF STRESS 1.14
Solution. From the definit ion of pri ncipal axes, tbe set oi X-, y-, and
z-axes is obviously a sct of pri ncipal axes. I n this case, howevcr, it is
only one of infinitely many sets of principal axcs for the stress tellSOl';
the rcason fol' this a.ppears belo . In fact, we sball how that any set
of rectangular coordinate axes x', y', and z' , wit.h the z'-axis coincling
wit.h the z-axis, is a et of principal a s.
1"01' such x'-, y'-, and z-axes,
1.1 5
So lul iun.
y' , alld::' ,
that is, 0'; i
ax s of {T, q
(b) Frolll qd
l12 O]
l22 O
O 1 Xz
O
O] [ll1
u' = Run* = [ ;
A O ll2
O O 1 O O B O
- [; :
O O B x 'y'.'
Si ne ' 811 +
that is, the x'-, y'-, z'-axes are a set of principal 8,,'e8. We note that thc
charactcri t ic equation is
3
1T - (2A + B ) 1T
2
+ (2AB + A
2
)1T - A
2
B = O
whcrc su,
(e) In terl
or
which has a double l'oot IT = A.
EXAMPLE 1.9. One-third of the first calar invariant of the stress
t.ensor, that s, (0"%7; + O"yy + O"u)/3, is ealled the mean normal stress.
Any stress t n 01' er can e decomposed into th sum of two tenSOl'8:
the phericaJ stre t.ens r er. = (I d 3)E, ",hose diagonal elements arc
thc mean !lomlal st ress and whose llondiag nal dements are zero, and
the d 'viatori c str ss tensor Ud = U (11/3)E. how that: (a) thc
pri ncipal directions of erd and er are the same; (b) the fi rst scalar inval'iant
of Ud is a lwaY8 zero; and (e) tihc sccond invariant of Ud can be written, in
tierms of tihe pl'ineip 1 devi a.tioric stre es Sil, S22, and S33, as (l2)d =
- t (sL + +
alld t,hu '
1.15 MaximuD'
In this scctioll
the diffcI-encc
on the plane thu.t
smaIlest principal
in the principal
any incIincd plan'
[a]
Thus the squll.l'l' (
[b]
1.15 MAXI MUM SH EAR 8TIU; '. E!S 27
Solution. (a) With reference to any et of rectangular coordinates x' ,
y', and z',
that is, 0'; is a diagonal ma trix. Thus, with referenee to the principal
axcs of U, O' d is also djagonal.
(b) From d = O' - (l j3)E, we obta.in
1
1
Sxx= uxx - 3'
1
1
Syy = U yy - 3'
where 8""", 81/11' and 8" are the diagonal elements. Thus
(e) In t erms of the principal deviatori c str ses Sil, S22, and 8 33, the
econd invariant of Cfd is
. Since 8 11 + S2 2 + S33 = 0, t hen
(Sil + 822 + S33 )2
= 1 + + + 2(S11 822 + 8 1183 3 + 8228 33 ) O,
and thus
1. 15 M axiDlUD1 Shear Stresses
In this seetion we show t hat the maximum shea.ring stress is cqual to one-half
the difference between t he great st and least princi pal stresses, and that it aets
on the plane that bisects t h angle between the direetions of the largest and
smallest principal stresses. As in ection 1. 14, w let the x-, y-, aud z-Qxes be
in th principal directions, and U
x x
, (1'I/Y, and U
u
be the pri ncipal stress . On
any inclined planc whose unit normal is = (t, m, n), the st re s vector is
[a] l = NCf = ( [qx x, 1n(1' yy , n(1'n ).
Thus the square of t he total stress on the plE. lle is
[b] u
2
= 12(1';x + m
2
(1';y + .
,
l
,
and fOI" the planc wi
fi ncl (a) the
is in the d'
28 CONCEPT OF "nmss 1.15
Frolll Eq. (1.25), the square of t he normal stress OIl the 8ame plane s
Therefore the square of the shearing stress on the same plane must be
2
7 = 0" 2 - = 0";xZ2 + 0";lI
m2
+ 0";,n
2
- (O" xx
Z2
+ O"yym
2
+ O"zzn2) 2, (1.. 27)
aIld si nee
2 2 2
[d] 7 = 0":", (1 - m - n
2
) + 0";ym
2
+ CT ;.n
- [CT
u
+ (O" II Y - 0";rx)m
2
+ (O" u - 0""", )n
2
]2 .
Thus,
[e]
and
[f]
2
Thr ee sets of Z, ?n, a nd n givi ng rise to stationary values of 7 ean be obtained
by setting th a boye derivatives equal to zero:
22
[g] m(CTyy - O"X",)[(O"II Y - O" xx) - 2
(
,O"Y y - O"xx)m - 2(CT
zz
- O"",x )n ] = 0,
[h] n(O"u - 0"",,,,) [(0"... - 0"",,,, ) - 2(O"YlI - 0":c;r;)m
2
- 2(CT
u
- CT
xx
)n
2
] = O.
Obviously olle solution of Eqs. [h], [g], a nd [e] is 111 = 11 = 0, [ = 1. Also,
if in = Oa nd n 0, then [rom Eqs. [h] and [e],
n = Vt, [ = V!.
If n = a,nd In ,- 0, then fl'om Eqs. [g] and [e],
m = vt, Z = vl
Other ets of l, m, and n whieh give ri se to s tationary v:llucs of 7
2
ean be
obt a ill cd in the same ma nner- by subst ituti ug In 2 = 1 - [2 - n
2
a nd n
2
=
1 - [ 2 - m
2
in ividually in Eq. (1.27) . The results a re Ul11 med up in Table 1. 1.
l.15 MAXIMUM HIlEA)
The first three COlUll
these planes the shes
three remaining colu\I
the angles betw(>en tl
Let us now find ti
For the plane with (1
7
2
=

= HO";
and thus
Similarly, fOl" thc pln
T = !
t l::)incc l a 111 =<
aTl am = O; thui iM.
However, T O on
valu!', Im(, T i,; nol.,
1. 15 MAXIMUM SREAR STR8 SES 29
Table 1.1
l O O l O V! vt
m O l O
vt
O
vt
n l O O
vt vt O
The first three columns give the directions of the planes of coordinates. For
these planes the shearing stress is zero since they are principal planes. t The
three remaining columns gi ve planes through each of the principal axes bisecting
the angles between the two other principal axes.
Let us now find the shearing stre ses corresponding to these threc planes.
For the plane with (l, m, n) = (O, V!, v1\ we have, from (1.27),
T
2
!d;y + !o";z - (!o"Y1I + to"u)2
- + - ! (0";1I + 20"yyO" zz + 0";,) 1
and thus
Similarly, for the plane with (l, m, n) (v1, O, ,!1), we have
and for the plane with (t, 111, n) = (vt , vt ,O),
EXAMPLE 1.10. If t he tate of stress at a point is
[
100
=
O
50
O
O1 O psi,
- 100 X1l '
(1.28a)
(1.28b)
(l. 28c)
find (a) the magnitudc of the shearing stress on thc plane whosc normal
is in the direction of i + j + k, and (b) the maximum sheal'ing stress.
t Sincc Jr'.? / Jm = 2r(Jrjam) , etc. , if r r! O, then Jr
2
/Jm = O enwres that
drj am = O; that s, lhe sta tionary value:; of both r
2
anu r oecur on the sume planes.
However, r = O on the plan s. Thus on planes r
2
is a stationary
vahw, but. r is lloL
1 PHINCH'AI.
30 CONCEPT OF 'TRE S
!.lG
Solution. (a) We have
- 1
N = - (1,1,1),
v'3
The stress vector on the plane is
{j = Nu = _ (100, 50, -100) psi;
v3
the square of the magnitude of the str'ss vector is
and tho normal stress on the plane is
UNN = = 16.7 psi.
Thus the square of the shearing stress on the plane is
T
2
= u
2
- U'tN = 7220, thus T = 85 psi.
(b) From Eqs. (1.28) and th given U, it is roadily seen that T
rnax
is given
by Eq. (1.28b):
100 - (- 100) .
T mnx = 2 = 100 pSl,
whioh aets on the plane whose normal is given by
= 0, V2).
1.16 Principal Directions f or Two- DiDlensional ProblelDs
If the state of stress at a point is sueh that T
zx
= T.
y
= (l"u = 0, thcll tho
eharaeteristic equation (1. 19) beeomes
Thus l = m = ()
fore in sueh prot.
sponding 'In' K
[e]
U
,
2

Let u 11 and 1
FrOI1l tho
t =
fi l'st
[f]
Ol", SUlCO
we have
tan 8
Solulioll.
U II}
o:!:.!
Thus
that is,
[a] uee[Ue2e - (uu + UlIlI)u
ee
+ (uxxuy)) - T;II)] = O.
Therefore ono of the principal stre ses is obviously u ee = 0, and the direetioll
eorresp Ilding to this pr in ipal stress is determined from two of equations (l.W)
and Eq. (1.17), that s,
[b]
[e]
[d]
u x xl + T"'II111 = 0,
Tyxl + u))ym = 0,
l2 + m
2
+ n
2
= 1.
The prillC'
Thus 0
1
givell by
Rente O
2
words, el
1.16 PRJNCIPAL DlRECTIONS: TWO-DlMENSIONAL PROBLEMa 31.
Thus l = m = Oand n = 1. This is, of cOlll'Se, simply the z-di rection. There
fore in such problems only principal directions in t he xy-plane and t he corre
sponding stresses need to be found. From Eq. [a], w have
Let 0' 11 and 0'22 be the two roots of Eq. [e]; then
O'II} = ( O'xx +O' yy) V(O'u - 0'1/1/ )2 + 4 T ~ I / .
(1.29)
0'22 2
Fl'om the first equation of (1.16), we have
or, since l = cos 6 and m = in O ( ee Fig. 1.l1),
\Ve have
(1.30) tan 0 =
Figure 1.11.
EXAMPLE 1.11.. If U"'Z = 1000 psi, O'yy = 500 psi, TrI/ = - 600 psi,
II. nd O'zz = Tu = "1' y. = Oat some point P in a body, find the prillcipal
stresses and t he correspondi ng principal directions. Also find the magni
tude of the maximl1m shearing stress.
Solution. From Eq. (1.29) , we have
0' 11, = 1500 v5OO
2
+ 4(6002)
0' 221 2
Thus
0'11 = 1400 psi and 0'22 = 100 psi.
T h principal dircction corresponding t 0' 11 is given by
_ _ (1000 - 1400) _ _ ~ .
t O
an 1 - ( -600) - 3
Thl1S 6
1
= -33
0
41' . The pri ncipal direction corresponding to 0'2 2 IS
givcn by
= _ (l 000 - 100) = + ~ .
tan O
2
( -600) 2
Rence O
2
= 56
0
19'. Note that tan O
2
= tan(OI 1r/ 2). I n othcr
\Yords, e 11 and e 22 are ort hogonal to each otiler, as expected. Parts
32 CONC';PT OF S'rHF.;;;;
y
y
lOO psi
:.;i!r--'-----x
Figure 1.12.
(a)
(b)
(a) and (b) of Fig. 1.12 show the principal plalles on which thc prillcipal
stress es act. The magnitude of the maximum shearing stress is the
maximum of the following three quantities:
where 0'33 = O. Thus
1400 - O
T
max
700 psi.
2
PROBLEMS
1.1. Draw positive normal and shearing st.resses 011 the leH, right, upper, llnd 'Iuwer
faces of the element shown in Fig. 1.13 for .the three choices of the positive directions
of x- o.nd y-axes. ( se right-ho.uded x-, y-, z-coordinate sy::;tem and O rol' stresses
pointing out nf the page, El) for those pointing into the page.)
y
1.3. The t.etrahcdl'ol1
M, point O
(a) Can Eq. (1.5) In' I
th st re '. vrc(.ol' on 1 h
1.4. The state 01' ,1,1'('
Find tho stn'ss Vl'I'[1lr
1.5. For the st.at!' of
on the plalle n.
,1.6. For t.he ur
a plane pas,;jnp; thrl1l
1.7. or t he .tatl\ uf
plane pas,ing thl'oud
..t .8. 'fhe "tat.e 01' MI rl"
!J
Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14
1.2. Fse the vedor mdhod to find the area and the unit outwanI normal veetor for
the race /1 Be of the tetrahedron .;hown in Fig. 1.14. Abo fmd the tlreas of the other
three faces hy using Eq. lb] of Sec;tion 1.3.
Find the H vel'l c
_1.9. Show that ir I
a ny }lIane passing
to the .
1.10. The distri
Fine! the 8tl' . . v('c t
amI is t.angrnt. to t
10
PROBLEM:. 33
l.3. 'Th - telrahedron in Problem 1.2 is part of un eluslic 1 ody alle! the 'tate of !St ress
aL point O is
CT
50: -4:]
psi (lb/ in
2
).
(a) Can E q. (l.5) be w;ed to find the strcss \'cctor on Lhe face , l BC? (b) F ind
the s tress vector on the piune p 1> ing t hrough O and pura-lIel to Lhe inclined plane i BC.
1.4. The state of stress at a eertrun point of u body is given by
{
200 - 100
- 100 400
300 O
300]
O psi.
-100 x ue
F ind th .' r s vector at the point on the piune whose normal vector is '(2i + 2j + k) .
l. 5. For the 'ta.te of stress given in P roblem l A, find the stress vector at the point
on the I lane whose normal vector is i + 2j - 2k.
, 1.6. For t he t ate of str ss' given in P roblem 1.4, find the stress vector :l,cting on
a plane passing through the point and jJarallel to the plane x - 2y + 3z - 4 = O.
1.7. For the state of : tr s given in P roblem 1.4, find the s treRS vector acting on u
plane p!l:sing through the point and par ullel to t he piune 3x + y - 2 = O.
..t ,8. T he atate of str ' a t !lo certain poi nt of a body is givcn by
O
1000
O
O]
O
1000 XII '
F ind the s tress vector at the p nt on the plane who e norlll al vector is 4i + 8j - 3k .
1,9. Show that if the s tre matrix at a point is a sealar matrix, the stress vectol' on
ny phnc passing through the poi nt is of t he sume magnitude and is !1lw!1ys normal
to the plane.
1.10. The distl'ibution of the s t.ate of stress in !1 certain body is giveu by
CT
1 Ox -lOOY]
O O p i.
O O zyz
Find the ,tre' vector acting on u plane which passes through thc point V3/2, 3)
alld is tan;ent to the eircular cylindl'i caJ 'urface X2 + y2 = 1 at that point.
34 CON CEPT STRE SS
1.11. Fo!' the given in P r bl m 1.10, find th tress ved or on aplane whi ch
pa.&:ies through the point (1 , V3'j2, 2) amI is angent to t he eIl iptic Iindrical surfat;c
(x
2
/ 4) + y 2 = 1 at that pont.
1. 12. Show that the symmetry of the str matri x i not vaIid if there are body
moments Al per uni t voIume, S in the case or a polarized diel ctri lid under the
action of an eIect.ric fieId .
j .13. Show that if N is a unit normal vector fo!" a plane S passing through a [Joint
P, a nd N' is one for a plane S' pa lSing through the . ame point, then the component nf
the :stress vector acting on S in the direction of N' is equal to the component of tlHI
, tretiS vector aeting on S' in the direction of N. Tho stress matri x is lo be
symmetric.
1.14. The following two vect rs are perpenc\icubr to ea,ch other: .
a = i + j - k, b = i - j .
(a) Find 0, vector e which is perpendicular to both a and b and where (a, b, e) form,:;
a right-handcd tripl t. (b) Find the rotation matrix or (a, b, e) relativc to (i, j, k) :
(e) What i th inverse of the matri x found in part (b)?
1. t 5. Repeat ProbIem l. L 4, except that, a = i - j + k and b
1.J6. I n Fi r. 1. 15, the x'-, y'-, ami are obtained
through tho rotation of the X- , y- , ane! z-axes about the
z-a,;..; . De r mi ne the rotati on matri x in terms of 6. What
j + k.
!I
!I'
is ita inverse?
1.17. 'fhe stress vcctor on a certain plan is ,
o = (lOO, 50, -200)xu>psi .
Figure 1.16
Wha.t are the component ' of t.he samc str vector in t.he x'-, y'-, ano z'-directions,
where the x'-, y'-, and z'-axe are obt ained through a. 30 rotation of t.he :r-, y-, ami
e-lixes about the z-axis? [ e Eq. (1.9b).]
1.18. Repeat Problem 1.1 7, xccpt that O = (200, O, 100),YZpsi.
l.19. Why can the following two row matrices not represent the same veetor:
O = (l, 1, O)ry. psi, 0-' = (2,3, l)x'u' . ' psi?
1.20. Verify the equations in the econd row of Eq. (1.13) .
1.21. lf
(
. .):! x :1(b ..):J xa
al) IJ I
thcn
3
l.: a;"baj

Derivf\ Ec. (1.14) t"ro m Eq. (1.12) by the above oefiniti on of multiplil'.ution of mat,riees.
1.22. Find uy' u' and T y'.' in Example 1.4.
I
PHOBLI,Wi
1.23. Gil! n
lOO
find crz; ' z; ', and T
direction of i + j -
whosc normal is x'.
1.24. Rep at Problrll
is in the diredion of i
1.26. bow that ir a
Car te ian coordi nalC'.
1.27. ind Ir'.' ami I
Ftgur 1
1.28. Why enn t,}(>
1.29. Verify EqR, (1
1.30. Find (a) tI\("
principal dircl'tinns
P IlOBL I!:M 35
1.23. Given
1000
find (j .,x', T Z/
U
', and T Z"' , where x' L in t he direction of i + 2j + 3k, and y' i in he
direction of i + j - k. Iso find the magll itude of t he shearing s tr s on the plane
whose normal is x'.
1.24. Repea P roblem 1.23, e ' cept that x' is in t he direction of 2i - j + 2k and y'
is in the directioll of i + 2;.
1. 25. Repeat Problem 1.23, exc pt tha t t he x'-, y' and z' -axes are obtaincd through
a. 30 rotation of t he X-, y-, z-ax about the z-axis.
1.26. Sho\V that ir aand 'S' represent the same t nsor wi th rcfel'ence t o two rectangular
arte ian coor dinates, then if (f is a y rnmetri c matdx, so i (J'.
1.27. F ind 1.1%' Illld 1"11' for the area shown in F ig. 1.1 6.
:ti
1
:1 in.
F igu1:e 1. 16
1.28. Why C!l n t.he foJlowing two matrices no repr scnt the ame ~ t r ' tensor ' :
[ 100
200
~ ] [ 40
- 100
00]
o: = 200 O - 30 p 'i ,
- ,
-100 O O psi?
(j
40 -30 -50 Z lJZ 60 O 20 %' y'.'
1. 29. Veriry Eq . (1 .22) and (1.23).
1.30. Fin I (a) th three a lar invariants, (b) th principal ::; tresses, a. nd (e) the
print'ipal directiOI COl'
709
[
107
= 709 -417
58.3 --445
58.3]
-445 p. i.
. 810 %11'
.
36 CONCEPT OF STR E SS
1.31. Repeat Problem 1.30 for 1.32. Repell t P rob! m 1.30 rOl'
900
1900
: ] P 'i.
o 2800 xy.
(Note t hat the charactcrilSti . equa.tion has
a double root.)
1.33. lf the statc of .. tress at a point is
o
O
O
]
- 200 psi,
O 400 xv.
find (a) (hE' magnit ud ' of t lle ;:hearing t ress on the plane whuse normal i" m the
directicm uf 2i + 2j +k , and (b) the maximum shearing stress.
1.34. Repeat Problem 1.33, except t hal t he taLe ol' stress is :
- 400 00 0 ]
Vi .
[
O O 300 xp
1.3 . Repeat P l'obl em 1.33, ex<.:c pt that t h state of st ress i that given in Problcm 1.32.
1.36. Find the maxl mum :hearing stre and the plane on which tho stl' ads rol' rr
given in Problem 1.30.
1.37. Fi ne! Lhe maximum shcaring s lre,'s and the plano on which the stres act s rol' iT
given in P roblem 1.31.
1.38, If ITn = - 5000, IT' III = TI !! = 1000 p;;i, and IT" = T xz = T !!: = O al,
Hume poin t P in a body, find t he pr inci!ml :tressc ' and Lile corres pondin'l' primipal
dired.io!ls. AIRO find the mt\ximum 'heari ng stl' ' and th pI une on whieh it
1 Hepea t P rohlm 1.38 for
2000 - 500
'5 - 500 1500
: ] psi.
[

O O O :Z;yz
1.40. Hepcat P rohl em 1.38 for 1.41. Repeat PI' bkm 1.38 fol'
p:>i,
pi .
O O zy. O O %11 <
I'HOIlL';M:3
1.42. In Fig. 1.17, tite
equati(HI,;:
= !!:.!
=
TL'JI '
1.43. With refcrcl\(' p In
ITx'.' are detcrmined by
tan 20 =
11
If IT.. = T u = Tu: = I
normals lie un he :tV-:
aboye ' qllUtion. You n
tan 20 =>
1.44, to Pro'
T x ' y' are gil'en hy
tan 2(J ...
ami
Note that ir IT"
valul's of s]wal'inll;
the origino
"[llues al'!'
1.45.
For gi\'(\ I1 (5;r x ,
= T
r
:
It IlIlly
With referen!' ,
U IJ.II! un.
(1T"x', Tx' ,,')-plflne. TI
PROBLEMS 37
1.42. In Fig. l.17, the z- and z'-axes coincide. F rom Eq. (1.13) derive the following
equlLtion; :
(Ix'x' U
u
cos
2
() + T
xy
sin 2() + U
Y1I
sin
2
()
y
Y\l:c'
e
x
U n + u
u
" + U
u
- U
YU
28 + . 28
2 2 cos T "'11 sm ,
u
xz
sin
2
() - T
x1l
sin2() + Uyycos
2
()
U
u
+ U 1I11 + U " y - U n 2()
2 2 cos - T xy sin 2e,
Figure 1.17
i x'y'
(U
IIII
- u
x
", ) 2e + ( 2 e _ sl'n
2
())
2 sm T xy cos
(]'1JlI - U xz .
2 sm 2e + T xy cos 2().
1.43. With reference to Problem 1.42, show that the pbnes of maximum uno minimum
Ur'x' are determined by the equation
2T.,,,
tan 2e = - - "'-
U
xx
- U
yy
Ir U
u
= Txz = T y = 0, the aboye equation determine two principal planes whose
normals li e on the xy-plane. Show tha t for this case, E q. (1.30) is the sume as the
aboye equation. You may wi :;h to us t he identity
t an 2() =
2 tan ()
- t an
2
{}
1.44. Referring to Problem 1.42, show that t he planes uf maximum and mmlmum
T.'1I' are given by
ta,n 2fJ
ami
Note t,hat ir U,. = T
x
: = Tu: = 0, t hen (T"'1I') '""-" is one of the three nonzero stalionary
value;' 01' shcnring tresses with rcspec t t o the rotation of the x- , y-, and a bout
the origin o Ii may 0 1' may not be t,he maximum :;hearing s tres: . The other t\Vu
stationary values are ! [(u. 'x')rn", - O] a.nc! l[ k x' x')min - O].
1.45. \Vi th rcrel'ence t o Probl em 1.42, . how thnt
For U n, U I/I/ , and T "IJ' thi s is the equation of a cil'cl e eaUed l\I[ohr' s circle in the
(u"x', T"'II,)-pl ane. 1'h , of the circIe is at ( un + uyJ / 2, O), and t he radi us s
38 CONCEPT OF STRESS
1.46. In Fig. 1.18, the eoordinates of points ,1
and B in the (O'z'z', Tz'u,)-plane are A.(O'u, T zy)
amI B(O'ulI' -Tzy) . The eircle is drawn with
AB as a diameter. Show (a) that the eenter

CHAPTER
of the eircle is at ((O' u + O' n) / 2, O), (b) that the
radius of the eircle is
Figure 1.18
and (e) that the coordinates of a point P on the circlc, whosc radius vector 0'1)
makes an angle of 29 with O'A, are rTz'z' and Tx'y' for the plano whose normal lies
on the xy-plane and makes an angle of 9 with the x-axi, . (ee thc equations in
Problem 1.42.)
1.47. By constructing the Mohr eircle, find the principal stresses and the correspond
ing principal directions for u given in Problem 1.38.
1,48. By constructing the Mohr eircle, find the principal strcsses and the corresponding
principal directions for given in Problem 1.39.
1.49. By con tructing the Mohr eircle, find the principal stresses and the corresponding
principal directions for gi ven in Problem 1.40.
2 .1 The Strain
In the nrst chaptcr
Tllesc internal fOl'C('8
points inside the body,
material point8 in tho
point P in the d'
where dlPP1 is t,he
describe the deforma!
point P as
In Fig. 2.1, FA anu
in thc undrfornwd
A and B are at (J: -1
deforms, P t u
v(x, y, z), and w(:r., 1/, l
z-directions rcspccti
by u(x + dX, y, z),
U(1:, y + dlj, z), I{r 11
CHAPTER 2
Concept of Strain
2.1 Tbe St rain Matra
In the first chaptcr we discussed the internal forces in a deformable body.
Thesc internal forces will, in general, cause a change of length between any two
points inside the body. Let?P
I
be a vector connecting any two neighboring
material points in the undeformed state. We shall define the unit elongation at
poi nt P in the direction pi\ as
---" l ' 61PPd
, f:pp = 1m ~ ,
IPPI -> O IPPd
where 611'1\1 is the increase in length of pp when the body deforms. To
describe the deformation of a mall portion of the body with P in its interior,
is t-herefore ""i."" descri be the un t elongations in all direcLions. We shaIl show,
howevel', that if we know the unit elongation in any three mutually perpen
dicular directions and the three changes of angles between each pair of material
lines in these directions, then the unit elongation in any dil'ection is uniquely
determined. We shall then spcak of the state oi strain (01' deformation) at the
point P as characterized by the sct of six funct.ions thus denned.
In Fig. 2.1, PA and PE are two mutually perpendicular materiallines drawn
in the undeformed state o a body. Point P is located at (1:,!J, z), while points
A and B are at (x + 6x, y, z) and (x, y + 6y, z), respectivcly. Whcn thc body
dcforrns, P moves to P', A moves to A', and B moves to B' . Let u(x, y, z),
v(;r, y, z), and 1O(:r, y, z) be the displacement compoIlents of P in the X-, y-, and
z-directions respectively. The displacement compOllents of A are then givell
by 'u(x + 6x, y, z), v(x + .6x, y, z), and 10(:2; + 6x, y, z) and those of E by
u(x, 1/ + 6y, z), v(:!: .11 + 611, z), and w(x, 11 + 61/, z).
39
40 CONCEPT OF STRAIN 2.1
y
u(X, y, z)
_ ____ a__
A'

v(x +x, 1/ , z)
v(x, y, z)
y
l' U(X+x , 11 , Z).I
1
pL-----:'- x--.l...-lI
Figure 2.1

Denoting the unit elongation at P in the x-direction by E
xx
, from Fig. 2.1
we have
l
(P'A' - PA) l' P'A' - PA
E
xx
= 1m = 1m
PA-+O PA D.x-+O
Ir \Ve assume that a is smaJl , then P' A' "" P' A". Now P' A" - PA
u(x + y, z) - u(x, y, z). Therefore
Ex:; = lim u(x + - u(:r, y, z) = au.
[a]
D. x--> O X ax
Similarly, the unit elongation at P in the y-direction denotcd by E
yy
, assuming
smalJ (j, is
_ l'. P'E" - PB _ v(x, y + z) - v(x, y, z) _ av
[b] E - 1m - . - - ,
yy
D.y-+O ay
und the llllit eJongatioIl in the z-dil'ection denoted by E
zz
, assu1l1ing smaJl , (not
shown), is
[e]
The three unit elongations E
x x
, E
yl
/ , and E
u
aro also calJed tho lineal com.ponents
of slrain at the point P. In additi on, from Fig. 2.1 the anglo a, with which the
differential hne P A rotat es, is, for smaJl a,
l
A' A" l' v(x + y, z) - v(x, y, z)
a = ITll - - = 1m
p' A" + (au/ ax )
Introducing the fUl'thcr assumption that au/ ax 1, thell
l
. v(:r + y , z) - v(:r , y , z) av
[dl ex = 1m
D. x - ,O ax
2.2
1'11 Jo: " TRAIN 1'1:
Similarly, ussllmillg t
[e] {3 = !im
Av 11
[f]
Similar del'ivatiulltl
have the following , i
di splacerncllt compoll
, Xli = 'Y
''1 y: == .."
The matrix
is caJlcd thc slrain /1
It should be k('pt in
when the spacc ucriv;
Oll these assumptiorll
th Ol'y 01' sil/al!
2.2 The Strain
Let u' = u'i' + ,1'
alld z'-uxes . Th
l
[a]
J)' =
iJ
11
'1
2.2 Tillo STRAIN TENsOn
Similarly, assuming that avjay 1, we have
[e] 3 l
u(.;, y + t:.. y, z) - n(.r, y, z)
= II11
A V ~ O t:.. y
dU
ay
41
We now define the shearing slrain at poi nt P in the xy-plane as tlw deercllse
of angle between Ll:c and Lly, and denote it by l' I, 1I o!" l'V
x
" H nce
[f]
av dU
l'xv = I'vx = IX + f1 = - + - .
ax ay
,'imilar derivatiolls wiII give shearing strain in the xz- and yz-planes. W thus
have t he following six equations r >lating thc six strain component to tho three
displaccm nt e mponents:
The matrix
au
== - ,
O.l:
dV
f yy = ay'
dV on
l'xy = l'y = - + - ,
x OX dy
I':;y l'xz j
fyy l' y z
l' zv Eoz :tIlZ
dW dU
I'xz = I'zx = -;-.+ ,, '
uX uz
(2.1)
(2. 2)
i.s calIcd the slrain matrz"x at a. poi nt. I t is 11 symmtJtric matri x by d -finition.
It should be kept in mind hat Eqs. (2.1) define t he strain compollents only
when the space derivatives of u, v, Ild 10 al'e small. T he theory of strain based
on th e as umptions is often call ed t lle theol'Y of infinitesimal slrain UI" tllc
theory of small displacernenl gradient.
2.2 The Strain Tensor
Lct u' = u'i' + v' j' + I.c' k' be t hc disp)acemcnt vcctot' referred to x'- , y'-,
alld z' -ax .. T he strai n mat rix i th 1I givcn by
au' a/! ' ou' OW' da'
a.e'
--1-
-+
eh' ay' a.r' az'
[a]
7],
alt' av' UII ' aw' OU'
-+
ay'
- +
ay' a.r' ay' az'
au' aw' all' aw' aw'
-+- -+
az' dZ' a:r' az' ay'
:r:' u' Z'
42 CONCEPT OF STRAIN 2.2
2.2 TtrE STR.<\.IN T
Sinee
and
au' a1l' ax au' ay au' az
- = -- -+ - + -,
ax' (Jx ax' ay ax' az ax'
x = x'lll + y'l21 + Z'l31,
If we apply this 0(><
[h]
Sine ' lS a vector,
'iZ' = 'fZl
Y =
Z =
thercfore
ax
ax'
and
[b]
Similarly, we ean derive
[e]
a, u' = ( l21 aa + l22 aa + l23 aa) u'
ay x y z
and
[d]
u' = (l31 aa
x
+ l32 + l33 :z) u'.
Equations [b], [e], and [d] ean be written in the following matrix form:
x'll'2 + y'l22 + Z'l32,
X'll3 + y'ln + Z'l33,
ay
ax'
and thus
eomparison of
sh \vs that V,u is
Now
[i]
-.
V'iZ =
In Section 1.10 wr
alld thc
therefore
a
ax'
I a
[e]
ay'
a
az'
I
u' =
ll1 ll2 l13
1
21 l22 l23
l31 l32 l33
a
ax
a
ay
a
az
_ 1
[j ] E =
2
u'.
is a seeond-order
in Eq, [j], we ha
If we let V d note the matrix operator (aj ax, aj ay, aj az) and V' denote (ajax',
aNy', aj iJz'), then Eq. [e] becomes
[f]
E=
Equation [f] shows that the op rator Vt ran for ms according to the rule
[g] V' = RV,
2.2 TIIE STRAIN 'I'EN:;OR 43
lf w apply thiB operator to the displacement vector ' = (u', v', w'), we have
[h) V'*' = Rv*'.
Since is a vector, then
' = 'R*,
and thus
(2.3)
A comparison of Eq. (2.3) with the t ransformation law for second-order tensors
shows that V* is a second-order tensor.
Now
au av aw a
ax ax ax ax
au av aw a
-*
(u, v, w) = [iJ v=
ay ay ay
a
ay
au av aw
az az az az
In Section l.10 wc showed that the transpose of a tensor, the sum of two tensors,
and the multiplication of a t en 0 1' by a scalar are again tensors of the same order;
thcrefore
au av aw au au au
ax ax ax ax ay az
[j 1
1
f=
2
au
ay
av
ay
aw
ay
+
av
ax
av
ay
av
az
au av aw aw aw aw
az az az ax ay az
is a second-order Cartesian tensor. Carrying out the addition and multiplication
in Eq. [jI, \Ve have
f=
au
ax
I
'
-
1 eu
-+-
av)
2 ay ax
! (au + aw)
2 az ax
1 ev + au)
2 ax ay
av
ay
! ev + aw)
2 az ay
! ew + au)
2 ax az
! ew + av)
2 ay az
aw
az
(2.4)
44 CO:-; CEPT OF STllAI N
Tlw elrments of the tensor
only difference is the factor
will be called the slrain tensor.
can write
f;rx
f
-

01' letting f
x y
= 1"Y xy, E
x z
2.4
are e elltially those of the strain malr: D. The
for thc llondiagonal elemcnts in f. The tellsor
In terms of the lineal and sheal'illg st.rain, we
tI' Xl
(2.5) fyy t"Yyz
zy
fzz
= "Y xz, etc., we obtain
(2. 6)
It should be while the diagonal elements of thc strain teusor
are the lineal strains, the nondiagonal elements are, howcvcr, ollc-half the
shearing strains.
2.3 State of Strain at a Point
If the strain tensor at a point is known with respect to X-, y-, and z-axes, the
unit elongation in any direction = (1 , m, n) is uniquely deterlllined by thc
equation
(2. 7)
Thus the state of strain at a point (i.e., unit elongatioJl 111 any direction) is
complete\y characterized by the strain tensor at the point.
2.4 Principal Strains and Scalar Invariants for Strain
Tensors
Since the strain tensor is a sccond-order symmetric tcnsor, whatevcr mathe
matical results we obtained for the principal stresses can be carried ovcr directly
Thus thrcc principal directiolls exist, which arc orLhogonal lo one anolhcr,
with refel'cnce Lo which strain tensor is a diagonal matl'ix. PhysiealIy ihis
mcans that thrcc orthogonal directions exist which remain ort.hogonal aft er
deformatioll . The thl'cC lineal strains eorl'esponding to thei:ic principal diree
tiQns a.rc called the principal strains. Thc eharactcl'istic cquatioIl for thc strain
tensor is
o
or
o, (2.8)
2.6 PHINCIl
whore

We not.e that
and also, froll
of the lineal s
2.5 Cubil
The flf8t SCI
Let us consid
are parullel t(l
be 1
1
, l2, 8.nd
parallelrpiprd
lengt-h. Hene
plus terms of
2.6
wlH'l'e E,,,,,
PRINCIPAL STRAINS FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL PRORLEMS 45
JI Exx + Eyy + Eu , (2.9)
J
2
IEl/Y EYZI + IExx EXZI + IExx EXyl '
(2.10)
Ezy f
zz
f
zx Eu Eyx Eyy
I
EXll
Exx
J
3 El/Y
EUI
El/x EI/z . (2.11)
Ea Ezy Eu
We note that J), J 2, and J 3 are, of course, scalar invariants for the strain tensor,
and also, from Section 1.14, that the principal strains are the stationary values
of the lineal strains. They include a maximum and a minimum.
2.5 Cubical Dilation
The first scalar invariant of tho strain tensor has a simple geometrical meaning.
Let us consider as a volume clement a rectangular parallelepiped whose edges
are parallel to the principal directions of strain; we let the lengths of these edges
be l), l2, and l3. On deforrnation, this element again becomes a rectangular
parallolopiped, but with edges II (1 + EI!), l2(1 + E22), and l3(1 + E33) m
length. Hence the change V in the volume V of the elernent is
V = l)l2l3(1 + E)I)(l + E22)(1 + Eaa) - l)l2la
= l)l2l 3(Ell + E22 + E33),
plus terms of higher order in E'S. Thus
V
E)) + E22 + E3a = JI = V
(2.12)
Thercforo the first scalar invariant represonts the expansion of a unit volume
due to strain produced in the medium, and it is called the cubical dilatation or
simply the dilatation.
2.6 Principal Strains for Two-Dhnensional ProblelDs
If the state of strain at a point is such that Eu = Ezy = En = O, then as
proved in Section 1.16, the z-axis is one of the principal directions. The principal
directions in the xy-plane can be determined from the equation
(2.13)
whcrc E
ee
, the principal strains, are the roots of the equation
48 CONCEl'T OF ::;TllAIN 2.6
EXAMPLE 2.1. Derive t.ho following equations:
f
x
' x' = fxx cos
2
ep + Cyy sin
2
ep + 'Yxy sin ep cos ep,
fy'y' fxx sin 2 ep + C
yy
cos 2 ep - 'Yxy sin ep cos ep,
'Yx'y' 2(f
yy
- f
IX
) sin ep cos ep + 'YXy ( cos
2
ep - sin
2
ep),
where the set of the x'-, y'-, and z'-axes is obtained by I'Otating the
x-, y- , and z-coordinates through an angle ep about the z-axis.
SOl1ttion. We have, from Fig. 2.2, '1/ = (cos ep, sin ep, O) and J' = (- sin ep,
cos ep, O) ; thus,
-'1,=-:,*
f x' x ' = t f '
f
zz
f
xy
,,,]
= (cos ep, sin ep, O) fyx fyy
f
yz
sm ep
f
zx
f
zy
f
zz
O
= fu cos
2
ep + C
yy
sin
2
ep + 2f
xy
sin ep cos ep.
Sincc 2fxy = 'Yr'/I' we obtain
Similarly,
-=, ==""",*
fy'y' = J fJ = (-,in oos [ -:: : ]
. 2 + 2 2 .
f
zx
sm ep e
yy
cos ep - f
xy
COS ep sm ep,
that is,
and
'.',' NJ" sin [ - :;::]
( f y y - fu) sin ep cos ep + f:r: ;J (C08
2
ep - sin
2
ep),
that is,
= (f
yy
_ fu) sin ep cos ep + 'Y;iI (cos
2
ep - sin
2
ep ),
'Y.L'y' = 2 (f
y y
- fu) sinep co' ep + 'Yx y (cos
2
ep - sin
2
ep).
Figure 2.2
EXAMPLJ:
SOl1thon.
that is,
tho charactl'r'
thus,
'rhe principal
The pl'ineipnl
by
tan IJ -
2.6 PIUNCIPAL RTRAINS .' OR TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 47
This example shows that the two-dimensional tensor
completely determines thc strain components in the plane of xy.
y
yf
Figure 2.2
""------'-_ x
Figure 2.3
EXAMPLE 2.2. The unit elongations En, Ex'x', and EI/I/ at a certain
point on the surface of a body ar measured experimentally by means of
strain gages arranged 45 apart (called the 45 strain rosette) and are
found to be 200, 50, and 1001-' in/in, respectively. Determine,XI/"
Also, assuming that En = E
zx
= EZI/ = Oat the point, find the principal
strains and direct ions in the plane of xy (Fig. 2.3).
Solution. From Example 2.1, with cp = 45, we have
'xy = 2E.I:'%' - En - El/Y = (100 - 200 - 100)
With JI = Ex., + El/Y = 300 and
-2001-' in/in.
I
200 -
100
1
- 100 100
= 20,000 - 10,000 = 10,000,
the charactoristic cquation is
E;. - 300Ee + 10,000 = O;
thus,
300 v'90 000 - 40 000
2
300 50000
2
300 223.6
2
The principal strains in the plane of xy are fe. = 261.8 and 38.21-' in/in.
The principal dil'oction a&sociatcd with Eec = 261.81-' in/in is determined
by
tan 8 =
48 CONCEPT OF S'T'RAIN 2.6
2.6 P HI:-ICIPAJ,
. Therefore we have
and the principal direction associated with fe e
8 = -3l43' + 90 = 5817'.
= 38.2 Ji. in/in is given by
EXAMPLE
a cOllstant,
and (c) th('
through 4:;
scal:u inva
of thc eha
EXAMPLE 2.3. If, with reference to the x-, y-, alld z-coordinatcs, thc
state of strain at a certain point in a body is given by
(a) wbat is the unit clongation in any dircctioll given by the unit vector
e = li + mj + nk? (b) What is the change of angle bctween any two
(b) The st.rai
p rpendicular lines through the point and in the directions el = lli +
mI + nk and e2 = l2i + m2j + n2k? (c) What is the cubical clila
tation?
(d) What are the principal directions'?
Solution. (a) Thc unit elongation in any dircetion e = (t, m, n) is:
(e) The rotn!l
R =
(b) The ehange of angle between any two perpendicular lines el and e2
is given by 2f
e
e Now,
alld
2
e o O] [ 12]1
f' = Ud
(ll' mI, nI) O e O 1n2
[
O O e n2
~ C(Z" m" n.) [::] ~ 0,
Thus therc is no change of angle. (e) Cubical dilaLatiOlI = f.cx + f
lly
+
fu = 3e. (d) Any thl'ec orthogonullincs through the point muy be used
as principal dircdiono.
Thc state of strain in this exalllplc is called un1/onn dilatal1:on.
49 2.6 PHI CIPAL STllAINS FOR TWO-DIMENsIONAL
EXAMPLE 2.4. Given that u = 2Cy, v = O, and w = O, where ' is
a constallt, determine (a) the strain components, (b) thc strain tensor,
and (c) the strain tensor refened to the x'-, y'-, and z-axcs obtained
through 45 rotation of x, y, alld z about the z-axis. (d) What are the
scalar invariants? (e) Check the principal strains by obtainillg the roots
of the charactcristic equation.
Solution. (a) The :strain componellts are
dU dO dW
tO lOlo = - = O
tO
yy
= dY = O,
tO zz = dZ = O,
d:t '
dW dU
. "Y x = dV + dU = 2C
I'xz = - + - = O
y a:c dy ,
dX dZ '
aW dV
l'yz = ay + iJz= O.
(b) The strain tensor is
Exx t I'XII
C
t >" 1 [O
f= !"YXy
tOyy t "Y
lIZ
= C O
!l'xz tI' zy
tO
u
O O
Figure 2.4
(c) The rotation matrix R is (Fig. 2.4)
sin 45 1
[ cos 45
R. = 45
eos 45
1
1
2


'
O O V2
ando
[
- 1
t' =
- 1

002000 O 0V2
C
-C
J
O
e

0]
O -C
O
2
+
o O O x'y'z'
50 CONCE P'r OF HTllAIN 2. 7
Notc that since E' is diagDnal, the x'-, y'-, and z'-axes are therefore
principal directions, and principal strains are e, - o and zero. (d) Tbe
scalar invariants are
JI = + El/Y + Ezz O = Ex' x' + EY'I/ + E.'.', Ex x =
O e O
J
3
= e O O O
O O O
e O
O -e
O O
O
O
O
(e) The characteristic cquation is
E.
e
= O, and Ec c = C.
The state of strain in this example is caUed pure shearing strain.
2.7 Equatlons 01 Compatlbl1i ty
In this section we shall establish relationships between the ix straill com
ponents which must be satisfied by any distribution of the statc of strain repl"c
senting a "physically acceptable deformation." By this term \Ve mean here
deformations which can be described by displacement components that are
single-valued continuous functions of the coordinates with continuous dcriva
tives of al! orders.
If we look at E qs. (2.1), tbe defini ng equations fOI" the strain components,
as a system of partial diffcrential equations for the detel"lllination of the dis
placements u, v, and 'IV when the strain components are prescribed functiolls of
the coordinates, then, since there are six equatious fOI" the thrce ullkIlO\VIIS,
we cannot expect t o find single-valued continuous functions u, v, alld lO for any
arbitl'ary choice of the distribution of strain compollents. For example, \VC
considcr the following arbitrarily chosen distribution oI thc statc of strain :
f = [ ~ ~ ~ l
O O O
Let us a ume t,hat t,here exist single-valucd cOlltirlUous functiOIlS u, v, alld te
with cOlltillUOUS derivatives of al! orders which give risc to thc givcn st,atc of
strain. \Ve shaU then show that such an assumption lcads to absul'd results.
2.7 EQUA'l'IO .; . ,..
In fact, sinee auj l .
are assu1l1od conti m
(8j8x)(a11.j8!J) = 2 ~
1
E.r ll -=- 2
thcrcfol'e
On the other hlmd,
changillg t,hc ordl' r
at the absurd result.
ampIe i8 threforc 1
c(Y/npaby of [he Ir
We shall now pn
strain cOlllponcnts .,
\ve have
and
a la (r
al: ay
Aftcr intcrchallging
e
and thus
[al
Two more relatiol\8
of the lettcrs ;t, !J, 111
DI
Eu = a
2.7 EQUATIONi; OF COMPATIBILlTY 51
In fact, sinco au/ ax = y2, then (a/ay)(au/ax) 21), and since the dorivativos
are assumed continuous, the order of differentiation is interchangeable. Thus
(a/ ax)(au/ ay) = 2y. AIso, sinco
1 (au av)
Exy = '2 ay + a;; == o,
therefore
av
~ (a
2
v) = -2.
ax ay ax2
On the other hand, sinco (av/ay) == 0, then (a/ax
2
)(av/ay) == 0, 01' by inter
changing the order of differentiation, (a/ay)(a
2
v/ ax2) = O. We thus an'ive
at the absurd result that -2= O. The state of strain given in the above ex
ample is thcrefore not acceptable. Such a situation is also knowll as the in
c01npatibility of the strain cornponents.
We shall 1l0W proceed to derive the nccessary condit.ions which compatible
strain cnmpollonts must satisfy. From
au
ax
av
ay
and
au av
ay + ax = "I
xy
,
we have
and
a a au + av _ a
2
'Yxy
ax
[
ay
(
ay ax
)]
- ax dI) .
After int.erchanging the order of differentiation, this last equation can be written
~ . , aU. + ~ av _ a 'Yx/[ ,
2() 2() 2
ay2 ax ax2 ay - ax ay
and thus
2 2 2
a Exx +a Eyy _ a "I"y
[a]
d!JZ dx
2
- dX ay .
Two !lloro rclations of the same kind can be obtained by cyclical interchange
of the lotters x, y, and z. Also, from
au aw av
Exx = dX' "Iyz = ;;- + a-'
uy z
aw aa dV au
"I;;z = - +-, and "I
xy
= - + -,
dx dZ ax ay
'
.
PRBLbMS
52 OF CiTIUIN 2. 7
EXAMPLE
we can obtain
placcments
o 'Yr,z = _a_ aw + au = ow + _a_ au ,
2 2( ) () (' )
ax aya.'!: ay ax az ax2 oy ay az ax
and
HClIce we have
lb]
Two morc rclatiolls similar to lb] can be obtained by intcrchallging tire lcttcrs
x, y, and z. Wc thus al'rive at the following six rclatiolls among thc strain
components:
2 a
2
f. z x = (_ a'YyZ + a'Yr,z + a'Y
XY
) ,
ayaz ax ax ay az
2
2 a f.Y1I = (a'Y
y Z
_ a'Yxz + a'Y
XII
) , (2.15)
ox az ay O;C ay az
2
2 a f. z z = (a'Y
y Z
+ a'Yxz _ a'YXII)I.
ax ay az ax ay az
Thcsc diffcrcntial relations are called the equations of compahbily. t
EXAMPLE 2 .5. Does the distribution of the statc of straill,
3,l; + 2y + z 22
5y + z 1
f.=
[
2z 4
6x + + z
5y + z 6x + 4y + z
rcprescnt a compatiblc strain field?
Solution. Since cach terll1 of the compatibility cquations involvcs second
dCl'ivativcs of thc strain components with respect to thc coordinates, the
above strain tensor, with each componcnt a linear function of :c, y, and z,
will obviously satisfy them.
t It can be shown t-hat if the domain of the roblem is simply connccted, these
relation. are noto only neces:;ary out sutfleirnt to Ihe continuity and single
of the component:,;.
be compatibll
Solul.ion. Ye'
PROBLEMS
2.1. Gil'cn t,ha!. t,he ell
whel'e 'Y, E, 11 , and 1!Ir
2.2. Find lhe strain ('(J
M
11 = 2EI
where J1, H, J, and 11
2.3. If the rigid body
so that a typi('ul llUi nl
ment, fol' jJ, in t. ermli 1
t hat cos O "" 1 amI
that the displaccl!11 nl
anel r = xi +yj.
Figure 2.5
2.4. (a) Sho\\' that ir
infinitesimal angle O,
whcrc O is a vectur
rule, and when' r is
(b) Show that tht'
ri gid hody :
IVhel'c 0
1
, antl OJ
pnoDLEMS 53
EXAMPLE 2.6. Will thc strain componcnts obtained from the dis
placements
be compatible?
x
V = e, and w = sin z,
Solution. Yes! There is IlO need to check. Why?
PROBLEMS
2.1. Given that the components of displacement in a body are
l/Y l/Y
2 2 2 2
W = 2B (z + JlX + Jly - l ), u = - E ZX, v = - E zy,
where E, JI, and l are constants, find the strain components.
2.2. Find the strain components for the following di splacement field:
M 2 2 2
1 = 2El (z + JlX - Jly ),
M
v = El Jlxy,
M
w = - RI XZ,
where lf, E, 1, and JI are constantS.
2.3. If the l"igid body shown in Fig. 2.5 rotates through an angle (J about the z-axis
so tbat a typical point P(x, y) moves to P', (a) what are the component.s of displace
men t for P , in terms of T, (Jo, and (J ? in terms of x, y, and (J'? (b) If (J is very small so
that cos (J "" 1 and in (J "" (J, what are the displacement componentH? (e) Verify
tha the di splacement vector of P in part (b) can be obtained by (J X r, where (J = (Jk
llml r = xi + yj.
y

Flgu:&"8 2.5 Figu:&"e 2.6
2.'1. (n.) Hhuw that if a rigid body about the axis AA in Fig. 2.5, through :.Ln
infinite;;imul angle (J, the displacemcnt vector for a typical point P is given by (J X r,
where (J a vector whose length i;; (J und whose direction is ,:;iven by the right-hand
rule, ulld whC're r iti he position vector of P measured from any point O on the axi s.
(h) Show that the following di , placement field reprC'senb; infinitesimal rotatiom of a
rigid body :
v = (Jax - (JI Z, 'W = - (J2X +(Jy,
wltere (JI , (Jz, und (J: arC'
l
--
64 CONCEPT OF STRAIN
2.5. Find the strain components fol' the displaccment field given in Problem 2.4(b). 2.13. For thc Rlutl'
direetion of 3i - 4j
e 2.6. Show that if
2
2.14. Fo!' the
direction oI k'!

ayaz '
then a plane x = eonst in the undeformed state remains 11 plane in the deformed state.
2.7. Show that ir
2.19. Determine
the strain tensor
thcn a plane y = eonst in the undeformed state remains a plane in the deformed state.
- 2.8. Find the equation of the surface whieh a plane x = eonst (in the undeformcd
state) assumes in the deformed state if
but
- 2.9. Show that if
O e;: -e
y
]
ez O O
[
-ey O O
and the f givl'n in PI
whe'e e is a constan t, then any pIane x const remains a plan e in the deformed st ate.
2.21. For tlle
- 2. 10. Show that if
the el ement.s whil'h fl
between el ilne!
where el and e2 are constants, then any plane x = eonst remains a plane in the
deformed state.
2.11 . What is the distribution of the strain tensor to the displacemcnt
field given in Problern 2.1 '?
2.12. If, with referenee to x-, y-, and z-coordinates, the state of struin at a po1t is
given by
f = [::: ::: - 10:] J. in/ in
O -100 200
what the unit eIongation in the direction of 2i + 2j + k?
2.22, Thc statL' nI' str
Determine lit' unit
11' -, and z' is oh
z-uxc . Aho fiflll 'Y . ,.
2.23. Hpeul. Pmbll 'n
66
2.13. For tho state of strain given in Problem 2.12, whut is the unit elongation in the
direction of 3i - 4j?
2.14. For the :;tate of strain given in Problem 2.12, what is the unit elongation in the
direction of k'! '
2.15. For the state of strain given in Problem 2.12, what is the change of angle between
two perpendi"culllr lines (in the undeformed state) inten;ecting at the point and in the
d.irection of 2i + 2j + k and 3i - 6k'?
2. l. Repe[l)t Problem 2. 15, except that the line::; in the undeformed state are in the .'
directi ons of 3i - 4k and 4i + 3k.
2.17. Repeat Problem 2.15, except that the lines in the undeformed state are in the
directions of i j and i - j.
2.18. Find the sealar invariants for the strain tensor given in Proble1l1 2.12.
2.19. Determine the principal strains and the corresponding principal directions for
the strain tensor given in Problem 2.12.
2.20. The following two matrices cannot represent the state of strain at a point:
600 J.I. in/ in,
O

O 200
anu the f given in Problem 2. 12. Why?
2.21. For the distribution of strain tensOr given in Problem 2.10, find the location of
the elements whieh do not suffer any ehange of volume. 1Vhat should be the relation
between C
l
and C2 such that no element changes its volume?
2. 22. The state of train at a point in a. body is given by
Dckrmine the uuit elongations in the x'- and y'-directions, where the set of x'-,
y'-, and z'-axcs is obtaincd through a. 60
0
rotation of the x-, y-, and z-axes about the
z-axis. Abo find 'Y x ' y' .
Hcpe:lt Problem 2. 22, except tha.t the state of strain ti given by
l
400 - 150
- 100
-15:
O
;
66 CONCBPT OF RTUAIN

2.24. Rcpeat Problem 2.22 excepto that the state of strain given by
2.40. Check whcthl'l' 01'
the compatibility ('(Judit
11

!I
2.25. Find the principal strains and directions for the f given in Problem 2.22.
2.41. Cheek whetl)!'1' ot
2.26. Find the principal strains and directions for the f given in Problem 2.23.
the compatibility \:o!llli
2.27. Find the principal strains and directions for the f given in Problem 2.24. . "
[
;c'
2.28. The 45
0
strain-rosette measurements give .,
!( -1
Exx = 500 X 10-
6
, Ex'x' = 300 X 10-
6
, and f
YI1
800 X 10-
6

.(
Find 'Y X1/' (See Example 2.2.)
2.29. In Problem 2.28, assuming that E
zx
O, find the principal strains
and directions.
2.30. Repeat Problem 2.28, except that
Exx = 650 X 10-
6
, Ex'x' = -300 X 10-
6
, and Eyy = -250 X 10-
6
.
2.31. Repeat Problem 2.28, except that Eu = Ex' x' = Eyy = 1000 X 10-
6
.
2.:32. The 60
0
straiJl rosette measures the three unit elonga
tions in the x-, x'-, and x"-directions shown in Fig. 2.7.
X
!I
II .1 t
Determine Eyy and 'Y xy in terms of E
xx
, Ex' x', and Ex"x" .
X
2.33. The 60
0
strain-rosette measurements give Exx = 200 X
((Jo
10-
6
, Ex'x' = 100 X 10-
6
, and Ex"x" = 150 X 10-
6
. Find
E/m and 'Y xy.
X
2.34. Repeat Problem 2.33, except that
Figure 2.7

Exx = 300 X 10-
6
, Ex'x' = - 60 X 10-
6
, and Ex"x" = 400 X 10-
6
.
2.35. Rcpeat Problem 2.33, except that Eu = Ex' x' = Ex"." = 2000 X 10-
6
.
2.36. Sinee f and (1 are mathematically identical (they are bolh symmetric f;ccond-ordel'
t,he construction of Mohr's circle discussed in Problems 1.45 ud 1.46 applies
to f abo. Repeat Problem 2.22 by constructing the Mollr circlc.
2.37. Repeat Problem 2.26 by constructing the Mohr circle.
2.38. Repeat Problem 2.27 by constructing the Mohr circle.
2.39. Derive the equations in the second row of Eqs. (2.15).
pnoULJ.:MS 57
2.40. Check whether or not the following of the statc of st.mill a ti fies
the compatibility conditions:
x
z
2.41. Check whethel' 01' not the following distribution of the state of strain satisfies
the compatibility conditions:
o
2 2
Y + z
xz]
x .
2
x Z
3.2
3.1 Differential Equations of EquilibriulD.
In this chapter we derive equations which govern the stress distribution inside
an elastic body in static equilibrium. A deformable body is said to be in static
cquilibl'iuIl1 if and only if each and every portion of it is in static equilibrium.
We shall therefore begin by deriving the equations of equiJibrium fol' a differential
el mento
Figure 3.1 shows a free-body diagram of a rectangular parallelepiped isolated
fmm some deformable body. The components of stress acting OIl the six faces
01' this small element and their positive directions are indicated in the figure.
Let F = F",i + Fyj + F.k be the body force (such as the gravitatiollal force)
per unit volume of the element; then the equation of equilibrium obtained by
sUlllming al! the forces acting on the element in the x-direction is
Uxx(x + Ax, y, z)(Ay) (Az) - T",x(x, y, z)(Ay)(Az)
+ Ty,,(X, y + Ay, z) (Ax) (Az) - Ty,,(X, y, z) (Ax) (Az)
+ Tzx(X, y, Z + Az)(Ax)(Ay) - Tzx(X, y, z)(Ax) (Ay)
+ (Ax Ay Az)Fx = O.
Dividing through by Ax Ay Az, we obtain
58
UX;;(x + Ax, y, z) - uxx(x, y, z) + TIIX(X, y + Ay, z) - TII",(:r, 1I, z)
Ax Ay
+
T zx (X, y, Z + Az) - T:,,(X, y, z) + F = o
Az x ,
und by letting Ax,
Two more equa .
of cquilibrium are:
aUn +a
a:r iJ
aTzJI +00
al: iJ
aTu +~ 1 '
ax iJ
01' if we let V= (a(
Vuf- F :
3.2 Boundary
If we considcr all
with its inclincd fal
Newtoll's second la.w
- u,
where = (1, 111, n
boundal'Y, ILnd 111
unit arca applicd 01
cal!ed sltlj'ace Irarlw
ary conditm.
CHAPTER 3
Equations of Elastostatics
3
?
. ~ BOUN DARY CONDITION FOR THE STRE S TENSOH
ITI/Y(.c, y+.y, z)
Figure 3.1
and by letting ~ x , ~ y , ~ z -) O, we have
aUn +aT
llx
+aT
u
+ Fx = o.
ax ay iJz
69
Two more equations can be derived in the same manner. Thus thc equations
oC cquilibrium are:
aUx;r; +aT
II X
+aT
zx
+ Fx = O,
ax ay az
aT
x
+ aU
1I1I
+ aT
ZII
+ F, = O
ax ay az y ,
aT;r; z + aT
IIZ
+ au
zz
+ F . = O.
ax ay iJz -
Or ir we let V = (a/ ax, a/ ay, a/ az), then Eqs. (3.1) can be written
VO' + Ji' = o.
3.2 Boundary Condition for the Stress Tensor
(3.1)
(:3.2)
If \vc eonsidcr an infinitesimal tetrahedron cut frorn the boundary of a body
with its inelined faee coinciding with the boundary surfaee (Fig. 3.2), then
Xcwton's second law requires [see Eqs. (1. 5)] that
= NO', (3.3)
where N = (l, m, n), the unit normal vector, varies over the
iJoundary, and now stands fol' the external force vector per
unit area applied on the boundary surface, which \ViII also be
callcd 81l1jace lractian . Equation (3.3) is called the stress bound
ary tondilion. Figure 3.2
l
60 EQUATIONH OF ELA::;'I'OHTA'TICS 3.4
3.3 Stress-Strain Relation lor Is otropic H ODlogeneous
Elastic Materials
AII structural materials possess, to a certain extcnt, the property of elastieity;
that is, if external forces producing deformation of a structure do Ilot ,' eeed a
certain limit, the defonnation disappears with the removal of the forces.
Throughout this book we shall be conccrned only with a body each portion of
which, large 01" smaIl, possesses this property. The mathematical statemcnt
expressing this elastic property is that the state of stress at every point is a
, single-valued function of the state of strain. We shall also assume that tlle ma
terial is homogeneous and elastically isotropic; that is, every portion of the hody
the sam specific physical properties, and its elastic propertics are the
same in all directions. Most structural materials are formed of crystalline sub
stanc s, and hence very small portions of such materials eannot be regarded as
being isotI"opic. Tevertheless, the assUlnption of isotrupy and hOll1ugeneity
when applied to an entire body often does not lead to erious discrepancies be
tween the experimental and theoretical results. This is because the dimensions
of most crystals are very small compared with the dimensions of the body, nlld
they are randomly distributed and orientated so that, as a the makrial
can be treated as homogeneous and isotropic.
U nder the aboye assumptions, the most general possible form of stress-strain
relation is t he following :t
where the f's are functions of scalar invariants of the strain tensor f, and E i
the unit matrix. It is important to note that every term uf Eq. is a second
order t ensor; that is, the cquation is tensorially hornogeneous, a condition which
are functions of sealar invariants, their values do not depcnd on the
:3.4
HOOKE' S LAW
can atmost be a lineal' f
Thus we a nivc at the ro
cr = (e + X. J
where e, x, and G are e
invariant of the strain t
from a so-called neutral
then e = o. Thus \Ve Il.
Rere Xand G are knowII
alld their dimensions are
shcar modv.lus.
Equation (a.6), whclI
Un == X.J) +
T
xy
=
From Eqs. (:3.7) \Ve no\'(
Ir we add the flrst thrrl
and thus
must be satisfied by al! equations expressing physical laws. Also, since the 1's
of coordi nate ax s. Thus the f's characterize the isotropic propcrties nf the
material. Tlle hon ogeneous properties of the material can be put illto the
stress-strain relat ion by insisting that the f' s are Ilot functions of c()()rdillates,
as \ViII be done ill the foJlowing discu i n.
3.4 H ooke's Law
In many problems of practical importance, the straill componcnts are sO
srnall that thcir squares can be lleglected in comparison with thcm c1 ves. The
strcss-strain law based on this assumption is callcd a linear stress-straill law oC"
H oolee' s law. In order to keep the terms linear in t he st rain componellts, f
t It is ta itly assumed he re that the stress componen ts are fllnctiolll, of
the >i train component:s , with continuous der ivativc up to ti: many as are needed
in the power serip. representation.
n we let
then
Using Eq. (3.9), frolll
3.4 HOOKEJ ' S LA W 61
ean at most be a linear function of J a nd f2 cannot depend on any of the J's.
Thus we arrive at the following equation:
(J = (e + XJ) E + 2m, (3.5)
where e, x, and G are constants, and JI = Exx + E
y1
/ + Eu is the first scalar
invariant of the strai n tensor. If it is assumed that the strains are measurcd
from a so-called neutral state, a state which has neither strains nor strcsscs,
then e = O. Thus we arrive at the following stress-strain law:
(f = XJ} E+ 2m. (3.6)
Here xand G are known as Lam 's constants; their values depend on the material
and their dimensions are force per unit area. The constant G is also known as
sh ear rrwdulus.
Equation (3.6), when writtcn in scalar form, becomes
u x x = XJ} + 2GExx, U yy = XJ 1 + 2GEyy , U zz = XJ} + 2GEzz ,
T xy = 2GExy = G'Yxy, T
xz
= 2GE
x
:, = G'Y
xz
, T yz = 2GEyz = G'Yyz .
(3.7)
From Eqs. (3.7) we now obtain strain components in t erms of stress components.
If we add t he first three equations of (3.7), we have
!l,nd thus
JI = ( u u + U llll + (Tu ) _
( O"xx + O"lIY + O"zz ) / 3
(3)' + 2G) (x + ~ G )
lf \VC Jet
k = >. + ! G,
(3.8)
thCIl
(3.9)
Using E l. (3.9), from the first equation of (3.7) we can obtain
3k - A x
3k (Tu - 3k (uYlI + u
zz
),
!
:
82 EQUATIONti OF ELASTOlSTATICS 3.4
that is,
3k - }., [ >. ]
f"" = 6G/c u"" - '3k _ >. (u
yy
+ u
zz
)
If we let
6Gk
(3.10)
E = 3k - X'
and
l' = :3k - >.'
(3.11)
then
fu = El
1
[u"" - I'(uyy + u zz )]'
and we see that f"" and fyy can be obtained in the same way. Thus we have
Txy
'Y"y = a'
T
xo
(;3.12)
'Yxz = a'
1 Tyz
fzz = El [u" - I'(uyy + u"'')],
'Yyz = a '
EquatioIls (;3.7) are more often used in the mathematical thcory of clasticit,y,
while Eqs. (3.12) are preferred in engineering applications.
The constants E and k are called Young's modulU8 and bulk modulus, respee
tively. Their dimensions are force per unit arca. The eonstant l' is ealled
Poisson's rat1:o, and it is dimensionless.
It can be shown that. Gis related to l' and E by thc equation (see Problem :3.2)
E
G = 2(1 + 1')
so that Eqs. (3.12) ean be written in the following form:
(:3.14)
where 1} = (u
xx
+ u
Yll
+ uzo),
From Eqs. (3.11) and (3.8), we have
>. >. >.
l' = :3k - >. = 3(>. + ~ G ) - X = 2>' + 2G '
3.5 THE M.ASTOSTA
and thus
2(J
>.'"',,
1 -
Rence Er. (:3.6) can I
= 20
(f =-
1
3.5 The Elasto
The elastostatic pr
to determine the diB
the state of stress al
equilibriulll. The eu
following rcquircllIclI
(2) The distributioll
satisfy the cOl1lpatihi
; I
E=
E
must satisfy the six e
thc stress boundll.ry e
N(f = .
sheur modul ll
u=
wha. is thr
801ution.
1':
1/ =
2G
When the stat.e oC
the integrat,ioIl of
63 '' HE ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEM
and thus
>. = 2Gv
(3.15)
1 - 2v
Hence Eq. (3.6) can also be writtell
= 2Gv J E= G=
(j = 1 _ 2v 1 I + 2 f.
(3.16)
3.5 The Elastostatic Problern
The elastostatic problem with which we shall be concerned is the following:
to determine the distribution, for .;iven body forces and surface tractions, of
the state of stress and the dispIa.cell1ents in the interior of an elastic body in
cquilibrium. Thc correct state of stress in the aboye probiem must fulfill the
following requirements. (1) It must satisfy the equations of equilibrium
Va + F = O.
(2) The distribution of the state of strain induced by the state of stress must
satisfy the compatibility equatons; that is, the strain tensor
must satisfy the six compatibility equatons givell in (2.15). (3) It must satisfy
the stress boundary cOlldition, that is,
Na = j o
When the state of stress is knowIl, thc displacemell ts can be obtained through
the integrat,ion of the displacement-strain Tclations given in Eqs, (2.1).
EXAMPLE 3.1. For steel, Y oung's modulus = 30 X 10
G
psi, and the
shcar modulus G = 11.5 X 10
6
psi. If the state of stress at a point is
3
q = [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l psi, X 10
O 2 - 6
what is the state of stl'ain at the same point?
Solution. F rOl1l Eq. (3.13), we have
E ; ~ O
v = 2G - 1
1 = 0.30.
23
a =
and find 01\('
64 BQUATION::; OF ELASTOSTATICS 3.5
We can use either Eqs. (3.12) or (3.14) to find f. Ji'rom Eqs. (3.12), we
obtain
xx = :30 : 10
6
[12 - 0.3(10 - 6)] X 10
3
= X 10-
4
= :3.6 X 10-\
yy = 30: 10
6
[10 - 0.3(12 - 6)] X 10
3
= X 10-
4
= 3.4 X 10-\
u = 30 : 10
G
[-6 - 0.3(12 + 10)] X 10
3
- ];.6X 10-
4
= -4.2 X 10-
4
,
1 3
'YX71 = 12 X 10
6
(-3 X 10 )
-0.25 X 10-
3
,
'Yxz = O,
EXAMPLE 3.2. If for any arbitrary values of stress components the
cubical dilatation (i.e., the first scalar invariant of the strain tensor)
alld thus
ou..
;: = PO
One expn'ssioll
compat.ibility iM
Equations nf c{
are lineal' funcl
whieh are aIso I
EXAMPLE 3.4
a fUllctioll cf>(x,
always vanishes, then the material is said to be incompressible. What is
thc valuc of Poisson's ratio for an incompressible materia!'?
Solution. The cubical dilatation is
From Eqs. (:3.12), we have
= Ji
1
(uu + u
7lY
+ U zz ) (1 - 21').
3.5 '1' 11 F. PRODU : M 66
Si ll ce .J 1 is always z ro for any value of the u' s, thel'cfol'c 1 - 2v = O,
t hu is, v = !.
EXAMPLE 3. 3. When thc body force is simply the weight in t.he nega
ti ve z-direetion, the body force pe!' unit volume i8
F = -pgk,
where p is the density and g i6 the gravita.tional accrlcl'atiun. Consider
t,ho following stress t ensor :
-z

-y
::tnd find one expr ion fol' u.
o
sueh that usatisfies the equation of equi
libl'ium a nd the eompatibilit y eondition.
Solution. Wo have
- - T.'I (o o o)
-z
'il + l' = - , - , -
: ] + (O, O, - pg)
o ay az

- y
u ..
(
O, O, -1 + au - pg) = (O, O, O),
oz
alld thus
OU:. + 1
Tz = pg .
011e expl'ession for Uzo which satisfics the e4uations af equilibriulll amI
eompatibility i8
U
u
= (pg + l)z.
E4uations of eompatibility are satisfi ed beeause the stress eomponents
are linear funetions of x, y, and z ando therefol' c give strain components
whieh are also linear functiol1s of x, y, and z.
EXAMPLE 3.4. Show that in the absenee of body forces, if we introduCll
a fUlletian cf>(x, y) slleh that
02cf>
T xy =
- - - ,
ax oy
---
EQUATIONS OF ELASTOSTATIC. 3.5 88
thcn (a) thc following stress tensor satisfies the equations of equilibrium:
a
2
cf a
2
cf
---
O
ay2 axay
(;= _ a
2
cf a
2
cf
axay ax2
O
O O (1..
where (1zz is a function of x and y and not of z.
(b) If
a
2
cf a2cf)
(1.. = v((1xx + (11111) = V i
(
ay2 + ax2 '
then the aboye stress tensor gives rise to compatible strain tensors, if
the function cf satisfies the so-called biharmonic equation
Solution. (a) For the given (T, we have
a
2
cf a
2
cf
---
O
ay2
ax ay
_= (a a a)
a
2
cf a
2
cf
"il(1 = ax' ay , az
axay ax2
O
O O (1 z,(x, y)
thus the equations of equilibrium are satisfied.
(b) From Eqs. (3.12), we have
2 2
1 [a cf (a cf )]
E
y
" = E ax2 - v ay2 + (1' z< '
1 2(1 + v) 2(1 +v) a
2
cf
'Yxy - - T - T - - -- ,
- G XII - F.: XII - E OX ay
"Ix. = 'Y/lZ = O.
3.5 THlJ t:LASTOSTATIC
EXAMPLE 3.6.
Only the first
othe are idcl
Thus thc first
where e il! a eOllst
Jo'roffi cf, obtaill 11 i:l
alld eompat.ibility
Soluhon. 'Ne hay
a
4
cf
--- f)4c
al:
4
- w "
and thercfore th
3.5 THE E LASTOSTATIC PROBLEM
67
Only the first equation of compatibility needs be considered. The
others are identically satisfied:
aE
yy
__ 2 1 [ 4 (4 2)]
ax2 - E ax
4
ay2 ax2 ax2
Thus the first compatibility equation becomes
and if ep satisfies the equation
4 a
4
a4

ax
4
ax2 ay2 ay4 '
tben compatibility is also satisfied.
EXAMPLE 3.6. Show that
wherc e is a constant, satisfies the biharmonic cquation in Example 3.4.
From ep, obtain a stress tensor which satisfies the equations of equilibl'ium
alld compat ibility conditions.
Solulion.We have
alld therefore the equation is satisficd.
a
2
ep 2
uxx = ay2 = -12cy ,
68 EQUATIO NS OF ELASTOS1'A'l'I CS
Thus the stress tensor
2
_ - 12cy
2
(j = 12cx
[

satisfies the equations of equilibriul1l and cOlllpatibility conditions, if
there is no body force.
3.6 The Princi p Ie of Superposition
Let (T I be the distribution o the stress tensor due to tractious iJ I and
body forces PI acting on a n elast ic body, and let 0'2 be that due to sudace trae
tions iJ
2
and body forces F
2
acting on the same body. We have
,
[a]
VO'l + Ji\ = 0, [b] NO'I = iJ I ,
.,
(el V0'2 + F
2
= 0, [d]
N0'2 = iJ2
By adding (a] and [e] as wel! a [b] and [d], we obtain
[e] V(O'I + 0'2) + (F'r + F2) =
and
[f]
Equations [ 1and [f] state that if the body forces are given by FI + P2 and the
surface tractions by 8
1
+ iJ
2
, the stress tensor 0'1 + 0'2 satisfies both the equa
tions of equilibl'ium and t he stress boundary conditions for thc sallle elastic body.
If f I is the strain tensor induc d by the stress tensor O' 1, and f2 is that induced
by 0'2, then
and
so that
= = 1 + v (= = )
10
1 +
10
2 = -r 0"1 + 0"2
Thus f -! f2 is thc straiu tensor inuuced by the stre tensor 0'1 + 0'2. Sillce
3.7 STRAIN ENERGY
fl and f2 r;atisfy th(' ('qua
and
a (l'xx) 1 +
2
ay2
lIence
In other words, the stl'aill
We thercfore conclucie t h
to the surface tm,ctiollS j I
elastic body. This is caH
note tnat the va.lidity of t
equations and boulldary
placement.s in thc dcfol'J U
eonditions can be l'cfcrr
aro cases in which dl'fom
governing equatiollS; 1.h JI
!I
L
3.7 Strain Energy
Figure is a plallc vic
us denote lhe time deriv
slress vecLOl's Oll lhe pail'
3.7 STRAIN ENERGY 69
t\ and f2 satisfy the equations of compatibility, we have
etc.,
and
etc.
Uence
a
2
a
2
a1l
2
[(fxx)l + (fxxhl + ax2 [(f
yy
) + (fyyhl
a
2
= ax ay [('Yxyh + ('YxyhL etc.
In other words, the strain tensor fl + f2 satisfies the equations of compatibility.
\Ve therefore conclude that the stress tensor 0'1 + 0'2 is the state of stress due
t,o the surface tractions 0'1 + 0'2 and the body forces F1 + F2 acting on the same
elastic body. This is called the principle of superposition. It is important to
notc that the validity of the principIe is based not only 011 the linearity of the
equations and boundary conditions, but also on the assumption that the dis
placements in the deformation are so small that all equations and boundary
conditions can be referred to the same (undeformed) configuration. There
are cases in which deformation must be taken into account in formulating the
governing equations; then the above superposition principIe is not valido
CTxx(X, y, z)
3.7 Strain Energy
Txy(X, !/+I!.y, z)
- --1---
I!.x
CT!/I(X, !J, z)
Figure 3.3
Jo'ip;ure :3. :3 is aplane view of a pamllelepiped with sidcs Ax, Ay, and Az. Let
us dellote the time derivative dujdt by U, etc. The rate 01' work done by the
stress vectors 011 the pair oI right and left faces is
.
I
70 EQUATIONS or' ELASTOSTATICS 3,7
The nct rate of work done on the other two pairs can be similarly exprcssed.
'I'hus the total rate of work done by the stresses on the faces and the body
forees is
[a) [aa
x
(O"xxu +TXlli; +Tx i W) +aa
y
(O"yyi; +T
II
,1 +TxyU)
+ (0" " 1 + TxzU + TII, i;) + (F",u + Fi) + F,1)]
Now
_ . au + ai; + a1 + . aO"xx + . aTxII + . aTxz.
- O" xx ax Txy ax Txz ax u ax v ax W ax '
etc.
Thereforc, [a] beeomes
au iJi; a1 (iJi; iJU) (iJ1 iJU)
[ o"x;o ax + O"yy ay + 0" .. iJz +T
xy
iJx + iJy + Txz ax + iJz
+ T , (aw +ai;) + u (aO" x:l +aT",y +aTxz + F )
y ay az ax ay az x
+ i; (aO"YII +aT
y
, +?!XII + F)
ay az ax y
+
. (aO" zz + aTxz + iJT11' + F )] A A A
W" " ' ,, . ..,X..,1J ..,z.
uz ux uy .
We now Jet the process of loading be extremely slow so that. at any instant
Lhe parallelepiped is in equilibrium. Then the total rate of work done on the
volume is
iJu iJi; iJ1 (iJiJ iJ) (a1 au)
lb)
[ O" Xl: iJx + O" yy iJy + O" u iJz +TXII iJx + iJy + Txz iJx + az
iJ1 av)]
+ TII ,
(
iJy +iJz
Noting that
iJuj iJx = (iJjiJx)(iJujiJt) = (a j iJt)(iJujiJx)
-
-
f:
xx, etc"
and dividing Eq. [b] by \Ve obtai n the ratc of work done pcr unit
volume :
3.8 POSSlJ3LE S'f'A'n:s nI" 1''1
Now fu = (l jEllu.r
r
- JI (
[e)
Sinee O"""' X% = (a j a)(O";.j'.!,
[e] beeomes
If we let V = oeOl'I' cspolld I
+.
Equation (3.17) gives
elemento Sinee w assulIle t
done on the clernent is s t Ofl'l
t o its original shape Whl'll
a rises from straining the bOfl
strain oncrgy per unit vol uu
Total enCl'gy, U, in a. body I
over the entil'e volumc:
U = JJJV d.r dy
3 .8 Possible States o
Any distribution of s(r!' "
and whieh gives ri se I () u , 'C
of state of stress in al! elnsl
a poss-ible state oJ f:i o ti
shape, the surfacc tractioll nI
distributed aceording to (!t e"
j =
71
POSSIBLlO STA'!'E"; OF STRE:,:;
;\OW f:r;z; = (l j E)[o-.r;; - v(o-yy + o-zz)]' cte., and thl'rcfore
[e]
+ ((J"1/
Y
o-zz + (J" ZZo-lIY) + ((J" zro-u + (J"x"a- u )
+ b(Tzl/Txy + TxzTr: + TlIzTyz ).
Hinco (J"xxo-;;X = (a j at)((J";,j 2) and (J"zxiT
yy
+ (J"Y ll(rn = (a j at)((J"x:r;(J"1IY)' etc., E q.
[e]
dV d [ 1 2 2 2
[d] di = di 2E ((J"xx + (J"I/Y + (J"zz )
V ) 1 2 2 2 ) ]
- E ((J"x;r;(J"Y!I + (J"yy(J"zz +- (J";;x(J" zz + 2G (Txy + Txz + Tyz .
Ir II' e let V = OeOlTcspond to t he U\1sLl'essed state, we obtain
12 22)
+ 2G (Tx 1/ + Tu + T
y
.
(3 .17)
Equatioll (3.17) gives the total work done per unit volume for a differential
rlcuwnt. Since wc a ume that each clement remains elastic, the aboye \Vork
donc on the elcment is sto red as potcntial energy which \ViII bring the elemcnt
to it.s original shape when str sses are removed. Since thc potential encrgy
ariscs fmm straining the body, we call it slrain energy. Equn.tion (3.17) gives
strain cnergy p r unit volume 0 1' strai n-energy density at any material point.
Total energy, U, in a body an be obtailled through integration of Eq. (3.17)
over the entirc volume:
u = fff V dx dy dz. (3.18)
3.8 Possible States of Stress
Any distl'ibution of stress tensor which satisfies the equaLions 01' equilibrium
aud which gives rise to a compatible sl,rain tensor is a pos ible distribution
of 01' strcss in an elastic body 01' a n al'bitrary shap ' , and \ViII be called
a pnsblc slale of stress. So that it can actually be induced in a body of a given
the surface traction obviou ly cannot be arbitrary. In fact, it must be
distributed according to the strc . boundary condition
a- = Hu.
72 L Q A'l' IONS OF ELA:; TO::; TATI C:-; 3.9
By considering diffcl'ent po si ble states of stress in a body of givcn shape,
differ nt elastostatic problems 1'0 1' the same body are solvec1 . Such an I1pproach
is called an inverse techmquc because the solution (tho stress t ensor) is first
assumed and then the surface tract iol1s are obtained. It ls a very important
technique because many problems o practical importan e ca.n be soIved in t h is
mall n J'. In fact , in t he next t hree chapt ers, three classes of fundarn ' nta.1 pl'Ob
lem that are i mportant in engineering applicat ions will he sol ved by this
inverse techni qu .
3.9 Saint-Venant's PrincipIe
111 reality, the exact nature of the distl'ibution of surface tract ions on a certain
portion of tho sudace of a body is not very often known, but the resultant force
and moment acting on the portion are knowIl. In 1855 Saint- Vcn1.wt proposed
a principIe which can be stated as fol1ows:
If some distribution of forces acting on a portion of t he sUI'face of a body
is I'eplaced by a differclIt dist rihution of forces acti ng 0 11 thc same portion
of the body, th n t he effects oi' the two different dist ributions on the parts
of t.hc body sufficiently far removed from the rcgion of application of the
forccs are essentially the same, provided that the two distribut iol1s of
forces are stat icany equivalent.
Tho exprcssion "statica!ly equivalent" means that the two dist!'ihutions of
forces have the saTne resultant force and the same I'esultant couplo.
The validit,y of thf) principie can be demonst rated in specifie instanccs ;
howevcI', no goncral proof can be given. It is suffi cient to say that exeept in
pi'obl ms invo.lving structuml membel's with thin walls (box beams, shells, etc.),
tho p rincipIe has been proven to be in ci D e agl'ecment with experimenta.
EXAMPLE 3.6. If the force of gl'avity acts in tho negativc direction
of x, and if density is denoted by p (assumed eonstant), thcn the distribu
tiOll of gravi ty force per unit volume is givcn hy .l
F = - pgi.
Let us consider the following stress tenso!':
l.-l-L--'___!J
(a) 8how that th stress t ensor is a possible
state of stre in t ho pro, enee of the gravity Figure 3.4
3.9 sAINl'-'VF.N 'rfi"; l' IU Sr
force ll11ltioll{'d abu
dist l'ibuti on DI I:ILI'('1'l
surfae t ract. ions S! l'
end faces in ol'drl' t
strain om'l'gy i t1u
Solu!ion. (a) We hl1
-_ - (0 l
V?i + F = - ,
J,; iJ!I
= (pg, 0, O)
thus, (j sat.isti t. hf
due to t ho strc!\S MI
E:u , = E
1
pg.!',
Since t h cOlllpat il
strain cnmpOIl(,ll t:l
componcnts are: on\
(O, m, n), \vo havu
(j = (0, 'ITl, n)
that is, thel'o aI'r !l O
faco, x = 0, N = (
(j = (- 1,0, 0)
thus thol'c are also I
fae , x = " N - (1
ij "-- (1, 0, O) [
thl1t j ., t.1H'!'(, is u u
SAIN'r-VENAN'l"::; PRI NCIPLE 73
force rnentioned above, (b) If thia possible state of stress is the actual
distribution of stress in the eylindrical bar shown in Fig. 3,4, what
surface tractions should be act ing on the lateral face and the paiI' of
nd faces in order to produce this state of stre ? (e) Find t he total
strain cnergy if the cylinder is circular with radius 1' 0 '
Solutrn. (a) We have
pgx
O O]
VO' + Ji = O O o + (-pg, 0, O)
ax ay az
O
[
.
= (pg, 0, O) - (pg, o, O) = (O, O, O) ;
thus, O' atisfies the equations of equilibl'ium. The strain component
due to the stres!' tensor are 'Y"7I = 'Yxz = 'Y1/Z = and
1 l' l'
Ex" = E pgx, El/TI = - Ji pgx, Eu = - E pgx.
Sinco t be compatibility equations involve second derivatives of the
str'ain omponents with respect to the coordinates, the above straia
components are obviously compatibJ . ' (b) On the lateral face, N =
(0, m, n), we have
000]
jj = (O, m, n) (O, O, O);

that is, there are no surface tractions on the lateral face. On the bottom
face, x = O, N = (-1, O, O), and
jj = (- 1, O, O)
(0,0, O);
O ,
thus there are also no surface tractions on the bottom face. On the top
f ce, x = l, N = (1, O, O), and
jj = (1, O, O) (pgl, 0, O);
O
that is, thcrc is a constant upward surfa tract.ioH pgl OIl the top facc,
"
74 EQUATIONti "F:LAtiTOSTATIC" :t9
Note that the l'esultant of thia surface t raction is pyl A (wherc A is th
eross-acetional area of the bar), which is exactly tlle t otal weight of the
bar. If we suppose that thi s bar is hung un its top fa a nd is in equi
librium, then the result nt force on the tup faee is equ I t o h tot al
weight of the bar. Thus by invoking th Saint-V nant principie, w call
say that the stress tensor given in t l, is xample solves the problem of a
cylindrieal bar stretehed by its OWII w ight, pro ided t hat l is mu h
larger than t ho lateral dim nsions. (e) The strai n energy density V is
1 2
V = 2E (pgx) .
To find the total straill cllergy in the circular cylinder of radius 1'0 and
length l , we V over the volume of tho cyl illder:
t 1 2 2
total strain energy = Jo 2E (pgx) (1ITO) dx
= (r) = 1rp
2
lr6
l3
.
2E 8 6E
EXAMPLE 3.7. Filld the displaccmellts for the cylillder in Exalllple 3.6.
Solution. From the relatiol1, we have
[a]
au P{/ X
[b]
av v
[e]
a10 v
-=
E
,
a = - Ji pgx, - - Ji pgx,
ax
y I
OZ
[d]
av + au = o
a:; ay ,
[e]
a10 + av = O
ay az '
[f]
au + a10 = O.
az ax
From E qs. [d) and lb), we have
[g]
= - = - = + Epg;
from Ers. [fl and [el, we obtain
[h]
= - :z = - = + ; pg;
from Eq. [d],
= - :z = - ;
alld frUlll Eq. [e],[f) }
a (a1O)
Jx ay
a (a1l'
a.r a!l
li 1
Equn.tions Ill l. 1'1.
(j ] 1/
Si milar d ' ' ut'
so that
Ik1
l '
a mI
[1] /1 '
ti jI
:
= ,' Ptl'/
e!J
amI ft'Ol 1 Eq.
0/1 l'
-=
a.e

Hui a,j/rJlI i
Sint ilrly. ry u/rlz
Og i\'(\ ' 0
8
-
/1
[nl]
"
3.0
a.9 SAINT-vr'; N NT'S PRINCIPLE
Adding the aboye two equations a nd noting frorn Eq. [e] that
.i. (aw + ay) - O
ax ay az - ,
we get
[i]
a
2
u
ayaz = O.
Equations [a], [g], [h], and [i]lead to the followillg expr ssion fol' u:
2 2 2
[J
'] pgx + lJ Y + lJ Z + e + e' + e'
u = 2E E pg 2" E pg 2 y 2
z
3
Similar derivations will give
a.nd
so that
[k]
lJ
V = - E pgxy + e4
X
+ e5
Z
+ e6
and
[1]
Now frOlll Er. [j], \ov e h a v ( ~
HU lJ
-; . = .,.... pgy + el
a!J E '
and frOIn Eq. [k],
av lJ y
- = - _.. pgy + l
ax l!J ' ' 4,
75
But auj ay + av j ax = O, and t hus C
4
+ C = o and C
4
= - CI .
imilarly, auj az + awjax = ogives C
7
= - C
2
, and awj ay + avj az =
ogives 8 = - e (j. Thus
u = ~ ~ (x
2
+ vy2 + vz
2
) + [CIY + C2z + C,3],
[m] v = - Epgxy + [-CX -: C'z + C
6
],
w = - Epg,rz + [-c2.t: - Co!J + C
9
]
76 EQUATIONS 01<' ),a,.A:;TO TATI CS 3.9
Thc tCl'ms in bracket s in the aboye cquations bave nothill g to do with
defol'mation. In fact, if the bar were weightl ss, that is, ir g = 0, fmm
Eqs. [m] we would have
u = CIY + C2z + C3, v = - Cx + c"z +C6 ,
w = - C
2
x - C; y + Cg
They must therefor represent a rigid-body moton. There al' six
grees of freedom of moton for a rigid body, and there are pI' ci Iy six
constants in the aboye expressions, namely, el, C
2
, C
3
, e
6
, C
6
, and e
o
.
lf we prevent the point (l, 0, O) from being displaced, then 1l = v =
VJ = for x = l and y = z = O. To prevent the pos bility of rotat.ion
about t he x-axis, we fi x an element of area in the yz-plane passing t lll'ougb
the point (1,0, O). Th n av/ az = at (l , 0, O). T o prevent rotat oll
about the axes through (l , 0, O) that are parall el t o the y- and z-axes,
we fix an element of the x-axis; then av/ax = O and aw/ax = at
(1, 0, O). Th se six c nditions enable us to determine the .. ix onstants.
Tu fact , fl'om Eqs. [111], when x = l, Y = O, and z = 0, we have
pgl2
U = = 2E + Ca,
au
w = = -C2 l + e
g
,
-
az
= C =
'
av aw
- - C
l
= 0, -
ax
= - C., = O.
ax

Thus
v = vpgnJ
[n]
- ---r '
w = vpgxz
- --r '
Fl'om Eqs. [n]' the deformed configurat on of be , cction z = (i n t hc
undeformed state) can be l'eadily obtainc L I n fact, any li nc x = const,
fol' instance x = 0, become a paraboln. giv JI by
vpgy
2
pgl-

1l = 2E - 2E '
and any i!le y = const, say y = 1'0, remains a straight lin givcn by
v = -(vPUi'o/E)x, wit h a slope equal to - vpgl'o / E .
PROllLEMB
Thc dash d lill e \1l
atiOll of t,hc sccli"II .
face, the displo.c<'lI
on t h natur ()f 11 11'
the t op fae wct(
111at1l1 r showlI ill
thcn, in effect, 11
ancy betwe It t.lI,
t ractiolls and tlll'
top face.
PROBLEMS
3.1. Derive the secono
3. 2. From qs. (3.1 ) [l!ld
3.3. Prom E IS. (3.8) I (3 11),
3.4. Wrik Ec. in
a.5. n
A = 17.3 X
find bulk modulu: k, YrtllllK'
3.6. Civen Young's 11l0l luh
the Lam's constantl! Allnd I
3.7. Gi ven Young's D1()(lnlua
fi nd Poi son' s rat io V, Lalll'
3.8. Given Young' ij 11l 0llul
10
11
E' = 16.5 X
!l111 bulk modulus
k = 1 t.9 X 10
6
1
fllld A, G and v.
3.9. Gi ven
En = 36 X 10
'Y xv ;: ] 2 X 10
find the ti tres<I compo!ll'ul
G = 12 X 10
6
psi).
PROBLE MS 77
The d shed ine in F ig. 3.f is the d forlll d configur
.1'
ation of thc scction. If the bar wel'C hung at thc top
face, the di placemcuts of the top face would dep nd
on the nature of the hanging. If, in the real situation,
.
,
,
,
the top face were preventcd frol11 deforn ing in thc
,
,
, manner shown in the figure, the e! viation \Voule!
,
,
then, in ffect , be a mauif station of the discl'e
,
,
ancy bet ween t hv real distribution of the sur face
,
,
t ractions and the one given as if = (pgl , O, O) on the
top face.
r-+-+----y
_...
PROBLEMS
'
Figure 3.5
3.1 . el'lve the second equation of (3.1) .
3.2. From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.l i) obtain Eq. (3.] 3) , that is, G = E/2(J + v).
3.3. From Eqs. (3.8) , (3.11), and (3.13), obtn.in
2(1 + JI ) E
k = 3(1 _ 2,, ) G = 3(1 - 2,, )
3.4. Wl'itc Eq. (3.J 6) in seRiar formo
3.5. If the Lam's constants for a material are:
A = 17.3 X 10
6
psi, G = 11. 5 X 10
6
psi,
filld bulk modulus k, YOllng's modulus E, and Poi sson's ratio v.
3.6. Gi ven Young',; modulus E = 15 X 10 psi and Poisson's ratio v = 0.34, find
the Lam's cOllstants A and G. Also find bulk modulus.
3.7. Giv n YOllng's modulus E = 28 X 10
6
psi and l eal' modulus G = 11 X 10
6
psi,
find Pois on'" ratio v, Lam's constant A, and bulk modullls k.
a. 8. Ci ven Young's m dulus
E = 16.5 X 10
6
psi
lId bulk modul U8
k = l J.9 X 10
6
psi,
find A, G and v.
:J.!}. Given
fu = 36 X 10-
6
, fUI/ = 40 X 10-
6
, fu = - 25 X 10-
6
,
" I ~ y = 12 X 10-
6
, "l uz = O, "Ix,. 30 X 10-
6
,
filld the stress component . Th material is structural ,' leel (E = 30 X 10
6
psi,
(} = 12X l06 pai) .
78 BQU ATIONt! OF ELASTOIS1' TI C>;
3.10. Given Exx = 100 X 10-
6
, E.,/u = -50 X lO - o, f u = 200 X 10-
6
, "f xiI _ =
-100 X 10 -
6
, "f"z = "f u = O, find the . iTeSS e mponents. The ffi u.terial is tl'llC
tural steel (E = 30 X 10'; psi, G = 12 X 10
6
psi) .
3.1l. If th!: sta.te of stre s at a poi nt is
_ [10,000 4200
600 ]
= 4200 -2000 O
600 O 1500 "' y z
wha! (lre t he strain components ? The ma lerial is structural steel (E = 30 X 10(j psi,
G = 12 X 10
6
psi).
;3.12. Fo!' lhe ( !;iven in Problem 3. 11, what i8 the mean normal ,,; t l'e:s "? What is the
cubie:.d dilalatiun? Obtain ihe bul k modulus by Eq. (3.9), and check it with the
equation given in Probl em 3.a.
3.13. ven (1'"" = 6000 p " j, (j ll'1 = -3000 psi, T ,,/ = 200U p ::> I, Txz = T y z = (j.. = O,
find the "train components. (l:' = 30 X 10(; psi , 1) = 12 X lO psi.)
3.14. Repeat Problem 3.1 ';-' c.'i: cept that. lhe stress componen h are those of l)roblem
3.1 3.
3.15. Show that for incom[m.' ,iblc Inu.Lerial, (a)
E
G =- , A = 00, k = 00,
3
and (b) Hooke's law becomes u 2G t + !JIJE. [Use Eq. (3.14). J
3.16. Show that if /1 = O, then
E E
A = O, G =-, k
2 3'
and Hooke's law becomc:: (j E'f .
3.17. , how from Hooke' s law foI' isotropic bodies that the principal axes of st ress
coi ncide w t h those of "train .
3.18. In the absence of body for c(' e' , do the stress components
-2C/lxy, 'T I :: = T
yz
= 0, (j zz
a t isfy thl' equa.tions of equilibrium? equations of compatibili ty?
3.J 9. (a) VCl' ify that t,he [un ' Lion
su tisfi es Lhe bih:lrInunil' l'q1
(h) F rom 4> gi ven j I, (al.
librium (in Lh ' ab nec (JI' III
3.4 o.nd 3.5. )
3.20. If the diHt ribllli"ll uf
iIlSi dc t he l' l: t all gul r hl ll,k
is gi en b r tho . t,'II,"r
3.19(b), what are t hr slIl' f
on the 8ix [acc of tllt' bl'lI' h .
3.21. R p a l; Prob1PIlI ;U I) ,
4> = TI
3.22. R peai Probl m ;.20,
3.23. (a) Show tlt alo llw f
in t he ab (!OCU (jI' 1"
o
- '!J
(h) F incl the mfac(' lral'lH
rise to the s trli.':! dj slrihllt'
Fig ure 3.7
3.24. What ::iUl'fucc lr:wli"I\
t.o produce tbe
3.25. Show tha! ti\[, 1'(111)\\ ir
in lhe abRe n ce of hody (on'"
[ , I
11
j 2.(

O

79
. Lhe Liharmonic e4uation
4 4
a\p a q, a q,
-+2--+- = O
ax
4
ax2 ay2 ay4 .
(b) Frum q, given in (a) , obtain a str ;s ten or which a ti sfi es th quation of equi
libl'ium (in th absence of body for ces) and the compat. ibility cquations. (See E xamples
3.4 and 3.5.)
y
!J
3.20. Ir Lhe disLl'i lJution of the stat.e of litrc;;;;
in ide the l' cctungular bloek shown in F ig. 3.6
i" givcn by the st ress tensor found in Problem
3. 19(0), what the sudace t l'a(; tions acting
un the 'ix face:s of t hc block '?
3.21. Repca t Problem 3. 19, except that
1----1--1
h
1--------1.......... :r z
h
q, = .t1 (x2
y
3 _ J y5).
Figure 3 .6
3.22. Rcpcat Problcm :3. 20, bu t liS the .. tr(\ tensor of Problem 3. 21.
3.23. (a) how that t he followi ng difih' ibution of .. tl'ess tenfio r is a sta te of
otre,';; in the absence of body for ce:
'iJ [ :
- Cy O
(h) F ind the surface t ruC' t ion' on the circular cylinder shown in Fil!;. 3.7 which give
ri ,c lo th st re,'s dist.rihul ion gi\' cn in (a).
y !J

I--l---.j
x
'-Jfa
Figure 3.7 Figure 3 .8
:3.24. \Yha l surfuce must act on the surface of the elli ptical bar of Fig. 3.8
tu prouuee Lhe stress tcn,'ol' giv n in Problem 3.23? (A 'sumc no body force.)
3.25. Hho\\' that the following distri bution of stress tensor is a posiliblc fitute of stress
in lil e of body forces ;
2x - y
x - 2!J
O
80 EQUATlO S OF ELASTOHT Tres
3.26. Is the following di stribution of stre t ensor t\. pos ihle statc of stress in the
tLbsence of body forces '?
[
2xy
u = A -y:
2
- y
O
O
3.27. Given the following displacement field;
u = -zy, v = zx,
(a) Find the components.
(b) In the absence of body forces, is the state of st ress corrcsp nding to the di:;place
ment fi cld a possible one
3.28. Repeat Problem 3.27, except tha.t the dispbcement components are: u = zy,
v = ZX, und w = ry.
. 29. Repeat Problem 3.27, except that the displacement componcnt'i are: u = -zy,
v = zx, and w = e
r
sin y.
3.30. Th state of stress at a point is given by the O' of Problem 3.11. }'ind the strain
energy drnsity at the point. The material is st ructurn.1 steel.
3.31. The stress components at u point are those of P roblem 3. 13. Find the :s traill
enel'gy density at the point. T he material is structural steel.
3.32. Find the dist ribution of st rai'n energy den 'ity fol' the displacem lit, fi eld given
in Problem 3.27.
3.33. Show that the deformation corresponding to the stre s tensor given in Problem
3.23 ha:; the property that, every section x = const (in the undeform d state) remains
a pIune in t he deformed state. (See Problem 2.6 and 2.9.)
3.34. What is the strain-energy den:sit y corresponding to the stress ten:sor gi ven in
Probl m 3.23? What is the total strain energy in the cil' ular cylinder of Pl'oblcm
3.23(b)
3.35. Find the total str in energy in the elliptical bar ol' l'roblem 3.24.
3.36. Determine the increa::;e in volume of a prisIl1utie bl1I' \\'hen it is extenJcd undel'
the tction of its own weight.
3.37. Derive the equation
o
for the problem t.reated in EXI1111Jle 3.7.

3.3 . Gi phy .. il' ll. l
in Eq. 1m], p. 75. (. ce
3.39.
3.40. Referri ng to 3.n,
[

O
O
solve the problem 0 1' 11
fi ectionul rea JI, [lnd It'n
the maxi mum
PRODLE MS 81
3.38. Give physical meanings to the integration onstants CI , C2, C3, C
5
, C6, and Cg
in Eq. [m), p. 75. (See Problem 2.4.)
3.39. A cylindrical bar of weight W is hung at the ceilin T. \\' hat is the maximum tcnsile
stre '{ What is the Jowering of the centroid of the lower section from the undcformed
position?
3.40. Referring to Fig. :3.9, show that the st ress tensor
- (x -1)
Al
o
w
::]
O
O O %11<
solves the probJem of a uniform bar o total weight w, cross
sectionaJ area A, and length l, resting on ib base. What is
the maximum compre ~ i v e tr s' ?
F igure 3.9
4.1 .;IMPLE I,XTI. N:<; ION
that is, the lateral fac(' mllst
hav . N = (-I,O,O)and
CHAPTER 4
= (- 1, 0, O) l
On the l'lld J"aer. x = t, N
" = H 1,0, O) l
Simple Extension
4.1 SiDlple Extension
The extension of a cylinder by longitudinal forcei:i the resultant of which is
at the centroid of its end faces will be called simple extension. In l'ig. 4.1, the
x-axis is direeted along the lengthof the bar parallel to the generators of tho
The cylinder is assumed to be of length 1, with one of Ls end faces
lying in t he yz-plane, while the other is in the plane x = l .
Let us considor the following distribu
tion o the state of stress:
u= (4.1 )
y
1t-----'.. :;
Figure 4.1
In the absence of body forces, the above stress tensor i-latisfies the cquatio!l of
equilibriUlIl Vu = O. It obviously also satisfics t.he cOlllpatibility COllditio!ls.
Such a distribution of stress tensor in the cylindcr iH possiblc pl"Ovided that
suitable surface tractions are applied on the lateral and cnd faces. At any point
on the lateral faec the unit outward normal vector is N = (0,111, n), and the
surfaco traction whieh ll1ust be applied thero is
= (O, m, n) = (O, O, O);
O O O
82
Th\lS t-he stress tensor giv('
eylindrieal bar IInder uuifl
If \Ve let the magnitUtlp
J"\ e dA = CA, that B , C'
(YI',zp) i thcpointof
und silllilarly Zp = Zc '
of the cross scetion. In
distrihut.ion (lf thc appli('tl
long af, the r('sultant f
thn aboye solution is valid o
FI"OJl1 Hookc's Ia.w) we l
] "
EJ.x =-....: "A' .U I.r
lf tlIP t.otal c!ongation of
x-diroetion) is a eOIlstUJlt.,
]'l
0 - - - '
.
1. u we obtllill
t prilll"i
4.1 i:iThfPLI:: EX'I'ENSION 83
that is, thc lateral face must be free of tractions. On the end fa ce x = 0, we
havc N = (- 1,0, O) and
=(-1,0,0) (-e, 0, O).


On tho end face x = l, N = (+1,0, O) and
= (+1,0, O) Ca' (+e, 0, O) .
[O
Thus t.ho st.ress tensor given by Eq. (4.1) is the solution to the problel11 of a
cylindl'ical bar under uniform tractions over the end faces.
Ir \Ve let the magnitude of the resultant force on either end be P, then P =
fA edA = eA, that is, e = P / A wherc A is the cross-sectional arca. If
(yp, tI') is thc point of application of the resultant force, then
fyedA efydA eYcA
Vi' = P = P = --p = Yc,
alld silllilarly ZI' = Zc' That is, the l'esultant force P pa es through the ccntroid
of the eros sectioll. In reality, when a bar is pulled 01' cmpressed, the actual
uf the appl ied force is rarely, if ever, knowll. We shall assume that
18 long as the resultant force pa es through the centroid of the cross section,
the above solutioll is valido t
From Houke's law, \Ve have
P
Err = -J'
]
[CTxc - V(CTyy + u..)]
AE'
JI tilo total clongation (Jf the bar is 0, then since Exx (the unit elongation in the
: -dircction) is a constant, \Ve have Exx = o/ l. Thus P / AE = o/ l, that is,
Pl
0 = - ' (4.2)
Ah'
JI p
E A'
t prill('iple is invokeu h(']'('.
84 !-;IMI'LE EXTENSION 4. 2
ThercfoI'c any lino of leIlgth eL in the directioIl perpendicular to the x-a.,,,<is will
eontract by aIl amount Oc given by the equatiun
ji p
(4.3)
E A '
It is a simple matter to show that the stress teruor a nd elongat ion of a hollow
cylindI'ical bar under simple cxtension are given by th same formulas as those
of solid bars.
4.2 Tensile-Test Diagram.
Figure 4.2 shows a typical tensile-tcst diagram for stl'uctural stee!. The unit
clongation in the axial direction is plotted along thc fX"",-axis (in accol'dance
with the notation of Section 4.1) J a nd the applied force divided by tho cross
sect.ional area of the undeformed specimen is plotted al oug the O' n -axis. It is
seen in Fig. 4.2 that from O to A in the diagram, O' XI is proportional [o Exx.
A
Figure 4.2
o'-----------
u
u
Beyond pbint A, the curve is no longer a straight lineo The tonsile st ress COI'
responding to t h point A is callod the propo'J't'ional limito The constaIlL of
proportiunality O' xx! Exx for the straight line determined from such an expcril1lent
gives the value of Young's modulus, E. While in this book we shall not be con
cerned with the bchavioT of materials when linear stress-strain rclations are not
valid, it is ncvertheless impOI'tant to knQw th othcl' saliellt poi llts in the diagrarn.
The greatcst tensile stress that can be applied without produeing a pcrmancnt
deformation on removal of thc stress i called lhe elastic ln, which is mmally
slightly boyond lhe proportionallim it in ordinary teehnologieal detenninations.
When the tensile stress !lereases beyond t he elastic limit, a point Y ja reaehed
at whieh t ite bar suddcnly stretch s with liLtle or nQ inerease in lhe load. The
tensile stress at point Y is called thc yield stress. W hen the bar is strctched
furtJ1ef', the neccssary tensile foree nereases wi th th clougatlion up to a poinl, U
al, whieh this foree attains its maximum valuc. T he correspoIlding tensiJe
stress is ealled the ultima! trcngt h of the matcrial Beyond t he point U,
clongation of the bar takes place wi t h a diminut, ion of t ho load, aud Ii.nally
fraeture oceurs at poillt F.
4.2
EXAMPLE 4.1. A oir 'u
i pnllcd by cqual alllI o
ma. ' l1lurn normal ulIll ;J
total lonlTat iull nd latl: r.
Solution. Tho only nonv
J) lO,DOO
O' :r:r: = A = -1l'
whieh is tho m3.XiIIIIIIll 11
pri ncipal stre. '08 (thl' qtl
:1180 = 1.590 psi,
2
and tho total eloIlgation
Tho di:l1nctcr will eouLr:
ji r (O
II = -, - d = ~ .
1 ~ A
E XAMPLE 4.2. Fillc
trU8S sl!own in Fig. 4. :i.
seetiunal arca, 11. 'file
lwd to the ceilillg hy I
and aSSUIllO the haI . l
Figure 4.3
Solutio1/.. Tlw axial
equilibrium of the j
are axial forees in
F" = 0 = P
'L.F = O = P
4.2 TEN. TLE-TEST DIAGRAM 85
EXAMPLE 4.1. A ci rcular stecl bar, 2 ft long and with a l-in. radiu",
IS pulled by equal and oppo ite axial forces P at its ends. ' ind thc
rnaxilllum normal and shear stresses if P = 10,000 lb. Find also thc
total elongation and late mi contraction (E = 30 X 10(; psi, v = 0.3).
Sullllion. The only nonvani hing stress component is
_ P _ 10,000_
(f X.& - A - --71"- - 180 psi,
which is the maximum normal stre s becallse it i obviously one of the
prilleipal stres es (the othcr two are zero) . The maximum shear stress is
:H80 _ 1' 90 .
2 - L< pi:ll,
J.lId the total elongatioll is
o= ..!!.l = (10000)(2 X 12) = 2.54 X 10-
3
in.
AE 71"(30 X 10
6
)
The diameter will contract by an amount
o' = !.. P d = (0.'3) (10,000) (2) = O636 X 10-
4
in.
e E A. (30 X lO
fi
)(7I") .
EXAMPLE 4.2. Find the displacement of the point O of the simple
truss shown in Fig. 4.3(a); AO and RO are steel bars of the same cross
scctional arca, A . Thc length of RO is l The bars are pinncd togethcr
and to the cei1ing by frictionless pins. Neglect the weight of tho bars
and aSSUll1C thc bars to be under simple extension 01' compressioll .
z
.1
p , ~
O P
(n) (b)
Figure 4.3
,'olu/.ion. The axial forces in the bars can be obtained by considering tlie
cquilibrium of the joint O. Referring to Fjg. 4.3(b), where PI and P
2
are axial forces in thc bars AO and BO, respeetively, we have
LV" = U = P - PI CO 30 + P
2
COS 60 = O,
LF
y
= O = PI i:lin 30 + P
2
sin 60 = O.
86 S DIPLE E XTf:. :;IO N 4.3
Thus
The elongatiolls of the bara are
o - l' 1(v'3l ) _ - .!:.i
AQ - AE - 2 AE'
(Thc ncgativ ign IIleans that the bar shorten .) 1'0 find the di place
mCllt of th > point O, let u swi ng a. ciroul a r are using A as th center and
(AO + li Ao) a t h radius. AIso using B as the center a nd (BO + (110)
as the radius, w swing anot her a re. Th ntersecting point of the two
ares is t he fi lial po ition of the point O. Slice t he deformations \ViII be
v I'y small, the circular ares can be apPl'Oximated hy straight lincs
perpendieular to the radius. The ashcd lines in Fig. 4.3(a) show the
deformcd e nfiguration of Lhe truss by suell a eal\. j;ruetion. Howcver,
t he elongat ion nd short uing are greatl y exaggr. rated. t The diapla e
men!, vedor fo r tlle poi nt O i thcrefore 00 = 00" +(JII{'f 01'
O' = [( 00") O 60 + (0'0") cos 30
0
]i
+ [(OO") jn 60 - (0'0") sin 30]j
= fl [J: (l + 3 X y'3)i +.!. ( 3 - 3)j] .
AE 4 4
4.3 Statically Ind tenninate Problems in Tens ion
and COD1.pression
1 n the following exampl ,tbe axial force. in the structural melllbers cannot
be froIn the equatiol1s of equilibriulIl fOl' rigid bodies alOlw; the l.'longa
tions of thc bars lllUst be con, idered. 1'he force systclIIs o' such structures are
callnd stalicall ulelenninate ssl.ems.
EXAMPLE 4.3. Let us add a horizontal steel bar CO 01' the san\e
cross-scetional arca A to the st.nIeture in Exampk 4.2. The IWW structul'e
is shown in Fig. 4.4(a). To find the axial forees on tlw bars, W' wlIlove
Olle of thc ha , sny OC, and replace it by an unkno\Vn force X . Then in
t l'on,;uetio!l (':1n be carried out OIl any dcsired une! u,;ed as a p;raphieal
i;()!ution 01' 1111' probkm.
(a)
t rms uf X, tlll' llxiul
all d in OB it is
The displace!l\t'lIt (I[
--> (1) .
00' = - \-/ '
."
Wc illla 'ine that tI\\'
Tbe dongati()1l o[ (
pilllled togother t. (
()f (OC + 00(') IllU
circular arc C:llI he
dashed line sO' i (
ual tu 50 (', tlml il!
(J> - X)l 1 ( 1
AU I
TllCrcforn
1 + :1 X
)( = -
7 -t X
une!
1.3 liTATICALLY I ND .'l' E n MI NATB pnOIl LE MS 87

(a) (b)
F igure 4.4
tl-l'mli of X, th axial fo rce in OA is
}'1 = (P - X ),
ami ill OB it is
1' 2 = (- t )(P - X).
Thc di placement of O becom
We imagillc that the bar OC under t he force X is put back in the structurc.
Thc clongation of OC is oac = AE. Sill cc thc three bal's are
pillned Logcth l' a t O, t h circular arc with its center a t e and a radius
of (OC + ooel I1lU t a lso pass through O' . A in Example 4.2, the
circular arc can be apPl'oxill1ated by a line perpendicular Lo O (Lhe
da!:lhcd line sO' in Fig. 4.4a) . T llUB t he x-component of ro should be
cqual to 0oc, that is,
(l' - X)l. (1 + 3 X v'3) = X(!l) .
AE -1 A.E
TIH' rofore
x = 1 + X v'3 P
7+3 X V3 '
alld
PI = (0) (P - X) -:- (-v:f\ ( ) P, 6
2 2-) 7 + 3 X V3
1'2 = ( - - X) = ( - i) ( 6 ) P.
2 2 7 + 3X 3
88 IM1'LP. F.X'rl' JN 'ION 4,3
EXAMPLE 4.4. In Fig, 4.5(a), two steel bars of cross-sectional ar a
A and lellgth l are attached snugly to th stiff lever which is pivoted at
0, whcll the t mperature is at T F. If the temperaturc drops I1To, what
force will be induced in the two bars? The coofficient of thcrmal expansioll
(i.c., the challge of length per unit Jength of the ba\' pcr degreo FahrclIhcit
change of t emperaturc) is ex.
f.--8=J---- a
t el
EI

!J
(a) (iJ)
Figure 4 . 5
Svlu/.ion. If thc bars wel'e free to contract, thcn each bar would contract
by an amoullt
8 = ex I1T 1,
In Fig. 4.5(b) the line ab represents the final position of tho rigid lever.
Thc total clongation of the top bar (at temperaturo TO - I1TO) measurcd
fmm the zero str ss position is o+ ac, Tbe total clongation of the l(4wcr
bur llIeasured fr0111 thc samo state is o - bd, Thus tohe axial force in
thc top bar is
P = (o + ac)AE ,
t
Z
alld thc axial force in tilo lower bar is
PI = (o - bd) E .
1
()W the lever a.b s in equilibrium, and therefore
Tllus
4.4
alld frolll ]' ig. \.,')(1
QC SI
-=- ,
bd 82
Thcrcforc
Finally,
4.4 Energy
Lct liS COll id\'\" all
e.> 1"1 ele" alld ill
F 1, ... 1 .,
su pp 1' 1s of lhe body.
all allloulll of sI
tho slate of < 's
a fundion of [>,,'8:
[a]
Lot liS i In:1:!;ine t.hat un
i addcd t.o 'y8k\ll 0.1
dlrect.iol\ l18 ttw p:1l'I.ieIl
lihriul\l state is
Jl ' 11'
lb]
U -f - /' / ",
a "
'Within the san!!' Slllllpt
is haseJ, tha ordcr of aPI
cOllsidc\' tirst that thl' huc
thcn t.he P,/s uro add('(\ t
a.loll
e
produc('s only ILII
w()rk dOlle is !L slllall qlm
(inal displacelllC'nt of t.h,'
thc fon:ct is dr\lo!cd hJ
t The tcrm,,; "[01'1'(''' ILl\>
\l1\'nt."
ac s[

bd 82
Thcl'efore
Finally,
S[ bd
ac 'f' . .
82
4.4 Energy Method
P _ 8[(SI + S2) A E 8
1 - 2 2 - z-
S[ + S2
Lr t us COIIsidpI' an elastic body act ed on by ext ernal eoncentrated forces
jll, P
z
, P
3
, cle., and in equilibl'ium wit h t he r eaetion fon:es at the immovablc
lIulpol'ls oI lhe body. The P n-forces deform the body, and thus the body
31'll uires an amount. of slrai n energy given by Eq. (:3. 18) in the deformed state.
the slate of stor SS depends on t he external P,,-fon:es, the stl'ain cnergy U
fundion of lhe P,/S:
[a] l! = C(P, I'2, ... ,P,,).
),,,t \18 illlaf,!;ine that a n additional external force of infi nitesimal al1l0ullt dP"
ill added to tlw liyst em at thc sume location as one of the Pn's and. in the sallle
din'ction as the particular P
Il
. The st rain energy of t he body in the new equi
Ii hriull l Htate iH
lh] l
' + aU '11)
! -;- 1> ( . n
a "
Withill t.he sallle aHsumptiolls as those on which the principie of superpos itioll
is t he OI'der of a pplication of t he loads is immateria L T her efore let us
r,ollllid r firHt. t.hat the body is in equilibl' ium undel' th ane force dP,,, and that
thc' lI thr P,/s are added tu th8 sy stclll . T he infinitesima l force dP" \Vhen acting
produc('s only an infinites imal displacement, '0 that the corresponding
wOI'k dOllt' is a slllall quantity 01' the sccond order and can be neglnct d . If the
filial di!!placelllcnt 01' the point uf applicatioll 01' t.he fol' e Pn in t.he di rcctiOIl (jf
Ihc' fnTc' t is dello1 ed by o,,, thell t.he wOl'k done du t.o dP" during the dis
t Thl! t errnH "raree" lind "diHplaeement" include "couple" lind "angullil' displacc
Inl'llt" r
ENEHGY !-1E!' HOD 89
and frOlll Fig. 4. 5(b), \Ve have
90 :;nIPL.; EXTENSION 4.4
plaeclI1cn l 0
11
_ is (dPn)( On). This work done i storcd as sLrain energy, and is
in addition to that due to the forces Pn' s. Thus the iotal strain energy is
The total strain energy given by E q . [b] and [e] should be the same. Therefore
(4.4)
Equation (4.4) is called CastigIiano's theorem. For a bar of eross-sectional arca
A under simple tension ofaxial forcef, the strain-encrgy density is, fr0111 Eq.
(3.17),
v = (P) 2
- 2E A
If thc length of the bar is 1, the t tal strain encrgy i
(4.5)
und
au PI
-aI -' = -A-E = O,
as found previously.
EXAMPLE 4.6. Solve Exa111ple 4.2 by Castigliano's t,heorclll.
S/ilulion. Sillce P
l
= ( 3j 2) P, the strain energy in bar AO is
u = Pi(v:'il) = ( P
2
l .
, 2AE 8 ' AE
Sinc P
2
= -tP, the stl'uin m1 crgy in oar EO is
_ 1 P2l
=--.
- 8;tE
Tho total straill cncrgy is
P 2l
U = U J + U2 = {-(1 -t 3 X V3) A JE'
alld thc horizontal di splacomcnt of the point. O is
o = au = 1:. (1 + :3 X 13) Pl .
J; ap 4 v .) AE
PlUNcrPLE UF LE.\ST
4.5
F igu re 4.6
1'0 fi lid the v!'rtir:nl
PI a.lld )12, wl!l'1l t
horizontal "
F
x
= P
2
COl!
F
y
= :;ill
Thus
1', = - Jo'
1 ( - F
U=g-
al! (
Oy = aF
o" =
4.5 PrincipIe of
t.here arc IIlOre IInkllllwn
for a rigid boJy. L0l. .\
ponellt:s. If ('ollsid r
sI rain encrgy tlf 1 ht' sy:
fon:es P". For lito imm(
perpendicular lo t 111'
redions of I he readion
aU = O
ax, .
EquutiollS (4.6) arp llll'
that. tlw statiollnry valt
I
4.5 PUIN CIPLL OF LE.\ ST W01tK 91
To lind the vertical displae rnellt, let us fi rst solve for the axial forces
P I and P2, when ther is also an upward force F in addit ion to the
horizontal force P at O. Re ,lTing to F ig. 4. 6, we have
L,F", = P
2
COS 60 - PI CO 30 + P = O,
L:,FIJ = P2 sin 00 + PI sin 30 + F = O.
T hus
v'3 P
PI = - 2 Ji' + V:3 P P2 = - - F- - ,
2 2' 2 2
u = 2 (- F + v'3P)2(V3l) + 2 (V3F + P)2l,
8 AE 8 AE
= au = (-1) (- F + v.'3P)(V;3l) + va (V:3F + P) l.
y aF 4 AE 4 AE
T ow illce F = O, therefore
4.5 PrincipIe of Least Work
Let u:; w n idel' th , application of Castigliano's theorel1l t o problems fOl" which
therc are nlOl'e llllkllown !"f'fictioll cOll\ponents than equatioJ1s of equilibl"iUIl1
rOl" a rigid body. Let, Xl, X 2, 3, etc., denote the l"edulldant reactioll COI1l
pOllClliH. If we cOll sider t he eomponents as external active forces, thell the
slrain ellcrgy of 1he syst em is a fUllction of the Xn' a ' wel! a o the external
forees >". Fa!" the immovable suppor \' and fol' Lhe supports whose mo ion is
pcrpclldieular lo the dil"eetion of thc components, the displacements in the di
I"pc!ious of the I"eaetion compon nt,s are zero. Thereore
aU al
etc. (4.G)
aX = O, aX = O,
I 2
EquatitlllS (4.t'i) are the couditions fOI" the stationary value of U. It cau be shown
that tbe ::;tatiollary value iR a lllinimum when the structul"c j::; stablc. It follo\\'s
92 SIMPL E EX'!''' SION 4.6
that the magnitudes of statically indetcrminate reactive forces are such as to
lI1ake: the strain energy of the system a mlimum. This is called the principle
nf lcast worlc.
EXAMPLE 4.6. Solve Exalllple 4.3 by the principIe of least work.
Sulution. Let the reaction force at e be regarded as a redundant reaction
force X. (See Fig. 4.7.) TIten, as obtail ed in Example 4.3, the axial
force in bar AO is
PI = X) . V; (P -
The axial force in bar BO is
X C' P

- O
P
2
= - !(P - X).
Figure 4.7
The strain cnergy of the system is
u = 1: +l (P - X)2(V3l) + 1: (1:) (P - X)2l
2 . AE 2 4 AE 2 4 AE '
:X = O = (A.lE) - !l;(V3)(P - X) - Cl-)(P - X)], ,
alld t hus
x = 1 +3 V3 P.
7+3 y'3
4.6 Tension or COD1pression in Tbree Perpendicular
Dlreotions
The statc of tress at any point inside a rectangular parallelepiped loadcd by
uniform normal surface t ract ions on ils six faces cal! be obtaiucd by thc principIe
nf sup rp sition. If el, 2, and ea are uniformly Jistributed per unit arca
011 the facf, perpeudicular to the X-, y-, aud z-axes, I"espcctivdy, then
eI O o1
(f = o e
2
o . (4.7)
[
o o Ca
N ow el, e 2, anJ e3 are obviousl y the principal ,;tresscs, and the magnitudc of
the maximum shearing stress is th maximum of
ICI - Cal
anJ
2
If 2 = C
3
= -p, that i' , if the parallclcpiped is under the actioll of
PRODLEMS
uniform pr('ssurt oIl its bOll
iH
cr =
aml th stress vpetor on
(/, m, ni 1
nI"
a =
that is, there al"l' no
exa tly equal to -' p.
illside a boJy nf an.IJ
Eq. (4.8).
p(li -I
4.7 "Pure Shear
Ir C
I
= -C
2
= e uml
1 t,hat on planes P"l
4i)O anJ 1:35 with tlu'
of the shearing stl'f' 8 011
lakral faces paralld to
illlagincd inside the po. m
in a state 01' so-callrd pl
l'if,!;.4.8.) The st.atl' of .;trl
i llside the prislll t', uf ('. ()\H
()
( '
()
PROBLEMS
4.1. DetrJ'll1inc tlLp totti l l'!
1 (llii ami = :,,() X I
1.2. . \ CUlit iron bar , ,1 in. I
axial fon'e,; P at ih \'nds.
J> = 20,000 lb. (1)) Finll
\O p,;i , JI c-'" 0.25.)
PRODLEMS 93
unifonll pressure Oll its boundal'Y, the state of stres, ' at any poillt in ide the body
lB
(4.8)
ulId thc stress vector on any illclined plane whose normal is IV = (l, 111, n) lS
-p O
O -p - ( - pi, -pm, -pn), = (l, m, n)
O O J
01'
a = -p(li + mj + nk) = -pN;
that is, there are no shearing stresses 01) any plane, and the normal stress is
exaet.!y cqual to - p. It follow5 thcrefore that the state of stress at any point
inside a body of any shape under the action of uniform pl'cssure is given by
Eq. (4.8).
4.7 .. Pure Shear
lf el = - C
2
= e and 3 = O in Eq. (4.7), jt can readily be shown (Eqs.
(1.1:3)] that 011 planes perpendicular to the plane (JI' the paper which make
4;)0 and 135
0
with the x-axis, the normal stresses vanish alld the lllagllitude
of the shearing st l'esses on th planes is equal to C. Thu!;, if a prism with the
lateral faces parallel to these planes is
jlllagined illside the parallelepiped, it is
in a stat.e of so-called pure shear. (See
Fig. 4.8.) The state of stre s at uny point
inside t.ho pl'ism is, of course, given by
e
(j = .
Figure 4.8
PROBLEMS
4.1. Determine lil e to t ul 0[' :l steel bar 30 in. long if the t ensile strcss is
18,000 psi and .; = 30 X 10(i psi.
4.2. . \ iron bur, 4 in . long and 11 in. in diametcl' is ]lulled by equal and
axial 'O['('(';.; P at ti; cnds. (a) Fine! the Illaximum normal and sheal'ing; ir
J' = 20,000 lb. (b) Fid the total elong; ntioll ::md lat.eral C'ontradion. (E = 15 X
10
f
; p = 0.2.5)
94
4. 3. Determin t lle tcn"i l axial rore" Oll a round st:eel bar of l - in. di llmeter ir Lile unit
elongati on along th I ngth of the bnr is equuJ to 0.0007 in. and Ji: = 30 X J00 psi.
4.4. Determine t he ner a e or decrease in di a meter of a stecl bar whieh i 3 in. in
diamct r, ir a. 'ompr 'i ve !'! tress of 30,000 p i is appli ed axially, IlSsuming P oi s ' on'"
rati o v = 0.3 and E = 30 X 10
6
psi.
O 4.5. In t lle te t of a ronerete (;ylincler of 6- in. diamct r ncl12- in. length, l he di am ter
increas('d hy 0.0005 in. under a compre, ve load whi ' h deer s the len , tb by
0.011 in. Youn y's modulus in compre " ion i:; found to he 2 X 10
6
psi. Determin Ule
value ol" v and l h" eompressive load.
4.6. A teel bar of l - in
2
erus' seetion i, adee! on by the fOl'ces shown in Fil,!;. 4.9.
What is the total elongation of the bar '1

--
L-
--'2,OOOlh
---I
...- x
_____
1--LO rt -
Figure 4.9
4.7. Solve Problcm 4.6, ir the leH and the right loads in Fig. 4.9 are chunged t o 10,000 lb
and 12,000 lb respectively.
4.8. 1ateral" .'hibitillg a ten. iI - t s t diagrum similar t.o that of structurul s t.e I are
callcd dllctile material s. The el ,:ign tress (aIso called working fl trel'is or allowable
stress) or ti duetile mat.erial is obtained by divi ding t hc yic\d in Lhe diai!;ram
by a factor (Jf ,mfety. \ ' tec! bar of 10- ft lengt h is to be designed to earry a tcnsile
load af 120,000 lb. lf t hc yicld s tre. ' for tbe material 40,000 psi ami a fador
of 2 is to be w;cd, what ;}ould be the cross-section!L1 area uf the bar') If it is furt'ht'r
required that the elongation : hould no t xeced 0.05 in., what should the urea hc
(E = 30 X lO C, psi) '?
4.9. Figure 4.10 ShOW8 a ten 'il e-test diagram for e l iron; it ha..'i a very low propor
tional limit anr! no yield point. The design :-stress is obtained by dividinJ.( the ultimate
strength by a fador. \ hollow cast iron cylinder with a wall thiekness of 1 in.
is to earry a compre:;sivc load of 200,000 lb. If the ul t imate sength is 120,000 psi
and a safety fn.ctor of 10 is to be 'l,'cd, compute the out"idc diametcr ncedcd to can.)'
the load i:iafcly.

T
3 in .
1

o:
l in.
p p
<u
F igure 4 . 10 F igu re 4.11 Figure 4.12
1'11013 1 M.'
,114., 10. In F i'T . 4. 11,i buthbars
alld the sum Young'" rnodultl.
Pl sr ,2 el.
00 = Z.lE
4. 11. In Fi .4.11,if l hec
bar , fi ud lhe di,.,placerncn!, 0\
:<am Youn 's rnoclltlu,; R.
4.l 2. In ' igure 4.11, if lhe
v r ti eall lLt th!:' jloint O, fi oll tlu
lcngth l anrl thc Hume H amI . \.
4. l 3. I n Fig. 4.1 2, bolh bilJ1\ ha"
ul u::! E. Find Ih(' displ :Lc(' IIII' JI( ,
Figure 4.13
. ..l.1 4. In FiJ.(. 4.1 ;{ , .l :llld 1\' a ll'
lllen t of Ihe point B.
4. 15. Solve Probll'lll 4.14, if lltt
vertieally down t (ht' poillt. ll .
4. 16. Thrpe identieal " 1,(11 rml
load doe,; eal' h rul! l'arry'! .
,1.1 7. Solve Prnhhm\ 4.lll, 1[ Ih
lhe lC'ft. alld uf IlIl' right har 111
4.1 8. Solve Probkm 4.Hi , if ti
lI1: tead of a .
4.19. 111 Fi!!;. 4.15, ihl' ,,1 1,1 ,.
an alumin lll\1 tutw lHl\'inJ!: ti
tutal luad W ,,, plal'I'<IOIl fop
"treH:W" are 20,000 psi rOl" . t(
E ,duUI = 10 X lOI; p"i) .
95
" 4.10. In 1"i". 4.11, ir both bal's havp. the sume lengLh 1, t he fla me TO RR-se tional area .1,
ulld thl' ,,;a llle YOUIl'Y'S modulus E, show thut the vcrtica,l defiero ion of O is I!;iven by
2
00 = PI sec a
AE
4 11. In 4.11, if the cross-:ectional rca of the ri ght bar ti twice that of the left
hal', find thc cli "plcement of the poin t O. The bars have the same length l and the
."amp YOllng" modulus E.
4.12. In Figur 4.11, ir th force P is a ppli ed horizontally to the l'i ght in:;lcad of
\'rl'til'aIly al t he point 0 , find Lhe cli :; pl ac n eut of t he poi nt O. The bars have the .. ame
Il'ngth 1allll the ,' ame E a nd . L
, U 3. In Fig. 4.1 2, both bars have tll > !-la me eross- ecti onal arca .1 and Young" mod
R. Find the displ a ment of the p ini C. Both ba.rs are wight.l ss.
lO in.
l
p
Figure 4.13 Figure 4 . 14 Figure 4.15
14.14. In Fi g. 4.13, .1 ancl E IU'e tIJe same fol' both wciO'htlcss bar::;. Find the
1II1'lIt 01' (he point 13.
4.15. Holve l'roblem 4. 1.4, if th f n :p P IS a pplied horizontally tu the right 01'
\'I'rti l'ully clown lit t.he point B .
.16. Th\'P identieul steelrod.. s upport the loa P, a .. hown in Fil!;. 4. 14. Uo\\' I11l1eh
lIJad dUI'" rueh rod earry'? Nep;lcct the weights of the roc! find t he rigid bar.
4.17. Solv(' Problem 4.16, ir t.hr .. -:sectional area uf t.he middle IJar i' twir:l : that (JI'
Ihl' Id t I1tHI uf th!' ri!;ht bar in Fi!;. 4.14.
4 l!l. Problrm 4.16, if t.he bctwcen thc lcf t t wo bu.rs in Fig. 4.14 is 2a
in-ttud 01' !l.
!.I!J. In Fil!:. 4.15, thc stecl eylinder of 12- in
2
eros -scetiunal area ti . loosely inside
un alumillum tube huving a 40- in 2 el'o:;s- eetional area. A ri!;id ftat pIa Le l:arryin!; a
11J!:1llou\ "F plarwl on Lop (JI' the a;scmbly. Caleulatr: thc tla!'c load W. Alluwable
In' ,l'. tU (' 20,000 psi fol' stee! and 9000 psi rOl' aluminum (R.
lOd
= 30 X 10 psi,
1."111'" = 10 X 10(; psi) .
96 I:ilM1' LI'; EXTENSION
p
_ _ --I
F igure 4.16 Figure 4.17
4.20. In Problem 4.19, if the aluminum tube i5 0.001 in. longer t han the steel cyliuder
before the load lI ppli ed, find the safe load 11'.
4.21. llcferring to l ig. 4.16, find the on the three weightlcs' bars. The bars
havc the' same cross-sectional area .1 nd modulus of elasticity E.
4.22. Solve Pl'obl em 4.21, if the force P a (ti vel' tically upward instead of horizontall y
to the ri gh t.
.4. 23. A \Vi re i held (aut between two immovllblc SUpplll' ts 20 ft aparto How
muc;h may the temperature drop before a stress of 18,000 psi b l'eaehed (ex = 6.1 X
lC- per F) ?
,,4.24, There i. ini tiully no stress in th composi te ba r shown in Fig. 4. 17. What \ViII
the tcnHi le stI't' s in the bur be if the temperaLure dl'ops AT OF'?
4.25. T hcre initiully no stresR in thc eomvo,ite bar hown in Fig. 4.18. What \ViII
thc t ensile strel:i$ in the bar be ir the t emperature drops AT F?
4.26. If t he rigid bram in Fig. 4.19 level before the load applied and the te mpera
ture ri ses AT 0.F, fin d the load P needed to bring the beam level again. Uoth bars are
of the matl'rial, the 'ame Icngth t, and t he sume ero ' - ectional area A.
T

J
F igure 4.18
4. 27. Solve Problem 4.10 by t he nel'gy m thocl.
[.
1_-
111
4.28. Solve Problem 4.11 by thc energy m t hod.
4.29. Salve Problern 4.1 2 hy the energy method.
1
4.30. olve Problcm 4. 13 by the energy met hod.
Figure 4.19
4.2 1. olve Probl em 4.14 by the Cll Cl'gy method .
4.32. Solv Pl'ohlem 4.14 by the energy mcthod, ir the cl' oss-seetiona l area of the [oIVer
bar t",j(' c that 01' rhe lIppel' ha l.
I'ROnLEM,'
\--3ft -l
Figure 4.20
4.33. olv l'l'oblem 4.16 hy (
4.34. Solv l'rohlem 4.17 hy t
4.35. Solve Problem 4.18 by tl
olve Probl cl11 4.21 by ti
4:36.
4.37. F ind the in all (111'
ha 'ro -. edional arca . \ tll l
4.38.
'J 4.3 . F igure 4.21 .
th t the "lr::i<l over
all d that uther strc:is eornl
violation of (he
ment of the IU\\'l'r ('nd by .
cune.
4.40. ,\ stccl I>l, )(: k with aH in'
p = 20 000 p"i uv('r ib hoUl
cuhical'dilatatilln'? \\'hat j,; t
PH0l3LEM:; 97
P
r-a-1


T
1
1
Fi g ure 4. 20 Figure 4.21
1.33. Solvc Problem 4.16 by the principIe of I tl ' l 1V0rk.
U4. Solve })roblem 4.17 by the principIe of lea t work.
1.35. Solv Problem 4.18 by the principIe of least work.
-1 .36. Sol ve Probl ID 4.21 by the principie of !cast wor k.
4.37. :Fill d thc force. in all the bara in the t ructure shown in Fig;. 4.20 . \ 11 the bars
have lTOR-i-sectional area it and the sam' modulus of clasticity R.
4.38. Repeat Problem 4.37, exccpi that "bo t h are pinncll to th '
-1 .39. Fi gur 4.21 h W8 a circular cone of wei!:h. ti! hung; at the !'ciling. uming
that the . . r ss over each ero::;::; section i uniformly over tbe secton
and that oth ' r ; tre ' component are zero (note that such nn tl R;;; umption leads to a
\"iolation of t he t ress-free boundary conclition on the lateral raee) , find the displace
ment of the lower end by in tegraling the elongation of each c1iffcr cntilll Icngth of the
" (IIll' .
4.40..\ "tee! block with an ini t ial volume of 3000 in
3
is suhj ected to uniform pre-is ure
p = 20,000]1 i over i tA boundary. lf (,he bulk modul us is 20 X 10
6
psi, whal is the
l"ubi (' 1dilatation ? What is t he total change of volume'
5. 1 TOIl 101 OF A e
CHAPTER 5
Torsion
5.1 Torsion of a Circular Bar
I n Fig. .1, the axis of the circular bar of radius 1'0 is takcll to be the x-a i ,
and the end faces lie 011 the plan s x = O and x = l. Let us cons ider the
fol!owing di tl'ibutioJl of the state of stress:
[nI
",hcre is a constant.
In the abo ence of body forces, wc have
(O, O, O) ;
that is, the cquntions of equilibl'ium al' sati fi ed . Si nce thc cOlllponcnts of the
stress t ensor are al! linear functions of x, y, a nd z, the compatibility eonditio!ls
are also su sfied. Thercfore, the ugiven by equation [a] is a po;,;sible stat.c of
stre ,provid d that suitable surface traetions re applied on the boundary.
On tite lateral faee, the unit normal vector Fig. 5.2) is
A = (O sin 8 cos 8) = (O J!.... ,
" 'ro rn
98
1---
1
Figure 6.1
Thus the trac.t.ion \VI
'1 z)
(h)
iJ =
(
O,
ru TII
t hat is, t110 latoral facc iR
N = ( -1, O, O) and
(e] ii = (-- 1,0, O)
This distribution of surfa<: .
resultant (Fig. !l .:)):
Rx = 0,
H
y
= J( - Cz)
R. = J(CIJ) rl
M:r. = JZ (eZ)
whore I p = J(Z2
about tlll' epnter, ami
llll/ = 0,
that is, tile n:sultant 01'
hore on \ViII he oeno\!'d
5.1 TORRION O F A CIRCULA R BAR 99
!I
!J
r
I-----J
Flgu:re 5.1 Figure 5.2
Thus the sur facc traction which must be appJ.ied on the lateral face is
[h1
(0, 0, O);
that. is, the lateral face is free of traction. On the end face x = 0, we have
N = (- 1,0, O) and
j = (-1, O, O) [ ~ z ~ z - ~ Y l
- Cy O
[e] (0, - Cz, +Cy).
'fhis di stribution of sUl'fac traction on the face x = Ogives rise to the follo",ing
l'esult:llIt. (vi g . .5.3) :
!I
R:c = 0,
-;
RlI = J( -Cz) dA = - CJ z dA = 0,
(.' ,1/
R ~ = J(Cy) dA = CJy dA = 0,
IL----'--+_ z
Mx = J z(Cz) dA +J y(ClI ) dA = Clp,
where 1p = f (Z2 + y2) dA i thc polar moment of inertia of the cross sectioll
ahout t,he cClltcr, and
lfy = 0,
that iR, tite rcsultant of the force systelll is a twisting coupl e Jlf r, which fl'Olll
hel'l: 011 \ViII he (jmoted by MI, in th pla ne of the end facc with strellgth el p.
100 TUH::;J ON
5.2
Thus \Ve have
[d]
Silllilarly, Oll t h nd facc ,,1' = l, we hay N = (+ 1, 0, O) a nd
[e] iT = (0, + Cz, - Cy).
This di t ributi OIl of surfacc t l'actioll 011 x = l gives rise to a rcsultallt couple of
thc same strength as that 011 th face x = 0, but it is in the opposite direction.
In kl'lns of the twisting couple M
t
, the stress tensor becomes
J1Jrz Mty
- I
Ip p

MIz
(f =
(5.1)
I
p

_ 1I1
t
y
Ip

In l'eality, when bar is t wistcd tho exact distribution uf the applied forces is
ral' Iy,. if CV'l' , kIlO\V11. Wc sha1l assume that as IOllg as thc resultants of the
appli cd f rees 011 th two ends of the bar are equal and opposite couples of
st l' Ilgth MI i n the plaucs of the el'oss seetions, the state of stress illside th bar
is givcll t by Eq. e". !) . The magnitude of shearing stl' at any point in the
cro se ,tioll is
7 =
that i ,
(5.2)
wherc /. is the radial distance fro!ll the axis of the bar. Sinee
(
MIz . MI. IJ k) (.+ k)
T r = 1p J - [;: . ljl z = ,
t.his sheal' illl!; stre ' , is in a dircetion taugcnt t.o the circle whose mdius is r .
5.2 MazbnuDltonnal and Sbearing Stresses
in a Circular B ar Under Torsion
j
quatioll (1.19) \ViII b uscd to find t he principal stresses, Ir u represents tho
principal strcsses, we hay
t Saint-V nant ' s principIe i. invoked he]c .
DEFORMATIO N OF .\ elltc
5.3
Thus the prillcipal str
J,
u =
y;;
Frol\1 Section 1.15, thc 11
_ (Mlf
7]'1'1 - 2 _l p
E quation (5.3) and (:.4)
point, hose radial
and hearing stresses lo\'
11/[ ,ro
Umf1X = ----;- ,
To find the principal plane
z = ro at any ero ' cetion
nf (1.16), wc hav ,
O - MIro) I t
(
lp
which, togcthcr with thl' t'1
2 + + n
2
give
l = m =
v
that is,
1 .
N = (1
v 2
'Ihis is a planc perpt
()f 45 wit,h thc :e-axis (,' ('
whv a crack alllng u 1ll'lix i
whieh is weake\' in tcnHioll
1,'rom the rcsult nI'
shel1rillg 8\ \'e8seR ltd un' I
plalles,
5.3 Deformation
We hall show that.
at the ends, cach CI'O
a plane in the ul.'flll'llwd
seetioll; and ('Hch sect.tlt
otlwl' th['()ugh au :lIlgll'
,'j .3 Dl:FORMATIO N OF A CIltC1JIAH n.\Il JlY TORKroN
101
Thus t he principal stresses a t any point re u = Oa nd
u = Mt y y2 + 2
2
= Mt
r
. (5.3)
1 p Ip
Fl'OllI Section 1.15, the maximum sheari ng tress is
T
m x
= [A;;r- (_ =
(5.4)
'quations (5.3) and (5.4) give n aximum normal and sh ari ng stresses a t any
poirlt whose r dial distance fro01 the axis o the bar is 1" . T hus maxilllum normal
and 8heuring stresse.s for the bal' oecur on the boundary where j" = 1"0, with
(5.5)
To find the principal plan on which U
ll 1nx
act let us consid l' th point y = 0, I
Z = ro at any cross section ;; = consto From the nrst and the third equatiolls
of (1.16), we have
(o - l + m= O, + 0+ (o - n = 0,
which, together with the equation
/1
2 2
l2 + rn + n = 1,
give
1
l = m = - , n = 0,
2
thai. is,
N = (i -1- j).
(5. 6) Figure 5.4
This is apla ne perper dicular to the lat ral fac , with a normal maki ng a n angle
of 45 with the x-axis (see Fig. 5.4, wh re point P is on the lateral face). T his i8
why a crack along a helix inclined at 45 to the axis of a circular cast iron shaft,
which i8 -r in t ension than in shea!", often occurs when the shaft is twisted.
Frolll the resul t of Secton 1.15, it is seen that the planes on which the O1a,.ximum
Hhcaring t l'ess s ud are the planes of the cross sect ion and longitudinal axial
planes.
5.3 DeforDlation of a Circular Bar Subjected to Torsion
We shall show t hat when a circulat' bar i undcr the actioll of twistillg couples
at the ends, ach cross sectioll of t h bar perpendicular to the x-axis \Vil! rell1ai u
a plallc in the dcformed state; tlcr(\ wil! be 11 0 dcformat ion in t he plane of the)
s Ct.iOll ; and each sectio!l will rota t e ill th pla ne of t he section relative to all y
other thl'Dugh an angle propor t iollal t the di sta nc, b twecn t hc scctiolls .
102 TORillO N 5.3
Fwm Hook " law, we have
, [a]
[b]
Tu M t1J
7 [e]
l'xz = G = - Gl p
Thus, if u, v, and 111 a re t he eomponents of displaeement in the X-, y-, and z-dil'f"! c
t ions, respc t ively, w' have
i ( [d]
dU = O dV = O dW = O aW + dV = O
ax 1 ay ,
dZ ' ay az '
av + dU = AI /z dW + dU =
M/y
-
[e]
iJx iJ y GI p iJx az
- G/ p '
Thus
[f]
(dV + dU) _ O
ay dX ay - ,
[g]
( aw + dU) = O
dZ ax dZ '
lh]
( dV +dU) _ !vIt ,
az a.r ay - G l p
li]
( iJW + dU) = _ Al t
ay iJx iJz GIp
N ow since dV/ dY and iJW/ dZ a re id ntiealIy zero, we obta in
( dV) _ (av) _O
(iJw) = (aw) = O and
ay d.r - iJx ay - dZ ax ax dZ .
It foJlows from E qs. [f] and [g] t h t
[j ] and
AIso, the addition of Eq . [h] and [i] gi ves
(a l> +aw) + ') a
2
u = O
iJ.r iJz ay dy ae .
But (aV/ dZ) + (dU' / dy) is identically zero, and therefol'e
(b) Froll E L. (..8)
:1/
1
1.
a ---=
- d I'
]lEFOtlMATI
5.3
Equati oll
scct ion will re01ain
.r-direction. (See
Since EUII = Eu
thc
E q. lh1 that since (d
d (av)
(11 J:c
Rcferring t
fol' 9. m a l! angle. Sin
of rotation of t h
rota ion by 0, w have, f\'OIH
N
ri] and Ik],
a phtll '
r nbh-III')
= E,
eetion. T o {l11d t hp \' ela!
2
Uj'l!J rJ )
,1 / t
de = 1i11' .
}i' ig., .), t11l' (\ 11
ti
T hus if t h length uf tl1l'
of end scetioll rel tiv ti
i
!\/l
It- j 07 dI'
. (\ f'
The angl of t wi t be! w en t
th
e
nngle of twist pe\' \lu it
bar, t he unit twist is JltI (!
EXAMPLE 6.1 . \
r, i8 8ubj ect cd to
m 9.Xi l Hll1 h 'll.l'ill.!;
(G = 12 X 10(\ P ').
Solulion . (a) For
5.3 DEFORMATION OF A c rnCULAIl llAR BY TO IJ.S N 103
Equn.tiolls [j) and [k], t ogether wit h thc equation 8u/8x =: O, state that every
sectioll will relllain a plano a ll d thol'c is IU str tching 0(' cOl1lpression in t he
x-dircction, (See Pl'oblem 2.6.)
Ri nc EY1I = Ezz = = O, there is t hel'efore no defoJ'l11ation in the plane of
the ection, To find t he relative anglo of l'ot-atjOlJ oI th scctiOllS, we note frOlll
Ec. [h) that since (8
2
ujay 8z) = O, we have
[1)
Hcfcrring to Fig. 5.Fi , th ngle of l'otation of t he line y = O is seen to be 8v/8z
fo r a swa ll an :rle. Since tIH'!'e i n defol'matioll in t ho sccti on, thi.: 1'8 the a ngle
uf rotati on oi' tite sectioll. D not.ing the anglc of
rotati on by O, \Ve have, f l'om Eq. [1],
dO M I
(5.7)
dx = Gl p
Thus, ir t he length of the bal' is 1, thc a ngle of twist
of olle ene! section relative to t he othC'!' is
IG- JI Mt dx = Mt
l
.
(5. 8)
. o Gl p Glp
Figure 6.5
The a. n le ( f \Vi t b twecn two sectioJls which a re a ull it d istance apart is called
thc allgl e of twist per uuit length 01' the unit tll:ist . For t he tOl"ion 01" a circular
bar, tltc unit Lwist is Mt/Gl p , as given by Eq. (5.7).
EXAMPLE 6.1. A circula r ste 1 shaft, 5 it in Iength a nd 3 in. in d ia n
et 1', is subj ect ed to a twisti ng rnoment of 5000 lb- ft. Determine (a) t he
m xi nl wn s h aring ud n rmaI and (b) t. he angle of twist
( r = 12 X lO
H
psi ).
Solution. (a) F or a circular ero section of diameter d,
_ 7rd
4
_ 7r(a) 4 _ r::.'
1
p - a2 - - 7.!"lD m .
Fronl Ec. (5.5), we have
Mtd (5000 X 12) (3)
(Inlax =
T
nll
" = 2]p = 2 X 7.95 - 11 ,:300 psi,
(h) l'rom E l{, (:'5.8) , , e have
M il (5000 X 12)(5 X L2)
0'= - -= 0,0378 rn.dians.
lp (12 X 10
0
)(7.9,'
5.4
Toru;ION OF A H
But al n USt. h
104 TORSION
5.3
EXAMPLE 6.2. A circular stee1 shaft 3 in. in diamct.er t l'ansmi ts 50 hp
at a speed of 100 l'pm. Thc distance bctwe n the driving Rnd driven
pulleys is 10 ft. Find thc maximum normal and hear tress s; also find
the angle of twi t. Neglect dynamic stres es.
Solution. F irst we hay t o find the twist ing moment Mt (in- lb) in terms
of the hol's power (hp) and the peed of t he driving motor n (rpm).
Since work done p l' minute on the haft is (M
t
)(211"n) in-Ib/min, there
for in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 33,000 ft- Ib/mill) , w have
(33,000)(hp) = (M t/ 12) (27rn).
Thus
Mt(in-lb)
(63,000) (hp)
n
In the problem given,
M
= (63,000) (50) = 31 500 . . - lb
I 100 ' I1l ,
7rd
4
I p = :i2 = 7.95 in
4
,
M td (31 ,500) (3)
U/n
nx
= Tme.x = 2I
p
= 2 X 7.9
5950 psi,
1I1{ tl (31,500)(10 X 12) , .
a = Gf
p
= (12 X 10
0
)(7.95) = 0.0396 r dmns.
EXAMPLE 6.3. In Fig. 5.6, a twisting torquc MI is applied to the rigid
di A. Find the k isting momellts transmitted to the circular shafts 011
either side of the di sco
Solulion. L t MI be the twistin moment transmitted to thc left shaft and
M 2 that to the righ shaft. hCIl tbe cquilibrium of thc rigid disc de
mands that
[a]
MI + M
2
= Mt.
Th:- angle of twist of the 1eft shaft is
M i l \
al = -,
I p
and that of the right lS haft is
11,[2l2
a2 = Ofp ,
F igu:re 6.6

= Gl p'
M,I = M
. ' [a] alld lb],
1
2
"
MI = /.1
5.4 Torsion of a
et thc infler and outer
given by E c , [a] of Sectiun 5.
the outor urface but I1lso Ol
satne sectioll hows that
hus aH thc orivatiollS
ci rcular bars. It is i
1p = 1I"R4./2, and fol' a
EXAMPLE 5.4.
stecl haft of outl'l'
thc mu,ximulll slu'ari
hollow, the sh ft IS 84
i11 }.fI '? What is tlw
So/u/ion. l ,' or tlle
FuI' :l solid shaft of
11"
1
1
, =
.)

:a..--l,--
MIl
Gl p
Thus,
lb1
Fl'om E
Fol' a olid sbaft of diametcl' 112,
7i" d ~
5.4 TORSroN OY A fl OLLOW CIRCULAn BAR 105
But al must be equal to a2, since the dise is assumed to be rigid:
lbr ll
l
lbr
2
1
2
Glp = Glp'
Thus,
From Eqs. [al and [b), we then obtain
5.4 Torsion of a H ollow Circular Bar
Let th' inner and outer radii be Rl and R
2
, respectively. The stress tensor
givr.n by Eq. [a] of ect ion .5.1 obviously not only gives rise to zero tractions on
he outer surfaee but also on the inner lateral mfaee. Indeed, Eq. [b] of the
Hllllle section shows that the stress vector on any surface l' = const is null.
Tltlls all t he derivations givclI in the pI' vious sections are valid for hollow
cireulal' bars, It is important to lIot , however, that fol' a solid circular bar,
lp = 'lrR
4
/ 2, and for a holIow circular bar, I p = ' I r ( R ~ - R1)/2,
EXAMPLE 6.4. What is t he maximum twisting torque that a hollow
steel shaft of outer diameter d
2
nd inner diam ter dI can tl'ansmit, if
t.he maximUIll heal'ing stress is not to exeeed T
8
? If, instead of being
hlllIow, the shaft is sol id with diam >t r d
2
, what is thc pel'centage increase
iJl Ml'? What is the p I'eclltage inel' ase in eight pel' un it length '?'
Solul'ion . F or the hollow shaft, we have
11' = 32 '
rn:l x = T s ==
16(M). d
2
'Ir d ~
- --
5.5
T OU:>IO N O f AN .;LLI
T he surfaee tract ion Oll tlle rl
t nsor given by Eq. la] is t\wn
,
2M
T hc principal stresses al'
106 '['OUSTON 5.5
Thc pel'ecntage iucreasc in Mt is
[C Mt) . - (M
t
),.) X 100%
(Al
t
)h -
The inercase in volume per unit length of the solid shaft over t.ll c hollow
shaft is
'Ir di .
4
The pCl'eentage inerease in weight is
100 01
2 2 / 0 ,
d
2
- dI
If d
2
= 2d, the pereentage inerea e in 1ft is W %. The pcrecntage
inercas in weight is
\ 5.5 Torslon of an EIUptlcal Bar
Figure 5.7 shows the eross seetion of an elliptieal bar with semimajor axis
a and semiminor axis b. The end faces o the bar lie on the plane x = O and
x = l . Let us eonsider the followi ng possi ble state of stress:
I
Cz _ Cy
a
2
b
2

Cz
[a.] (f=
O O
a
2
z
_ Cy

O
b
2
Figure 5.7
For CVCl'y point on the lateral face, we have
Z2 1/ dy l? z
and
- - -.
--+- - =1'
0. 2 ,
thus
dz
y
Therefore a vector tangent to the ellipse is
2
T = b
2
zj - a yk,
and an outward normal vector is
a
2
yj + b
2
zk.
If N is thc outward unit nornlal vector, then
N = (O, a
2
y, b
2
z)
lb)
...a
4
y 2 + b
4
z
2
t hat is, the lateral face is fn't'
= ( - 1,0, O) and
('z
(1 = 0,
(
T his distributi on of surfaee
r sultant:
[e1 = R
y
= n.
1
= -; Z ( .1
C J" 1
U"
01' sinee
and denoting thc twisting
e(
[d1 Mt = M", =-
The result nt on the otlwl'
given by Eq, [dJ, but l!f
I n t erms of the
becomes
o
'11=
3 _ [(2J1'1tli
(1 rab,1
5.5 Tons ro OF AN ELLIPTICAL BAR 107
The surface traction on th elliptical lateral face corresponding to the stress
tensor given by Eq. [a] is then
u = m = (O, 0, O) ;
that is, the lateral face is free of surface tractioll. On the face x = 0, we have
N = (-1,0, O) and
_ ( Cz Cy)
u = 0, - a2 ' + 7J2 .
Thi distribution of surfaee traetion on the faee x = gives rise to the followi ng
result.ant:
= S jz2 dA + Q. ji dA = C (1~ 1 J + 1u).
a
2
b
2
a
2
b
2
'
01" SIIlC !
and d noti ng the twisting couple Mx by M
t
, we have
[d]
'fhe resultant on the other end face is a couple of the same strength as that
givcn by Eq. [d], but of opposite direction.
In t CI'I11S of the t wisting couple M
t
, since C = 2A1t!'Trab , thc stress tensor
hecome
2Mtz 2M
t
y
'Tra
3
b
- 'Trab 3

2Mtz
(i = (5. 9)
'Tra
3
b

2M
t
y
- 'Trab3

Thc prin ip 1 stresses are given by the l'oots of thc equation
3 _ [(2Mty )2 + (2Mlz)2] =
u 'Trab 3 'Tra 3b u ,
5.6 108 TORSroN
5.5
that s,
u = O and
Thus at any point (x, y, z), the maximum normal str ss .
(5.10)
and from Eq. (1. 28), the maximum sheari ng stress i8 0.180 of t he same magnitude,
that s,
(5.11)
It wiII be left as an exercise t o show that the maximum u and 7' occur at the
extremities of t he minor axis, and tha t
u
Ol ax
= T
max
= 2M,f7rab
2
. (5.12)
The deformation of t be bar can be obtained in the same manner as that for a
circular bar. We 8hal1 presently see that th cross section of an elliptical bar
uncier tOl"sion wi ll not remain pla n in the deformed state, but will bccllIe
warped. From Hooke's law and t he strain-d plae ment relationship, we have
[e]
au = O dV = O aw = O aw +av = O
ay ,
Jx ' Jz ' ay dZ '
av + au _ 2M tz
aw + au =
2M
t
y
[f]
ax ay - G7ra
3
b'
ax az
- G7rab 3 '
Frorn Eqs. [e) and [f] we can show the following results in exaetly the same
manner as that of Seetion
[g)
[h]
and
[i) C\ + ;2)'
Sinee (a
2
ujay az) O, the def rm d . 'cnon is h refore not aplane but a
curved surface. I t i worth hile to mention t hat onl y the circular cross sectioIl
wiU not warp under torsion. Since EUY = foz = E
lIz
= O, each sectioll, although
warped, wiII till I"otatc as a whol disco Th unit twi t 18 glven by Eq. (i], which
can be written as
dfJ = MI (..!.. + _
(5.13)
a
2
b
2
dx G7rab
HOLLOW F. LLIPTIC ,.;II M 1',
in weight pcr ullit 1
EXAMPLE 6.6.
elliptical st c1 shaft uf
if the maximum
circular er e tioll
Mt?
Solution. F OI" thc
For the circular shaft,
3
7rb T
1
(MI) '
The pereentag
(IOO)(7rab - 7rb'l
7ra b
Hollow Elllptloal
.6
Referring to Eqs. (a]o.!Hi
on any elliptieal surfac j!; i
where k 1 (le = 1
ally sueh sud ce eall br ta
t orsion for hich hc st.at
u -h c; os s dions (sce Fip;.
7r 3b
[ l/Y = 4 a
[ = a/?(1
zz 4
Eq. (d] in Sectioll has
C(7ra/)

2M
r
(1
c -
- 7rab
HOLLOW ELLIPTICAL fi HAFT, ELLIPTICAL I IOUNDARIEl$ 109
EXAMPLE 6 .6 . What is the maximurn twisting moment that an
elliptical st el shaft of semima.jor axis a and semiminor axis b can transmit
if the maximum shearing str "S is not to e 'ceed T.? If the shaft is of
circular crosa section wi th radius b, , hat ls the percentage decrease in
M t? in weight per unit length ?
Solulion. For the elliptical slmft, we have
2(M
t
) .
T
mnx
7
8
= = 7rab2 '
For the circular shaft,
3
(
M) _ 7rb r.
te - 2 '
The percentage d crease in MI is
lOO(a - b) %.
that s,
a
The percentage deerease in weight per unit length is
lOO(a - b) %.
that is,
a
5.6 Hollow Elllptical Shaft with ElUptioal Boundaries
Referring to Eqs. [a] and [b] of Sect ion 5.5, it can be seen that the stress vector
01\ any elliptical surface given by the equation
z2 y2
(ka)2 + (kb)2 = 1,
(5.14)
where k $ 1 (k = 1 corresponds to the outer boundary) is a zero vector. Thus
nny such surfac an b taken as t.he inner boundary of th ellipt.ical shaft undel'
lorsioTl, fo!' which Lhe state of st ress ia given by [a] of Section 5.5. Since fol'
such cross s ctions (see li'ig. 5.8)
7r 3 7r)3 7r 3 4
1yy = '4 a b - '4 (ka (kb) = a b (1 - le ),
7r 3 4
fu = '4 ab (1 - k),
El. [d] in Section 5. 5 has to be modified. In fact,
MI = C ( ~ a b ) (1 - k
4
),
e = 2Nr", (1 _ k
4
)-I.
7rab
y
'----t--'----+-'-- z
Figure 6.8
110 TORSIO. 5.7
Alld writing 111 t fol' }. f x, tlle state of stre IS
2M
t
y
o
- 'Trab3
( .15) o o
_ 2J1rl
t
y
o o
'Traba
and
',4)-1 2Mt
umax = r mnx =
(
1 - e ah" .
7r
It is important to note tbat. tho solution in this section lS not valid fol' a hollow
ellipti al ahaft whose inner boundary is Ilot given by Eq. (5.14).
5.7 Torsion of a ThJn Tubular Shaft
Figure 5. 9(a) is tho 1'088 section of n thi ll tubular shaft. Since the lateral
faces ar free of surfac t l'actions, the shearing stresses on tho crss section at
the boundary curves must be tangent to the curves. If the wal ! is thin, we can
assulllc that the sheari ng stress T is uniforl 1 acmss th thickness and that it
acts in a direction tangcnt to t he centel' line of th ri ng section line
n Fig. 5.9 ). L t t denote the thick ness of the walt which lllay arya a functon
of s, the distance measured alollg the cent.er li nc of t he ring S ction frorn some
arbitrary poi nt on t.he line. L t q = (r)(I.); then q gives th l1l agnitude of the
shearing force per unit length o.loll g s. A consid rat ion of the equilibl'ium of a
di ffcl'cntial element cut from the wall (Fig. 5.9b) will give
aqjas = O; (5.16)
that is, q is a constant along s. Fol' this reason, q is called the shear fiOlv.
If th appli d twisting moment is 11-11,. the resultant moment of the ahear
forces long 8 about any axis perpendicular to tho section must be equaJ to lIt.
r---------',.-',--',-- 2
q ds

l
o
s l(q+ar d.'; ) d:t
d:t a,
q d:t

(q iJq d,,;) ds
iJx
(a)
Figure 5.9
(b)
Refel'1'ing to ' ig. 5.9(a) ag in
p nt O in the plalll) of tlll'
differ ntial force q rls. Bui Ir
umming up th
I t =
wllerc A is th arca
contribut,
q(2.rl ),
w have
T hus t hc approxi lllate stn'.
mom nt 'Al I (t,he x-uxi a
wh l'
The angle of twist pe!' uni l
The st l'ain en rgy uenl:lit ' s
1 .)
V = 20 r" c= :.:
so that, pcr uni!. I' ngth ()f t.
u = rV(I
u
where B is tilo kngth uf tl1l'
U in!?; Casl igliu.no's t hl'III
(j =
Mt /"
I t?/'
..,.. ll. 11
F uI' a t.ub )1' uniform t h ll'
01'
5.7 TORSION OF A THIN TUB LAR Sfl AFT 111
Referrng to Fig. 5.9(a) agai n, lct r be the po ition vector 111 asured fl'om somc
point O in the plane of the ero s section; thcn r X q ds givcs the moment 01' the
diflerential force q ds . B ut Ir X dsl is twice h had d al' in Fig. 5.9(a). T hus
surnming up the contribut ions of all t he diff renti 1 force, we obtain
MI = q(2A),
where A is the arca bounded by the dashcd lineo Not.i ng that q = (r) (t),
we have
j \l[ I
7'= -- ' (5.17)
2At
Thus the approxil1late stre s ten al' for a thin tubul r scction under a t wisting
moment M, (the :r-axis is along the length of the tube) wiU be taken to be
O r
XY
7'xz]
U =
[
r
xy
O O (5. 18)
7' u O O
where
2 2
r xy + 7'u =
2
r =
M
4 A
2
t
2
.
The a.ngle of twis t per unit length can be obtai lled fmm energy considcrations.
The strain energy deIlsity is
1 2 1 M ~
V = 2G 7' = 2G 4A'l t 2 '
so th t , pel' un lellgth f t he tube,
u = j8 V(t dlj) = l:... M ~ J"ds ,
o 8G A 2 o t
where s is the length uf the CCllt '1' line of Lhe l'i ng sect ioll .
U. ing Castigliallo's thcol'L'm, we have aUja"'t = e, and thus
8 = ~ J"ds. (5.19)
. 4A2G o t
For a t ubc of unifol'm thjckllC. s t = con t , therefore, the ulli! twist is:
8 = MIs
(5. 20)
4l2Gt
01'
rs
(3.21)
8 = 2AG '
112 T 'JON
5.1. Find the twiBting couple transmitted by a 3-in.-di ameter sol id circular shaft if
the Ol aximum shearing str ss is 8000 J1 i. What is the unit t wist (G = J 2 X J 0
6
psi)
5.2. A circular steel shaft is subjected to twisting couples of 2000 ft-Ib. The aJlowable
stress i!'4 18,000 psi. Ir the nllm ablp sheal'ing stress is 0.6 times t he allowll.ble
t ensile stress, what diametcr is nec ssary?

5.3. A circular steel ::;haH is Bubjected to twi t ing couples of 5000 ft- Ib. Determi ne
the shaft diameter ir the maximum shear stl' ss i not to exceed 10,000 psi and the
angle of twist is not to exceed 1.5 in 20 diametel's of length (G = 12 X 10
6
p:;i ).
5.4. Determine the diameter below which the angle of twist of the shaft and not t he
maxi mum stress is the contl'olling factor in design if G = 12 X 10
6
psi, allowable
tenl'i ile and shear st.ress = 3000 p i, and the maxi mum allowa ble unit t,wist is 0.1 j ft.
5.5. A hollow shaft weighs three-fourths as much a: a solid shnft of the sa.me diamet.er .
What is the ratio of the torques which the shafts will transmit if the allowable sir ss
the same for both shaft:s '1
5.6 . .. \ hollow circul:1,r shaft has an oubide diametel' of 5 in. and an insi de dio.met er of
3 in. Ir the allowable shearing stre s is 10,000 psi, what il) the maxi mum twisting
couple the shaft can transmit?
5.7. Determine the diameters of a hollow shaft whi ch will tl'ansmit a t wisting couple
of 20,000 in-lb, if the allowable stress is 10,000 psi and the insiel e di ameter iR to be
one-halr of the outsidc diameter.
15.8. Determine the length of a atcel shaft of 2 in. di a meter if the maximl1 m shearin
str ss is equal to 12,000 whcn the angle of twist i. 6 (G = 12 X 10
6
psi).
5.9. A shaft transmits 500 hp when turning at 100 rpOl . If the allowabl . hel.ring
stre ' is 8000 ri, what diameter is required? Neglect dynamic stresses.
6-in. diamdr,r st l,el shaft turns at 120 rpm. If the allowable stl'ess is 10,000 psi,
determine the horsepower the shaft will transOlit.
5. 11. Solve Problem 5.10, if it is [lIso required tho.t the unit twist should not cxceed
l'adjft (G = 12 X 10
6

5.12. A solid steel shaft, 4 ,in. in diameter, transmits 200 hp a s peed of 300 rpm.
The distance between the driying and t he driven pulley is 10 ft. Check whether the
following requirements are satisfieu: (a) ma.:iml1m shearing tres is not to exeeed
10,000 pHi, (b) unit tw,t is not to exceed t degj ft (G = 12 X 10G p, i) .
5.13. Given that 50 hp are delivered to a 30-ft shaft at a pulley on th left end of t he
shaft, 30 hp kaye the shaft at a pu[Jey which is 10 [t from the left end, the other 20 h p
Iraye at a pulley on thl, right end, and the shaft tl1rns a t 600 rpm, (a) find the shart
diame ter .' uch that the maximum shearing stress will not exceed 8000 psi. (b) Find
the angle or t wisl in degrcc. hetween the two ends ir the diameter is 2! in. and G =
]2 X 10
6
psi.
5.14. I n Fig. 5.6 of Kample if the shaft to the left or the I'igid di st; is made of
( G = 12 X 10
6
psi) :md that to the ri ght is made of bra:;s (G = 5.0 X 10
6
psi) ,
wlu , iH th ('IIIll'1
.11, _ O,OOO - Ib" lIulh
fi In Exo.mple 1'1.3, Ir Ih
ril(h1. portion ifl d2, wh! t i l
\Vil t iR tb!' angl of 1'(11 nt on
1i.16. Probl('11\ ti.I, I(
BOllO in- lb.
llitudCtl.
El.l Q. ,01\'1' rohlelll 1 i .r
nit.llde but or ppcl.It' I
fi.20. Hhow lhnt l1w ,,1 nilll

!l.21.
2
"lit
2011' .
5.22. Solve Prohll' l1l ;; I I 1
5.25.
:;.26. (11) 'hnw Iha! in Ih
IIn ",hil'h mo.ke.'i UH
he wl'iLlcn l\.."1
whC'1" T ir; t IU' rllclilLl (11
VQl'lOI" 1m lhe I"ndilll lLl1l'
that lh uf \11
mnsimllJl1 o. l pCJl 1 -\ ni.
H
1I
Figure 6.10
PROBLEMS 118
what is the twisting couple transmittcd to each shaft if l = 1 ft, l2 = 2 f ) and
.1/, = 10,000 in-lb? Both shafts have the same diameter.
5.15. In Example 5.3, if the diameter of the left pori,iun is dI and the Ji:Lmeter of t he
right portion is d2, what is the twisting moment produced in each portion of he haft?
What is the angle of rotation of the rigid disc?
5.16. Solve Problem 5.15, if d = 1.2 in. ) d2 = 1.0 in., II = l2 = 30 in., and Al,
6000 in- lb.
5.17. For the circular shaft shown in Fi g. 5. 10, determine the twisting moment pro-
dueed in eaeh part of the shaft.
5.18. Solve Problem 5.17, if the two applied twi:-;ting couples are of diffcrent mtl,g-
nifudes.
5.19. Solve Problem 5.17 if the two applied twisting eouples are of the same mag-
nitude but of opposite direetions. Takc a = b = 1 and e = 2l.
1i.20. Show that the strain energy in :l circular shaft of length l, under twist ing eouple
MI, is
5.21. Solve E:a.mple 5.3 by the principie of least work.
5.22. 'olvc Problem 5.1 5 by the principie of least \York.
S.23. Solve Problem 5.17 by the prineiplc of least work.
i.24. Solve Problem 5.18 by the prin(:iple of IC:lst work.
5.25. Solve Problem 5.19 by the principie of lca:-;t work.
5.2. (a) Show that in the torsion of an elliptical bar, the str veetors on a radial
!ine whieh makes an angle of (j with the z-axi' and on the ero . section of the bar can
he.' writt n as
'T = 2M,T (co" (j j _ sin (j k) ,
n
2
b
2
where r the radial distanee from the renter of the (b) Show that the stress
on the radial line are parallel to the tangent at point A (Fig. 5.11). (e) Show
that thc magnitude of the stres ' vector varips lincarly from zero at the eenter 1.0 a
maximum at point A along the rudial line o
__ -+ ____
l. 11 /' - +--c---j
Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11
114 Tom,ION
5.27. From the result of Problem 5.26(c), we know that the maximum shearing st r ss
must occur Homewhere on the elliptical boundary. Show t hat on the boundary, we have
so that T
m

x
= 2Mt/7rab
2
occurs at the ends of the minor
5.28. Compare the twisting torque which can be transmi tted by a with an
ellipti cal cross scction having El major a is equal to twice t he minor axis with a shaft
of circular croes section having a diamet.er equal to the major axis. Both sha.fts are of
the same material. Also compare the unit twi ts under t he same twisting momento
5.29. Repeat Problem 5.28, except that the circular shaft has a diameter equal to the
miD r axis of the elliptical shaft.
5.30. Show that the strain encrgy in an elliptical shaft of lengt h l, semimaj or axis a,
semiminor axis b, and under t wisting couples Mt is
M7(a
2
+ b
2
)l
27ra
3
b
3
G
Find the angle of twist by using . he astigliano theorem.
5.31. A hollow shaft with ell iptieal boundaries weighs three-fourths as much as a
solid shaft. of the same outer boundary and the same ma.terial. What is the ratio of the
torque which the ShlLfts wi ll transmit?
- .5.32. A circular bar of 2-in. diameter is under the action of an axial tensile load oE
30,000 lb and !1 twisting couple of 25,000 in-lb. Determi ne the maximum normal and
shearing stress.
I 5.33. A short length of soli d shaft transmits .500 hp at 180rpm and carr'ies an axial
...,. compressive load of 200,000 lb. If the diameter of the shaft is 6 in., find the mft},.'i mum
normal and shearing stre",es.
5.34. A short lenp;th of "teel propeller shaft, 8 in. in diameter, turn,ng at 160 rpm,
is subjected to an axial compressive load of 200,000 lb. Find the greatest horsepower
that may be transmitted if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 10,000 psi and
the maximum normal str ss is not to exceed 14,000 psi.
5.35. Show that the following possi ble !:Itate of stres.' in the absence of body forces
solves the pro blem of an equilateral triangle of altitude 3a Fig. 5.12) under twisti ng
couple; oi' magnitude 11ft:
_ 5 11ft JI.. ( _ a),
T,x - 3I p a Z
Tyx
AH other stre,:, componen. ,tre zero.
5.36. Using EqB. (5.17) and (5.21), find the expressions for the shearing stress and
unit twist in the thin-walled circular section of conHtant wal! thickness, out er
diameter do, and inner diarneter di.
PRODLEMti
IJ
- 211
Figure 5.12
5.37. Thc hollow rectf
lorquC of 120,000 in- lI l.
t hi ckncs::i uf Lite wall is 0.1
5.38. 'fhe .R tatc al' Htr i l' 11
in terms of elemenl,tlrj' fll ul'
Rl!ps,rinp; s t rE' SS th IluI,( ll'
where b i. lhe longl' r ni 1\ f
merital lLl.etL1!'S deppnd!!l1( 00
for vari ous ral ios J I bIt.
bi t
1.000
1.500

a
0.208
0.23 1
-
3
0.1 4l
0. 19(J
Compare the tnrqu ' h,Ll
ti haft 01' thc
twist in!; monwnl . H(Jt h
5.39. Compare thf' t,wi ,; IIIK
of :\ l'.ireul ar har h l.l.vi l1 1l, a
5.40. Sulve l'roblem !i .:I!! ir
BU, me.
PROBLEMS 116
!J
l 10 in.---..j

Hin.
Figure 5.12 F igure 5.13
.a7. The hollow rectangular c/'o 's section shown in Fig i;; ::mbjected to a twisting
torque of 120,000 in- lb. Find t,he average shearing and the unit twist . The
ol' the wall is 0.1 in. and G = 12 X 10
6
psi.
S.38. The.st at e of stress in a solid rectangular shaft under tOl' ;,-: ion cannot be expressed
in term, of elementa./'y functi ons; it ha ' been obtained in series formo The maximum
h 'arin!!; and the a.ngle ol' however, can be given by the l'ollowing formula.'3:
T
U1 X
Mt
- - ,
abe
2
()
\\' hl' l'e b is Ihe lonrrer and e the shorter ide of the eros section. Here a and f3 are nu-
nll'rieal factor s depcnding on the ratio hle. Values of a and f3 are .>;iven in Tabl e 5.1
(01' I'arious f ble.
Tabla 5.1
b Ir, 1.000 1.500 2. 000 3. 000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000
00
-
(l 0.208 0.231 0.246 0.267 0.282 0. 299 0.307 0.313 0.333
-

0. 141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.281 0.299 0.307 0.310 0.333
Compare the Lorque that can be transmitted by a 2 in. X 4 in. shal't with a circular
of (he "allle ero" -sectional area. Also compare the unit twist under the me
moment. Both shafts are of the same ma terial.
5.:ifI. Compare the twi sting couple that can be trun' mitted by a sguare bar wit\ t.hat
IIf a ('i n'ular har ha ving a diameter egual to the side of the sguare (see Problem 5.38).
5AIl. Hllll'e I'l'ohlclll 5.:39 if t he areas ol' the squarc and the circular bars are to be the

CHAPTER 6
Beams
6.1 State of Stress in a Beam in Pure Bending
A beam is a bar aeted on by forees or eoupJes in an axial plan e, whieh ehiefiy
cause bending of the bar. When a beam or a portion of a beam is aeted on by
eouples only, it is said to be in pure bending.
Figure 6.1 shows a bar of eonstant eross seetion. The x-axis is'direeted along
the length of the bar and passes through thc centroid of the cross scctioll . One
of the end faces of the bar lies in the yz-plane, while thc other is in the plane
x = l , We shall take the y- and z-axes to be the principal axes of the cross
section. Let us consider the followingpossi ble state of st.ress in the absenee of
boc!y fore s:
= roy 0]
(= ,

(6,1)
where C is a eonstant, Correspooding to this distribution of thc state of stress,
we have, 00 the lateral faee,
[a] = (O, m, n) and = (0,0, O);
that is, thc lateral faec is free of traction. On the end faee x = 0, \Ve havo
[b] N = (-1,0, O) and = (- Cy, 0, O).
116
.1 . TATI'l 0 1" . Tm: " IN .\
.,.
!/
FigUre 6.1
T his dis ribulion of surfllt:n
the followillg resultant :
[e] R", = f (- Cy) d
[dI RlI = Rz = Mr
[e] My = -- fz(GY)
[ f1
/vI z = f y(ClJ) ti
Jt, should be noteo tha\' 1' 11
eentroidal prineipal ax s.
tbe surfllec traclioll on ti\!' k
Mlcft = I nk.
Similarly, tho traction Oll th
thc same st1'cngth, hut of op
= - ('1.
Sinee e = 11-[ ./ [ H' tho strc"
l
:M z!J ()
Lz
CT = o
o
The d1'eeliollS of t.ltel:oupl
of strcss on thc <:1'0;;8 d i
stress, and lhe formlli:1
M,!!
([xx = I u
G.l RTATE OF STRE S IN A B.EAM IN PURE BE INU
'1
Figure 6.1

di
O
Figure 6.2 Y
117
This disiribution of surfacc iraction OIl the faec X = O (Fig. 6.2) gives rise to
t he following resultant:
[e] Rx = J (-Cy) dA = -C J y dA = O,
[d] Ry = R. = Mx = O,
[e] Mil = - Jz(CY) dA = - CJyzdA = O,
[f] M. = J y(Cy) dA = G J y2 dA = CI ...
It should be noted that J y dA = J yz dA = O bce:1usc the y- and z-axes are
principal axes. Equation [e], [d], [e], and [f) statc that the resultant of
(he surfaee iraction on the left cnd is a eouple given by
Himilarly, the traction 011 the end face x = l gives risc to a resultant couple of
thr Hame strcngt.h, but of oppositc direction, that is,
Hinco e = 111 j lzz, the stress tensor becomes
(j = : :].
O O O
(G.2a)
TI\(' diredioIls of the couplcs are shown in Fig. 6.3(a). The normal componcnt
uf Hl rcss on the :1'088 sc(:tiol1, that s, (J'xx in Eq. (6.2a), is called thc .fl eX1/1'aL
x/n:s8, and Lhe formula
M.y
(Jx:r. = -1
zz.
(6.2lJ )
118 BEAM 6.1
M lcf l - lIf,k - Ad, k
(r--------
ml
-1=" ( -----m-- r".
Mlef,= M yj M'iglt= - M yJ
y z
(:1)
(b)
8. 3
is call ed the flexuTe formula. As before, we shalJ tak (f given by Eq. (6.2a) to
be the state of stress inside t he bar, as long as tlle resultants of the applied
tractions at the end faces are cqual and opposite couples in the directions
shown in Fig. 6.3(a) and lie on the xy-plane, r gardless of the exact distribution
of the applied tractions, which is rarcIy jf ever known.
If the couples acting at the ends are M eJt = M IIj and MrigM = - 111 yj,
then (see Fig. 6.3b) the state of stress is given by
Thus, from the :;uperposition principIe, if M cfL = 1I1
11
j + Mzk and Mright =
- Mcft, then
(1=

- O O)
O O O
O O O
(6.3)
It should be emphasi z d aga.in that in the abo ve expl'cssion, thc y- and z-axes
are centro id al principal ruecs.
EXAMPLE 8 .1. In Fig. 6.4, the rect.angular bcam uf width 6 in. and
hcight 8 in. is subjected to pore bending with bending couplcs of 64,000
in- lb magnitude on the principal plane xy and in tho dil'cctions shown.
Find the maximum and minimum flexural fitl'CSses.
Solutiol1. We have
I .. = 112 bh3 = -h(6)(8)3 = 256 in
4
,
M ,y (G4,OOO) (y)
crxx = ;; = 256 = 250y.
6.1
STA F. STn ESS IN A 11
64,000 in-lb (
!I
Th , maximum
(maximum tensile
y = -4 in., with crzr
EXAMPLE 8.2.
64,OOOk in- lb and
fl exural strCsae .
W havc
1
1111
=
(1)4,000) 11
cru = 2 ()
The maximum
Tbe minimum (le \1
with (cr u);nin =. -
EXAMPLE 8.3.
CTOSS scction uf a
bcnding. The cnd
principal pla
lle
100,000 in--Ib.
solute Vl11ue of the
G,l STATE OF STRESS IN A BEAM IN PURF. DENDI NG
(

()4,OOO in-lb O'r---------------x
y
Figure 6 .4
11.9
b b
1
2
,1.
2
,1
-r---
71

h
_J
y
The maximum fl exural stress occurs at y == 4 in., with u"'., = 1000 psi
(maximum tensile stress). The mnimum flex ral stress occurs at
y = -4 in., with Ux:o == - 1000 psi (ma ;mum compressi ve str ss).
EXAMPLE 6 .2. For th beam in E ample 6.1, if M
1eft
== - 64,OOOj +
64,OOOk in-lb and Mright == -Mleft, find the maximum and minimum
flexural strca es.
8olution. We have
1
1111
== /2(8)(6)3 144 in\ 1 .. == 256 in\
(64,OOO)y + (64,OOO)z == 250 + 445
256 144 Y z.
The maximum fl exural stress occurs at y == 4 in. and z = 3 in., with
u"'" == 1000 + 1335 == 2335 psi.
The minimum fl exural stress occurs at y == -4 in. and z == -- 3 in.,
with (Uxx):nin == - 2335 psi.
EXAMPLE 6.3. Figure 6. 5 shows the
cross section of a beam su bjected to pure
bending. The end couples act on the
principal plane mn with a magnitude of
100,000 in- lb. Find the maximum ab-
solute value of the flexural stress.
Solution. First we ha ve to find the posi-
tion of the centroidal axis perpendicular
to mn. Let d denote the centroidal dis-
tance from the base. Then
d == (6)(2)(1) + (4)(2)(4)
(6)(2) + (4)(2)
2. 2 in.
T
4 in.
---t
2 in.

Figure 6 . 5
120 IIEAMS
sing t.hi s as the z-axis, we have
I "z = /2(2)(4)3 + (4)(2)(l.8) 2 + -h(6) (2r
1
+ (6)(2)(l.2)2
= 10.66 + 25.92 + 4 + 17.28 = 57.86 in\
_ (lOO,OOO)y _ 1730
(l ;o; - 57.86 - y.
The absolute value of the flexural stress attains a rnaxirnurn at Iyl
3.8 in. :
6 .2 DeforDlatlon of a BealJ1 under Pure Bending
6.2
We shall now investigate the deforrnation corresponding to the stress tensor
given by Eq. (6.2a). With u, v, and w denoting eomponent.s of displacernent in
the X-, y-, and z-direetions, respeetively, from Hooke's law and the strain
displaeernent relationship, we havet
[a]
[b]
[e]
[d]
[ ]
av
ay
vL\1.y aw
- - - =-,
El az
av + au = O
a.Y ay ,
au + ow = O
Jz o:r '
aw + al! =
ay fJz .
F' rorn Eqs. [a] through [e] \Ve first note that when y = O, the strain eOI11-
ponents are zero; that i , a ny materi al poi nt whieh was on the plane y = O in
the undeformed tate will suffer no deformation in the deformed state of the
bar, even though the same materi al points will form a eurved surfaee. This
plane y = O will be called the netLlral surface. The interseeting line between the
neutral . urface and any eross seetion is caBed the neutral as. 1"01' thc problern
we arC eonsidering, that s, pure bending with bending eouples on the principal
plane xy, the neutral axis passes through the eentroid of the seetion and is
parallel to the z-axis. If the bending eouples aet OIl the principal plane xz,
the neutral axi. passos through the eentroid of the seetion and is parallel to the
y-axis. In both the above cases, the neutral axis is perpendicular to the plane
t Whcnevel' t here is no confusion, the subticript of l will be dropped in the future .
6.2
DE ORMATION OF A 11
on which the couple. acto
of the principal planes, t.heu
centroid, will not be
will be left as an ex res
perpendicular to the
in general, the plane of .
l"rom Eqs. [e] aud lb], \Ve
and from Eqs. [d] and lb],
a
2
u _ _ !!.... (aw
az2 - dZ or
Differentiating Eq. [e] with
thc r esulting equations, we
iJ21L l (I /'
'> - +--:- -
ay az lx az
which, in view of Eq. [('J, gi
a
2u
. = o.
ay az
Similarly, frol1l Eqs. [e1 and
= __ ;..:
and from Eqs. [e] and lb], \\
a
2
11 i) (ill
cJz2 = - (Jz a
Differentiating Ec. [e] witll
the l'esulting equations gi ,
Similar derivat.ions will gi'
a
2
w o'.!.o
--) = --;--::;=
dIJ-
6.2 DEFORMATION OF A BEAM UNDER P URE BR DING 121
011 whieh the eouples aet. However, if the bending eouples do not aet 011 either
{Jf the principal planes, then the neutral axis, while still passing through th
centro id , will not be perpendicular to the plane on whieh the eouples acto It
wiJl be left as an exereise to find the neutral axis for su eh a case. The plane
perpendicular to the neutral axis will be ealled the plane oi bending. Thus,
in grneral, the plane oi bendtg and the plane oi cOllples are not parallel.
From Eqs. [e] and lb], we have
a
2
11 __ ~ (av) __ ~ (av) _ ~ ("l14%Y) _ O
ay2 - ay ax - ax ay - ax El - ,
and fl'om Eqs. [d] and lb], we obtain
a
2
11 = _ ~ (aw) = _ ~ (aw) = o
az
2
az ax ax az .
Differcntiating q. [e] with re13peet to z, Eq. [d] with respeet to y, and adding
the rCb'ulting equations, we obtain
2 a
2
11 + ~ (av + aw) = O
ay az a:r az ay ,
which, in vie\V of Eq. [e], gives us
.' imilal'ly, from Eqs. [e), and [a], we have
and from Eqs. [e] and [b], \Ve obtain
Differentiating Eq. [e] with respeet to z and Eq. [e] with respeet to x, and addillg
tbe rcsulting equatioDs gives us
, ~ i m i l a r derivations will give the following equations :
122 lJ ,;,\
Thus \Ve have the following three s ts of eruation.s :
a1l M, y
dX = El '
av
ay
a
2
v lv1
2
a .J;2 - - El'
a
2
v = O
a. : az '
aw
iJz
(6.4a)
(6.4b)
(6.5a)
(6.5b)
(6.5c)
(6.5d)
(6.6a)
(6.6b)
These sets of equations can readjy be intcgrated to obt.ain the deformation.
For example, from Eq . (6.4b) it is obvioW'J that
[f] 1l = I I (x)y + 12(X)Z + f:(x).
It is int l' sLing to note that the above equation shows that for x = eonst, that
is, the ero ction of the bal', u is n, linear function of y and z. Therefol'c the
sections remain plane in the deformed state. Difl'erentiating Eq. [f] with respcct
to x and eomparing it with < q. (fi.4a) , we obtain
dl
l
M.
- = - ,
Lx El
dd'h = O.
x
dfz = O
dx '
and
Thus,
II (x) (Mzx/El) + el,
and h(x) = e
3

ThercfUl'e
[g]
11.2
l>EFORMATT N m ' A
where 0
1
, e
2
, and C3 are .
should be no deformatioll, but
1l = e I u + e 2
Z
r
T herefore (C IY + 2 Ca) .
disp lacements. IntegratIOll ni
IgI l'ing rigid-body
M"T
1l = El u,
1M:
w = - El !Ji!.
,'ctting Y = cons!, !In, 1lI
f (he plane y = Yo 111 .(he
thc same equatioll, 011(' finJs (
pal'abola. Thi 111ay seem. lo
is exactly the samC and 1::;
xpcct that ever ' axial line
!:lame curvature a.t every ..
the a. sumption t.hat al!.
smaIL comparcd with Illllty,
In fact, the curvatl11'C rOl' thl'
(rZv / dx
2
_
[1 + (du/ dx)2j=1I 2
which nearly equal f.o d.
2
"
Fl'om Et[. (6.5b), for al!
d
2
v 1\1 I
d X2 = - El'
This equatioll, when e/ v/ dJ'
point is a constant.
EXAMPLE 6.4.
the dcfOl'nltltiOll of l
6.2 DEFORMATION OF A BEAM UNDER punE BENDING 123
where C't, C
2
, and C
3
are constants. Note that when M
z
= O, there obviously
Sh01Ild be no deformation, but undel' uch a situation, Eq. [g] gives
Thercfore (Cy + C
2
z + C
3
) represents not deformation, but rigid-body
displaeements. lntegration of Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6) wil! be left as exercises.
Ignoring rigid-body displaeements, the results are
(6.7)
(6.8)
vM
z
tv = - El yz.
(6.9)
Sctting y = eonst, say Yo, in Eq. (6.8), one obtains the equation of the surface
of tbe plane y = Yo in the deformed sta te. AIso setting z = COl1st, say Zo in
the same equation, one finds that any axialline (y = Yo and z = zo) beeomes a
parabola. This may seem to be strange because, since every section of the bar
is exaetly fhe same and is under exactly the same state of stress, one would
('xpcet that evcry axial line benda into a circular arc, that is, a curve with the
Hame curvature at cv ry point. Ths discrepaney arises beeause we have made
the assumption that al! first derivatives of the displacement eomponents are
MmaIl compal'ed witil unity, in defirung tilc strain components (see Chaptcr 2).
In fet, the eurvature for the curve we llore considcring iB givcn by
[1 + (dv/ dx)2]:l/2 '
(6.10)
which i ~ ncarly equal to d
2
v/ dx
2
if dv/d-x is very small compared with unity.
From Eq. (6.!b), for all axiallines we have
(6.11)
111i cquation, when dv/dx is small, is a statcmcnt that the eurvature at every
point is a constant.
EXAMPLE 6.4. What are the displaeement eomponents representing
the deformation of the beam in Example 6.1, given that
E = 30 X 1O(j p i and v = 0.3?
124 llEAM.
6.3
Solution. We have
ll!I. 64,000 O 834 10-5 .
U = E l xy = (30 X 10
11
)(256) xy = . X xy m.,
/1111, 2 M. 2 /lM
z
2
v = - 2E l Y - 2EI x + 2EI z
- (0.125y 2 - 4.17x
2
+ 0.125z
2
) X 10-
6
in.,
/1111 -6 .
W = - El zy = - 0.250zy X 10 m.
Let us consider any cross sccton such as x = O. The lines y = 4
becorne
v = (2 + 0.125z
2
) X 10-
1
; in.
",.----- .................
(' /
The line z = 3 becorno
w = =f'0.75y X 10-
6
in.
Tho dashed line 01' Fig. 6.6 is the shape of t.he dc-
formcd CI'OSS section, which has been exaggel'ated.
6.3 Beam.s Ac ted on by Axial Forces as well as
Bending Couples at the Ends and on
One of the Principal Planes
\ I
\ I
\ /
1\ /
\ I
v- __ -..J
!J
Figure 6.6
The state of stress fol' this problern (se e Fig. 6.7) can be obt.ained by t.he
supel'position principlc:t
(f=
[
T + Mzy
A I u
O
O
x
y
Figure 6.7
EXAMPLE 6.6. A shol't strut is subjected to a load P placcd with an
eccentricity e (Fig. 6.8) on one of the two principal axes of the cross
section. Find the maxirnum and minimum normal stresses.
t It is a 'umed here that the deformation of the beam i8 very small, so that the
undefol'med configurati un can be l/sed for cquilibrium considerations. The case in
which the deformcd configuration shouLd be l/sed will be studied in Chapter 7.
6.4
BEAMS C'f EL> O. AY .\ el
Solution. The fol'c(' L'
equivalcnt to a f rel' J>
of the cross section and
on the princi pal plall\
have
p
q;r:;o = - bh -
p utting Y = -- hl '.. , W( ,
P(
(0':1;:)""' :< = ;; - 1
and putting Y = /t I'?,
Thus, ir e < hl H, thr
pres,;ive. Whcn e =
and tho stre s on tho
an impol'tunt.
which ar wcak in
6 .4 BeaDlS Acted on
We let thc of 1.1Ic
lcngth of the beam and .
y-a,xi is a principal aXIS of ,
for a simpl.y sU7Jpol'led bcam
fl'ecly supportcd. 'fhe
over the SUppOl't is free tu
distributcd load 01'
lengt h), eOllecnt I'fl.ted louds,
!I
t Ir thC' for ('/' :
be dCl'.OOlpOSc(llfito eOI11\
6.4 UI-:AMS ACTE O ON BY A COPLANAR FORCE SYSTE1.l
Solution. The force P placed ecccntrically is
equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid
of the cross section and a couple of strength Pe
011 tllc principal plane xy. I rom Eq. (6.12), we
h:we
(TI," =
_ p _ 12(Pe)y
bh bh
3
Puttillg y = -h/2, "ve obtain
31ld putting y = +h/ 2, we obtain
126
b
p
Figure 6.8
Thus, if e < h/ 6, the normal stresses over the cross scction arc all com-
prcsslve. When e = h/ 6, the maximum compressivc stress is 2P / bh,
alld the st ress on the opposite side of the cross section is zero. This is
an important consideration in the design of structures made of materials
which al"' \\reak in tension, such as brick, concrete, etc.
8.4 Beams Acted on by a Coplanar Force System
We Ict the plane of the forces be thc xy-plane, whcre x is directcd along the
IClIgth of thc ucam and pa ses through the centroid of the cross sectioll, alld thc
y-axis is a principal axis of Lhe cross sectiont. Figure 6.9 shows such aplane
for a simply SUPPo1"ted beam, 01' simple beam, which is a bearo with both ends
fT(wly supportcd. The expression "freely supportcd" means that t.he section
thc support is free to rotatc. The force system in Fig. 6.9 consists of a
dLlributed load of varying intensity (unit of distributed load is force per unit
1('lIglh), c:ollf:cntratcd loads, and reaction forccs from the supports.
!/ F i gure 6.9
t If the ("oplanar are llei thcr in the xy nor in the xz principal planc, they can
!JI' c['(' Olllpost'cl into C"omponents aloug the principal direet ions of t he ero section.
"
126 HF:AMS 6.4
I----.r----<-"il
Figure 6.10
If this b m is in cquilibrium, evel'y portion of the beam is in equilibrium.
Thus, if w imagine t he ooam to be cut at a section x = const into two pOl'tions,
and if w consider either portion as a free body (se Fig. 6.10), t hen we can
obtain th resultant of the int ernal forces on the ction by using the equations
of cquilibrium for either free body. We "hall assume that the deformation of
the b arn is very small , so that we can use the undefo1'lned conjiguration in writing
the equatioIls oC equilibrium. The resultant at th section can be thought to
con ist of a verti cal force paasing through the cent roid of the section plus a
couplc in t he plane xy. The vertical force wil l be cal1ed the shear force at h,.e. "-
cross sectioll and wiU be denotcd by V. The couple will be called the berfdlng
moment at the crOss section and wil! b denoted by M. We 8hall a.gree to regard
these omponents oC the r ultant at the section as po. itive when thcy are in
th'" dircct ions shown in Fig. 6.10. The equation8 of equilibrium, F!J = O
and M e = O (where e signifiea t he axis perpendicular to the and
passing thnJllgh the centl'oid of the sect ion), when applied to eit hcr free body,
give t lle following resul ts:
The 'hea,r force at a 'cction is equal to t h algebraic sum of all thc
v rtical forces (upward force s po itive) to th I ft oC t he 'ect ion. It
is also cqual to the algebraic sum of al! the v rtical forces (d wnward
force as positivc) to th right of the section.
The bending moment at a section i equal to thc algcbmic sum of the
moments oC all the externa.l rorces ith r to t he !eft of the scction about
the centroidal axis perpendicuiar to t he plane of !oading (clockwise
moment as positive) or to th right of t h , section about he ame axis
(eoun erelo kwise mom nt a po itive).
Figur , (i,11 is a pict urc surnmal'y of the sign conventioIl used with the axes of
x alld 11 j 11 Figure 6.9.
Positive benc!inl-( NeJl;uti ve bencling

Posi tiv shea r
I
Figure 6.11
e!;tl tive shenl"
c:=::::::J
6.4
ImAMS Ac'r '.ll ON BY A COI'.
EXAMPLE 6.6. Filld t
any scction . ' fOl' thp 'mr:

Ij
Solution. Fil'st \Ve fin
sid ratio n of thc whok .
"EMB = 0 = RI,(
RL = 100 lb,
Fu = O = Rt
RI? = 200 lb.
Then f r an)' sel'i ion .
Bueh as cdion 1 in
the lcft of thl:' 3ct iOIl
v = +Rl, = I J
The resultant mom('u
the centroda! axis pl'
wi e). Thel'efure
1,'01" an)' "Cct.iOll 4 ft
11 = R
D
-- lOr
1l{ = RLx -- 1
F01" any scctiOIl R ......
(l.4 BF. AMS ACTEO ON llY A COPLANAIt FOn : 127
EXAMPLE 6.6. Find the shearing fore ' and tho bending moment at
any section X ror the simply upported beam shown in Fig. 6,12.
100 lb 200 lb
r---4 fL---!I----4 ft ---.!.-. - 2 fl

IC,Lx-i fi
ll
1
. x
Figure 6.12
Solution. First we find t he react ion forces from the equilibrium con-
sid ration of the whole beam:
"LM
B
= O = RL(lO) - (100) (6) - ('/00)(2) = O,
RL = 100 l b,
:,F'1 = O = RL - 100 - 200 + RR = 0,
RR = 200 lb,
Then for any section X distance froro t he left support with O < x < 4
such as Se 1 in.} ig. 6.12, the l'esultant force of all the forces to
th left of t he section is si mply the upw8.rd force R L; therefore
v = +RL = +100 lb.
The resulfant moment of all t h forces to the left of tho soction about
tho centroida! axis perpendi ul ar to the plano of the paper is RLx (clock-
wis). Therefre
For any section 4 ft < x < 8 ft such as Section 2:
v = R
L
- 100 = O lb,
111 = RLx - 100(x - 4) = 400 ft-Ib,
For any section 8 < x < 10 such as Section 3:
v = R
L
- 100 - 200 = - 200 lb,
M = RLX - 100(.t - 4) - 200(x - 8) - 200x . : 2000 ft-lb.
182 BBAMS 6.7
horizontal sliee ABCD (Fig. 6.16a). Since the normal stresses on the left and
Oll the right faces are, in general, not equal (M is a function of x), in order to
mantain the equilibrium 01' the horizontal slice ABCD, there should be sl learing
strmises T
YI
on the face AB. We shall assume t hat T !Jx is uniformly distributed
across the width BE. Since the width of the cross section is a function of y, we
sha1l denote it by b(y).
The x-equilibrium equation 'LFx = Ogives
f
h(M + dM)l;bW dI; _ fh Ml;bW dI; _ b() d = O
1 1 TUI Y x .
U U
Thus
f
h
dM ]
T
ux
= dx Ib(y) U 1; dA.
Since dM/dx = V, we have
The integral in Eq. [d) represents the first moment with respect to the neutral
axis of the shaded area BEDF (Fig. 6.16b) of the cross section. This first moment
is always positive. The first moment of the area abovc BE, with respect to t ~
neutral axis, has the same magnitude as that of the shaded are a (but is llcgative).
Thus we can write Eq. [d) as
VQ
T yx = T xu = --;'
(6.16)
where Q is the magnitude of the first moment of the area of the portion of the
cross section which is either below or above the layer on which the desired shearing
stress acts.
If we writ l = Ar
2
, where A is the area 01' the cross section and r is tho radius
of gyration, then Eq. (6.15) can be written as
01', letting a = Q/r
2
b, we have
V
T ux = a A .
Since Q and b are functions of y, a is al so a function of y.
For T ;zz , if the front and back faces are vertical (i.e., para1lel to the xy-plane),
su eh as is true of rectangular 0 1' I CI'OSS sections, we shall assume that T u == O.
6.7
}I'or other crOSS S tOUA, !!uch
... e Owill violate the bou
, Z& 1
tions have to be mad (t;
Tbe other t hree atreH
n ering beam t heory. T dI
cquation for ABeD by 1\&1:111
Ita magnitude is gClleraJl y I
'ince ther is nO exter nal forr{'
magnitud in th beam prol
where h is the h i ~ h t
,
-,;
,
I
Solution. At a.ny [\Y"r
Fig. 6.17),
[a] Q= e
Thus froro Eq. (6. ](1),
[b]
that !:! , T1J X val' ie
paraboli law. \': . .
Fl'om q. ]hllt ItI
neutml axis:
or, since [ ~
Notc that Eq. Ibl ('
1'1J:tl = a (V/ .\
wherc
( ( 1 t ~
ex = h" 1
6.7 ENGIN ,EItl NG BEAM THEORY 133
F r other cross sections, such as triangular or circular ones, the assumption
Tu == OwilI violate the boundary conditions, so that different and better assump
tion have to be made (see Problem 6.26).
The other three stress component , U
yy
, U
u
, and T
lI o
, are ignored in engi
nccring beam theory. If desired, ul/
Y
can be obtained from the y-equilibrium
equation for ABe D by assumi ng that it is uniformly distributed across BE.
Its magnitude is generally negligibl in omparison with the flexural stress U
zx
.
Snce there is no external force in the z-dil'ect ion, Un and T
yz
wiII be of ver y small
magnitude in the beam problema.
EXAMPLE 6.9. Show that for a rectangular cross section,
V (h2 2)
T",y = 2! 4 - y ,
where h is the height of the beam.
At any layer whi h is a t a. distan e y from the neutral axis Csee
Fig. 6.17),
Thus from Eq. (6.16),
[b] T = 0(04: - y2);
yx
that is, T vx varies along the depth of the beam in accordance with a
parabolic law.Figure 6.17(b) is a curve showing the variation.
From Eq. [b] it is seen that (Txy)max occurs at y = O, that is, on thc
ncutral axis :
(Txy)max = Vh
2
/81
T
or, snce 1 = bh
3
/ 12,
h
2
(rectangular
cross section).
1
1
h

Xote that Eq. [b] can be written
2
1 T
yx
= el (V/A),
where r--b---j
(a) (b)
= !. (h2 _ .y2) .
h
2
4
Figure 6 . 17
134 BI:: AMS
6.8
r---
b
--------11
-__JT
2
.. _--+
r!
d
"2
-. r-------'
.,
-L. L-_______ . ~ _L
,a) (b)
Figure 6.18
EXAMPLE 6.10. Find the distribution of T-x y along the dept h of the
I-beam sh wn in Fig. 6.18(a).
Solulm. For any lay r inside the flang ,
v(a
2
2)
T lI "E = 21 "4 - y ,
as in the last example. For any lay r in t h web,
Q = (b)(s)
(
d 8) (t) [(
"2
d
-
)2
- y
2J
"2 -"2 + 2 s
and
Vbs(d - 8) V [(d )2 2J
T
r
" = 2ft + 2l "2 - s - y .
F igme 6.18(b) shoW::l a ypic 1di t ribution of T -xy for an I-scction.
6.8 Deflectlon of a Beam
W sha.ll define tb defl ction curve of a beam to be the cmve assumed by the
c TI roidal lin ajon r the beam in thc deform d tate. I n the engineering th ory
oE m , when beam i ' acted on by a coplanar-fol' e yst m in the principal
plall xv, the tate f , tI' s in t he heam i glven by
11I.V V
U xr = --' T rll = Ct. A'
AH other str components are genemlly taken he Z 1"0. Fl'Om IIooke'ij law
and the stmi n-di splaccment l' lations, we have
uu M.y
-=-- ,
Jx El
DeFLECTION OF' A In:AM
6.8
and t hu'
For any axial line, v is a fund
2
d v d ( l' )
d:t: 2 = 0'0 dx CA
wh re 0'0 is th valuc of a nt y
Equat ion (6.17) is th' di
second-oroer di fferential NI
fol' the determination oC dI\'
depend on the manner in
with the types of supporti:i
A is on the centroid l-axial
Bj---3
::?'
(a)
F igure 6.19(0.) is a hin cd
6.19(b) is a roller support.
is a built-in (or fixed-cnd)
EXAMPLE 6.11.
bcam shown in Fig.
height h and width h.
Solution. We have
,MB = Rl.l
1vl
RL = -;- '
"'
wl
M(x) = 0 :1'
"
llll
V(x) = 2'
t It can be ~ h o w n thr\l 11
a: ' ialline, Thus, ir the (' en
at the Rupports, w = OrOl" t
6.8 DEFLECTION OF A BEAM 136
and thus
For any axial line, v is a function of x alone; thus for the centroidal axialline,
(6.17)
wherc ao is the value of a at y = O.
Equation (6.17) is the differential equation of the deflection curve. t It is a
sccond-order differential equation, and we shalI need two boundary conditions
fol' the determination of the integration constants. The boundary conditions
depend un the manner in which the beam is supported. We shall be concerned
with the typcs of supportsshown in Fig. 6.19(a), (b), and (c). (In alI the figures,
A i8 on tho centroidal-axial line.)

"'"
(a) (b) (e)
.Figure 6.19'
Figure 6.19(a) is a hinged support. For such a support, v = Oat A. Figure
6.l9(b) is a !'OlIer support. For this support also, v = O at A. Figure 6.19(c)
sa built-in (or fixed-cnd) support, and for this, v = dvjdx = Oat A.
EXAMPLE 6.11. Find the deflection curve for the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. 6.20. The cross section of the beam is a rectangle of
height h and width b.
Sollltion. We have
wZ
2
w lb/ unit length
:LMB = RLl - 2'" = O,

_ wl
- 2 '
f"'l""""""'

2

wl wx
M(x) ="2
x
- T' L
' R 1--4
RR
wl
V(:r) = "2 - wx.
Figure 6.20
t Jl can be that for the loading \Ye are considering, d
2
w/ dx2 = O for any
IlxiJ lineo Thm; , if thc centroidal-axialline is prcvented from moving in the z-direction
lit lh w = O fol' the whole line.
136 BEAMS
= l From Example 6.9, we have ao
Two successive integrations give
dv
d.c
At x = 0, v = O; therefore C
2
= O.
3 wl wl
3
C
l
= 4: GA + 24EI'
Thus
3w ( 2) W
V = 4GA Ix - x + 24E [ (l
At x = 1/ 2, v is at a maximum:
~ w 1 2 5 wl
4
1J,nax = 16GA + 384 E l '
0.8
Thus from Eq. (6.17),
At x = 1, v = 0, and therefore
3 3 4
x - 2lx + x ).
The first term of the aboye equation i8 the deflection due to sheal'ing
forces, and the second torm that due to .bending moments. From El!.
(3.13) we have G = E / 2(1 + 11 ). Thus we can write
wl
4
[ (h)2]
V
mux
= 384 El 2.4(1 + 11) 1 + 1 .
We see from the aboye equation that if h/ l is small, the effect of the shear
ing force on the deflection is smal!. For "tl'uctural stecl, 11 = 0.3, if
h/ l = io, then 2.4(1 + 11) (h/ l) 2 = 0.0312; that is, the effect of shearing
forc' on the deflection is ollly about :i% of tho total deflection.
From tho result of this xample, \Ve sce that for a bcam with a large
lcngth/ dcpth ratio (01' more generally, a large ICllgth/ radius of gyration
ratio), the effect of the shearing force on the defl ection can be neglectcd.
When this ir:; trtle, Eq. (6.17) becomes
d
2
/J M.
(6.18)
dx 2 = - El'
In the following, unlcss staled otherwi:se, lhe e.1fect of shearing force un
the dejledions /l' ill be neglected.
6.8
DEFLECTION ( F \ m: M
J'
X-1
1
11
(a)
EXAMPLE 6. 12.
carrying (a) a
distribu >
l'
t: 01WCll t
d load ov r the
(a) Seo Fip;. (l .
-
'q. (I.i.
-
Solution.
1(x) = -P(l
and thus, from
2
El av = 1'(1
d. 2
Two sucCe ve in
dv IJ(l
EI - = - -.,
dx -
At x = 0, clv/ILc = O;
a nd thcrefore Cz = -
The maximum
At the same poillt, 1';
have e= Pl
2
/ '-Hl.
(b) See Fig. G: l(h) .
ElJ.. (6.18),
d
2
1' (1
El -d ., = --.)
x ~
6.8 DEFLJ::CTION OF A BEAM 137
IJ
y
(a) (b)
F igure 6 . 21
EXAMPLE 6. 12. Find the deftection curve for a cantilever beam
(a) a concenLl'ated load at the free end, and (b) a uniformly
dislributed load over the whole length.
Solution. (a) See Fig. 6.21 (a). We have
M(x) = - p eZ - x),
and thus, from Eq. (6.18),
d
2
v
El d . 2 = P(l - x) .
. x
'fwo successive integrationl:i gi
FI dv = _ P(Z - X)2 + e = P (Z - X)3 + e + e
:J d.'C 2 1,
El
v 6 I X 2
AL x = O, dv/ clx = O; therefore el = Pl
2
/ 2. AIso, at x = O, v = O,
and t herefore e2 = - Pl
3
/ 6. T hus
EJ! dv = _ P (Z - X)2 + Pl2 ,
d.e 2 2
3 2 3
]
/' [ _ P(l - x) + . _ .
; v - 6 2 x 6
'fhe maximum deftection occurs at X = Z:
At the sam point, EI(dv/ dx) = P(2/2. Since dv/ dx = tan e = e, wc
have e = Pl2/2EI.
(b) See Fig. 6.21(b) . We have ilJ(x) = -[w(Z - x) 2/ 2]. Thus, from
Eq. (n.18),
R[ = w(Z - X ) 2
d.r- 2
138 lIEAMS
6.8
Two succcssive inkgrationG give
El dv = _ w(l - x)3 + C
w(l - X)4
dx 6 1,
Elv = 24 + Clx + C2 .
At x = 0, dv j dx = O; therefore C
l
= w1
3
j 6. Also, at x = 0, v = 0,
and therefore C 2 = - w1
4
j 24. Thus
3 3 4
El dv = _ w(l - X)3 + w1 , Elv = w(l -=_ X)4 + wl X _ w1
dx 6 6 24 6 24
The maximum deflection oceurs at x = 1:
1 4
Vrna" = 8EI wl .
At the same point, EI(dvj dx) = w1
3
j 6. Sinec dvj dx = tan (j "" (j, we
have (j = w1
3
j 6EI .
b-1 .
A- X
Rl = __ ,--- - tR2=
y Figure 6. 22
EXAMP LE 6.13. Find the defleetion curve for the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. 6.22.
Solu/.ion. For x a,
Pb
M(x) = -z x.
Tbw,;, from Eq. (6.18),
d
2
v Pb
[a]
El dX2 = - T x, u. x
Two successive integrations give
El
dv = _ Pb X2 + C
lb]
., dx 1 2 1,
Pb x
3
[e]
E l V = - - 1 '(f +C1X+C2.
DEFLECTION OF A ln;A 1
(j.8
For a x b,
Pb J)(
M (x) = -:1'
1
Thus
[d]
Two sueee' iv(
[e]
[f] EJv = - 1
At
= 0, l ' = O;
therefore from Eq. [el
given by Eq. le] must
givcn by Eq. [b] must
(
dV. ) . =
dx x= u_
From ' q. (iii) ,
J
> 2
_ -2 +el
l 2
and thUti el = (' a.
Pb a.3
_ _ -+ C1Cl
l G
Thus C
4
= O. At
x = 1,
v =
therdore
6.8 DEFLECTI ON OF A BEAM 139
For a ~ x ~ b,
Pb
M(x) = -z x - P(x - a) .
Thus
d2V = Pb
[d] El - -z x + P(x - a).
d X2
Two suecessive integrations give
El dv = _ Pb X2 + P(x - a)2 + C
[e]
dx Z 2 2 3,
[f]
At
x = O, v = O; (i)
therefore from Eq. [e] we obtain C
z
= O. Also, at x = a, the defleetion
given by Eq. [e) must be equal to that given by Eq. [f], and the sJope
given by Eq. [b] must be equal to that given by Eq. [e) . That is,
(ii)
(iii)
From Eq. (iii),
Pb a
2
Pb a
2
- -Z 2 + Cl = - - Z 2 +C3 ,
and thus el = C
3
. From Eq. (ii),
Pb a
3
Pb a
3
- T ti + Cla = - T 6" + C3a + C4 .
Thus C
4
= O. At
x = Z, v = O; (iv)
therefore
140 BEAMI':\ 6.9
Thus
Pbl
2
Pb
3
Pb 2 2
Ca = 6l - 6f = 6l (l - b ).
Therefore the formulas fol' the slope are
El JI) = _ Pb X2 + Pb (l2 _ b2)
o x a,
dx 1 2 6l '
El do = _ Pb X2 + P(x - a)2 + Pb (l2 _ b2 )
a x l,
dx 1 2 2 6l '
and the formulas for the deflection are
o x a,
a x l.
By putting x = lj2, we can obtain the deflcction at the middle point oI
the beam:
Pb 2 2
V", =1 / 2 = + 48EI (3l - 4b ),
if a > b.
It wi ll be left as an exercise to show that the maximum value of the
deflection occurs at
x = v(l2 - b
2
)/3 for a > b,
with
Pb (Z2 _ 'b2)3/2 .
Vmax =
9 3lE!
6.9 Deflection by Use of the
Principie of Superposition
The application of the method of superpo
sition to the determination of the deflection
curve can be.st be illustrated by examples. The
validity of this method can be demonstrated
in exactly the same manner as that given
in Section 3.6, and will not be demonstrated
y
Figure 6.23
duo to PI as
1'11\ .r
a
Elv = - - - Ti
]
' 1 :l
\ .\ .r.
Elv = - - - G
6.9
DEFLECTION BY 1'IIE rHl Nl'1
here. It should be emphusized
small that the undeformed .
(her specifically in the
po tion principIe be val1d.
EXAMPLE 6.14. Ld \
in Fig. 6. 23.
Solution. Frorn the n'sU
The deflectioIl curve
El
v
2 =
The deflection curve
]>\1
1
x
3
ETv = - - n
6.9 ))EFLI::CTION BY THE PRINCIPLE OF .;UPERPOSfTION 141
hcrc. It should be emphasized again that only when the deftection is so
small t-hat the undeformed beam can bc used in the equilibrium consideration
(herc specifically in the determination 01' the bending moments) will the super
position principIe be valido
EXAMPLE 6.14. Let us find the deftection curve for the beam shown
in Fig. 6.23.
Solution. From the rcsult of Example 6.13, we have the deftection curve
duc to p as
_ Pl x
3
+ Pl (l2 _ l2)
El o ~ x ~ (l - l), and
; V = 1 6 6l x,
_ Pl x
3
+ P(-:r - 1+ l)3 + Pl (l2 _ l2)
Elv r = 1 5 6 6l x,
The dcftection curve due to P
2
is
El
_ P
2
l
2
x
3
+ P
2
l
2
(l2 _ l2)
o ~ x ~ (l - l2), and
I . V2 = 1 6 6l 2 X,
Elv2 = _ P
2
l
2
x
3
+ P2(X - 1+ l2)3 + P
2
l
2
(l2 _ l ~ ) x
1 6 6 6l '
(l - l2) < x ~ l.
Thc deftection curve due to p and P
2
is then givcn by
Elv = _ Pl x
3
+ Pl (l2 - li)x
1 5 5l
3
_ P
2
l
2
x + l } ' l l ~ (l2 _ l22)X
o ~ x ~ (l - l),
1 6 til '
l
'l _ Pl x
3
+ p(x - 1+ l)3 + Pl (l2 _ l2)
.'. v = 1 5 5 6l x
_ P 2l z x
3
+ P 2(X - 1+ l2)3 + P 2l 2 (l2 ~ l)x
1 5 5 5l '
(l - l2) ~ x ~ l.
142 BEAMS 6.10
te lhj llnit 1 njl;th
Jl"""""""""""l-x
j
Figure 6.24
y
EXAMPLE 6.16. From the result of Example 6.13, find the deftection
at the middle poi nt of the uniformly loaded beam shown in Fig. 6.24 by
the superposition principie.
Solution. The deftection at the middle point due to a differential load
w to the right of the middle is, from the result of Example 6.13,
Summing up the contributions of al! the differcntial loads to the right
of the middle and multiplying by 2, we obtain thc dcftcction at the middle :
;
6 .10 Energy Method
The deftection of a beam can al80 be obtained by using Castigliano's theorem.
When the effcct of 8hearing force8 on deftection is neglected, the strain energy
due to shearing strcsses need not be included. Thus the strain energy in a beam
of length 1 is (see Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18))
U = JJJ dxdydz = JJJ dxdydz.
Now
JJ y2 dy dz = J,
and thercfore
I
J
M
2
1
(6.19)
U = 2 o RJ dx.
Equation (6.19) is known as the equation for the strain energy of bending. The
following examplc. illustrate the use of Cast igliano's theorem in finding the
deftection of a beam.
Figure 6.26 (a)
EXAMPLE 6.16. Find
shown in Fig. 6.25(a).
Solution. Let apply a
x = is given by
(
aU)
= -(J Q o
Since
I
1
U - - M- ti
- 2EI Jo
then
= ;1 {(M
Now for O x E, Wl
M = -1'(l - :1')
and for E x 1,
M = - 1'(1 - x) ,
Thus thc deflcctioll Ilt ;
- J._ P(.
x=F. - El o
_ PEZ (:u
- liEI
or
6.10 ENE RGY METUOD
f'
6.10 ENERGY METHOD 143
Figure 6.26
(a)
EXAMPLE 8.16. Find t he deflection curve for the cantilever beam
shown in Fig. 6.25(a).
Soluticm. Let us apply a force Qat x = 1; (Fig. 6.25b). The deflection at
x = 1; is given by
&"'=t =
Since
I
1
J
2
U = 2EI o M dx,
then
1
ox=E = dl:. il 10 (M
Now for O x 1;, we ha ve
aM
M = - P(l - x) - Q(I; - x),
aQ = - (1; - x),
and for x l,
aM
M = -P(l - x),
aQ = O.
Thus the deflect ion at x = 1; due to a force P at the free end is
1 JI; P (e (.2 2)
O.r: =t = El o P (x -l)(x - 1;) dx = El "3 - (1; + l) + 1; l
P I;2
= 6EI (3l - 1;)
or
o = (:3l - x) .
144 BEAMS 5.11
EXAMPLE 6.17. Find the deflection at the free end due to the load
Q at x = (Fig. 6.26).
Figure 6.26
Solu/.ion. Let us apply a foree P at the free end. The deflection at
x = 1is given by
From the equations for the bending moment ID Example 6.16, for
O x we have
aM
Mp=o = Q(x - ,
x - 1,
ap
and for x 1,
aM
Mp=o = O,
x - l.
ap
Thus
1 rE
lix=l = El Jo Q(x - (x - 1) dx = 6EI (3l -
In the aboye two examplc::; we note that the deflection at x = due to a
unit load at x = 1is equal to the deflection at x = 1due to a unit load at x =
6.11 Reciprocal Theorem.
Since the reaction force and l'eaction moment of a beam due to a load PI
applied at x = X l al' Iinearly proportional to PI , the bending moment for the
beam is also linearly proportional to Pl. Thus we can wl'ite the bending moment
due to PI applied at x = X l as
where h(x) is the bending moment due to PI 1 lb. Similarly, the bending
momellt due to P2 applied at x = X2lS
wheref2(x) is the bending moment due to P2 = lIb. If both PI and P
2
act on
0.1 2 STA'I'! AL.LY I NlJE'l'EIlMrNATI I
t i e beam, then M = MI + M
2

aJon ) at X = Xl is
-
- El o
PI at, Xl
The dcflection at x = Xl due to
o _.l- J'I (M
- El IJ
P2 at, X2
Now
(
MJ M) = MI
aP2 Pz- O
and
Thus the defleetion at :c = XI
d fl ctioll at x = X2 d\le to a IU
j! ft(J;)fz(x) 1iJ'.
El O
This is known as the
pecia.l case of a g neral
6.12 Statically .LU"u... "'..
When the eqllations of cq
f r the reaction componclltH
problem in bending. For lS\l ch
l' ldundant constraints. lledull
. th e whieh are not nec Sl
18,
beam with one redundant con.

(a)
I w lbj ft
1 111111111111
R
2

(a) (b)
Figure 6.27
6.12 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE 145
thc bcam, then M = M I + M 2 . The deflection at x = X2 due to PI (acting
alone) at x = Xl is
X
X2 D = = ; / i
l
(M P =o cL-c .
2
PI at Xl
'fhe defIection at X = Xl due to P2 (act ing alone) at X = Xz is
Now
and
(
111 :pM) = M dl(X) = Pd2(X)f(X).
1 p=o
Thus the defIection at X = Xl due to a unit load at X = X2 is the same as the
dcflcction at X = X2 due to a unit load at x = Xl, and is written
'Ihis is known M the reciprocal theorem for the defIection of a beam. It is a
special case of a general reciproca.l theorem fol' linear elMt icity.
6.12 Statically Indeterulinate Beams
When thc equations of equili brium for a rigid body are not sufficient to solve
ror the reaction compon nts of a beam, we have a statically indetcrminatc
problem in bending. For such problems, it is useful to introduce the conccpt of
rcdundant constraints. Redundant constraints are slJperfIuous constraints, that
is, thosc which ar not necesso.ry for static equilibrium. Figure 6.27(0.) show::; a
hcam with one redundo.nt constraint. It can be considered as a cantilever beam
146 llEAMS 6.12
plW:l a redundant constraintreprcscnted by the force R
z
in Fig. 6.27(b). It can
also be considered as a simply supported beam plus a redundant constraint
reprcscnted by a couple M (Fig. 6.27c).
For the problem shown in Fig. 6.27(b), we can obtain the deftection at the
right end as a function of R
2
by the principIe of superposition. Using the result
of Examplc 6.12, we have
(a]
Since R
2
is a reactive force instead of an active force, its magnitude will be
such that o= 0, to be compatible with the real constraint. Thus by putting
o = in Eq. [a], we obtain
[b]
We can also choose to work with the problem shown in Fig. 6.27(c). Let us
use the double integration method:
2
Wl Mo) wx
[c
]
M(x) =
(
2 + -l- x - 2 - M o,
and thus
2
El
d2V = _ (Wl + M 0) .+ wx + M
[d]
dX2 2 l x 2 0,
dv (Wl wx
3
[e] EI-= - - +-
M0)
-
X2
+-+ Mox+ C
dx 2 l 2 6 I
3 4
, (Wl M o) x wx X2
[f] Elv= - 2+-t- 6 + 24 +M
02
+Cx+C2 .
Now, at x = 0, v = O; therefol'c C
2
= O. At x = l, v = 0, and therefore
C
l
= 1O(l j 24 - tMol. Thus by puttillg x = in Eq. [e], we obtain the slope
at thc left elld:
[g]
Since 111o is a reactive couple instead of an active one, its magnitude will be such
that dvjdx = in compatibility with the real constraint. Thus putting
dvjd.c = in Eq. [g], we obtain
wl
2
[h]
Mo= - '
8
The principIe of lcasi work l'
problems in bendi ng. Let us agal
Thus Ox= l = gives
from which
4
R
r _tOl = O
2 3 8
as before. We can also work \Vi
WI
j\tI = - l\{o + ( 2
Thus 0,,=0 = gives
froro which
PROBLEMS
6.1. A beam of circular ero il
each end coujJle is 10,000 ft- lb.
psi, what should be the diaml'll"
6.2. A beam of erO '
lie on the xy-plane (Fij!;. 6.28), ll:
allowable fl exural tres,; is 1200
M( l----
F i gure 6.28 !I
2
e
t
g
PROBLEMS 147
The principIe of least work can also be used to solve statically indeterminate
pl'ObIems in bending. Let us again consider the beam shown in Fig. 6.27 (b) :
w(l - X) 2
1
I
aM
M = R
2
(l - x)
", 1 = El o M aR d:r.
2 J
2
Thus x=l = O gives
fol [ R
2
(l - x) - w(l ;- 'X)2] (l - x) dx O,
from which
and R
2
= iwZ,
as before. We can also work with the beam in Fig. 6.27(c):
Wl Mo) wx
2
1
I
aM
M= - Mo+
(
2+ - Z- x-T'
(Jx =o = El
J
o M aMo dx.
Thus (J",= o = O gives
from which
wz
2
Mo=-'
8
PROBLEMS
6.1. A beam of circular section is to pure bending. The magnitude of
cach end eouple is 10,000 ft-lb. If the maximum normal stress is not to exceed 18,000
psi, wh!1t Rhould be the diameter?
6.2. A beam of rectangular cross section is subjected to pure bending. The end couples
le on the xy-plane (Fi g. 6.28), and M z = 24,000 ft- lb. If h is to be 1.2 times b, and the
allowahle flexural stress is 1200 psi, determine b and h.
Figure 6.28 Y
148 nE.Uf:,;

y
F igure 6.29
5ft -j
F igure 6.31


l 1 I
Figure 6.33
Figure 6.35
10001h/ ft Ifin"c
Figure 6.37
z__
y
Figure 6. 30
'W Ib/ ft
I I I
J;I
'i
I
Figure 6.32
_ __l!""""---.J1500 lb
A

ft-1--4 ft--j-2 ft -l
Figure 6.34
Figure 6.36
W=lO,OOO lb
j I I I !1I I I ! I ! I
f-4 ft+4 ft+4 ft-1
Figure 6.38
PROBLEM
6.3. In xample 6.3, if the end Q
muximum flexural tress'.
u.4. Figure 6.29 is the erOS8 secti
re on the diagonal plane 1IIn. (l
1> ndicular to the planc.) If th
maximu
m
tensile and compresHiv
6.5. In Fig. 6.30, 71tn is the planc
axes. M is the couple vector.
neutral axis) is determincd by
1uu
tan f3 = (tan a)
1,.
'
Thu8, unles I yu = 1,., f3 ;t! a;
plMe of couples.
6.6. Derive Eq. (6.6b) .
6.7. Find v from Eqs. (6.5).
6.8. Find w from Eqs. (6.6).
6.9. Refcrring to Fig. 6.8, if thl'
is a,t y = el! and z = e" what iM
Also find the equation rol' ,
6.10. Find the :;hearin;
Fig. 6.3l.
/
u,l1. Repeat Problcrn 6.10 1'01'
Rcpcat Problcm 6.10 for
(l. J2.
u.1 3.
Rcpea.t Problem 6.10 for
u.14.
Rcpcat Problem 6.10 ror
Repeat Problrm 6, lorO\' I
6.15.
6.16.
Rcpeat Problem (UO for I
6.17.
Repeat Problcm 0.10 for
6.18.
Draw shearing-forcc alld
6.19. Repeat Problcm 6.18 ror
6.20. Rcpeat ProLlcm 6.18 fur
6.21. Rcpeat Problem 6.18 1'01'
6.22. Rcpeat ProblclI1 6.18 for
0.23. Determine the limiting
Fi!); . 6.39, ir the allowablc (1 1
....
PROBLE MS 149
6.3. In Example 6.3, if the end couples act n the other principal plane, what is the
maximum fl exural stress?
6.4. Figure 6. 29 is the ero s section of a beam under pure bending. The end couples
are on the diagonal plane mn. (Note that the vector representing the couple is per
pendicular to the plane.) Ir the magnitude of each couple is 10,000 ft-lb, find the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
6. 5. In Fig. 6.30, mn is the plane of couples, and y and z are the centroidal principal
M is the couple vect or. Show that the line of zero stress on the section (the
neutral axis) is determined by
VII
tan f3 = (tan a) -.
f u
unless I
yu
= I
u
, f3 a; that is, the neutral axi s is not perpendicular to the
plane 01' couples.
6.6. Derive E q. (6.6b).
6.7. Find v from Eqs. (6.5) .
6.8. Find w from Eqs. (6.6).
6.9. Referri ng to Fig. 6.8, if the load Pis not placed at either of the princIpal axes, but
iH at y = e
y
and z = e. , what is the normal stress at any point of the cross section?
Als find the equati on for the line of zero stress.
6.10. Find the shearing foree and bending moment at an)' section x for the beam in
Fig.6.31.
6.11. Hepca Problem 6.10 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.32.
6.12. Rcpeat Problem 6.10 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.33.
6.13. Repeat Problem 6.10 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.34.
6.\4. Problem 6.10 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.35.
6.lIi . Hepeat Problem 6.10 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.36.
6.16. Repeat, Problem 6.10 [or the beam shown in F ig. 6.37.
6.17. Repeat roblem 6. 10 for the beam shown in F ig. 6.38.
(j.18. Draw shearing-force and bending-moment di agrams for the beam in Fig. 6.31.
6.19. Repeat. Problem 6.18 for the beam shown in Fig. 6. 32.
6.20. Repeat Problem 6.18 for the beam shown in Fig. 6. 33.
6.21. Hepcat Problem 6.18 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.35.
6.22. Repcat Problem 6.18 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.36.
/l.23. Dctl'rmine t,he limiting value of P acting on the rectangular beam shown in
Fig. (U9, if the aIlowable lTxx is 800 psi and thc allowable T zy = 200 psi.
6.24. Determine tht.
a me s tho given in Pl'obll'll\
'.25. ind 1'01' t.he T
6.26. Find 'T Xj/ as 11 funetion ofy
that ut point P the
y '! What is 'T " at point'!
point on the line PQ abo point'
on the boundury. Find 'T"
.27. Find 'T, )/ fol' t1ll'
('T%JJ)mas does not oeclll' al tht,
6.28. In Fig. 6.18, ir b = i\ in.,
fincl ('T Zy) m.x' In view of Fil!;.
to use the appr oximate fO\'lllll
('T zu)m' '''
6.29. Figure 6.44 sholl's a
midspan. Fincl (O'",)",u. at th '
fbn:!;e and thc weL, al t.hc
junction. Note that. in
faet that the maximum lIorlll
in the design of
6.30. sin!!; thc
6.3l.
n.32.
ti.33.
6.34.
160 BEAlIIS
8 in.
r-----.J
!p
10 ;,0 U I I I rI lilA . 0in.
101n.
I
8
10 ft
I l 20 ft f'
Figure 6.39 Figure 6.40
1 in.

o
1---
5
in. ---1
!J
F igure 6.41 F igure 6.42
160,000 lb
Jk
A
2 ft I
I
J
- 2-
1---
5
in'----1
Figure 6.43
10.5 in. 12 in.
f--:-a.- - b-j
P
0.5 in.
Figure 6.46
F igure 6.44
PROBLBMS
Figure 6.46
j;l 11
r
PROBLEMS 151

I
)M
l 1 1 1
Figure 6.46 F igure 6.47
.11
J;'
w
'1
Jk
J1}
l

1 1
Figure 6. 48 Figure 6.49
6.24. Determine the limiting value of w (Fig. 6.40). The allowable are the
Rame as those given in Problem 6. 23.
6.25. Find (Txy)m"", for the T-beam shown in Fig. 6.41, if V = 4000 lb.
6.26. Fhld T
xy
a' a function of y for the circular beam ;;hown in .Fig. 6.42. If we assu me
that at point P the shearing stress T is t angent to the circle, what is T as a function of
y? What ii! T
x
" at thi a point? If it is further assumed that the shearing stress at any
point (Jn the line PQ also points toward O, then the maximum shearing stress occurs
on t,he boundary. Find T
m

x
.
6.27. Find Txy for the triangular section of Fig. 6.43. Also find (Txv)m.x. Note that
('/I)""x not occur at the centroidallaycr.
6.28. In Fig. 6.18, if b = 8 in., s = 1 in., d = 24 in., t = 0.4 in., and V = 10,000 lb,
find (TxlI)rn . x. In view of Fig. 6.l8(b), it is a comrnon pmctice in the design of I-bcams
1.0 use the a!lproximate formula (T%)J)mnx = V/web area. Compare the two values of
o (irY)inax
6.29. Figur 6.44 Hhows a simply sU]lJlorted I-beam carrying a load of 60,000 lb at thc
mids]lan. Find (O"u)m." at the midsection. Also find O"rz and T xy at the junction of the
flange and thc web, at the same section. Find the principal stre ' es for a point at thc
junetion. Note that in t his problem O"ma" at the junction is larger than (O"u)max. The
fae! that lhe maximum normal stress may be Itu'ger than (O"x.;)max should be considered
in the design of I-beams.
6.30. l"sing the double-integration method, find the deflection curve for the beam in
Fig. 6.45. (Neglect shcar effects.)
6.:31. Repeat. Problcm 6.30 for thc beam Hhown in Fig. 6.46.
(j .32. Rl'lwat Problem 6.30 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.47.
0.:3:3. Repeat Problem 6.30 for the beam Hhown in Fig. 6.48.
li.:34. Rej>cal. Problcrn 6.30 fol' the beam showll io F'ig. 6.49.
162 BEAMS
(
M
J1
r --- - -l,1
r-a-...---I'
Figure 6.50 Figure 6.61
'W w w
p
11
p
J2
!--a---l---b--j f--- a
'1' b-1
Figure 6.62 Figure 6.53 Figure 6.64
w
MCJ:I

1, f-a-f-b
Figure 6 . 66 F igure 6.66 Figure 6.67
Figure 6 . 68

1,
'1
Figure 6.69 Figure 6.60
PR DL},;MS
6.35. Repeat pl'obl em 6.30 fuI'
6.36. Repeat Probl em 6.30 fol'
6.37. U
(b) Show thu,t the w rtil"ul .' .
. l is equal to the Iflorncnt Wl
( .11 / EI)-diap;ram betWl'en . \
(Hin!: All angles al'e
6.44. se the 01' Prol
beam shown in Fig;. 6.59. Tlll S
6.45. Draw the shearing-fOlTl'
e th l'ri
ILpplied for thc beam in 6. 52.
6.38. Repeal pl' oblcm 6.37 ror t I
6.3f1. Repeat Problem 6.37 for t
6.40. :se the sup I'p sition Jll'i
location where 111 is 11pplicd fol' t
6.41. Repeat Problcm 6.40 fol'
6. 42. Repeat Problcm 6.10 for I
6.43. (a) Show that the
Hedion curve in F ig. 6.58 l'C
orr ponding verticab, tha\'
e = 8,( - OJl "=' r
. I
6.27 (a).
6.46. Find the reaetion,.; ful' t h
the s uperposition principlP.
6.47. Repeat Problcl1l 6.4G fnr
().48. Repeat Problem 6.4ti rOl'
Figure 6 .61
PROBLEMS 163
6.35. Repeat Problem 6.30 for the benm showII in Fi g. 6.50.
(i .36. Repeat Problem 6.30 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.51.
n.37. Us the superpo ition principIe to find the defleetion at the section wbere P is
applied for the beam in F ig. 6.52.
tl.3S. Repeat. Problem 6.37 for the beam shown in Fi g. 6.53.
(.39. Repeat Problem 6.37 for the beam shown in F ig. 6. 54.
6.40. U. e the superposi tion principIe to find the . Jope of the deflection curve at the
location where .M is appl ied for tbe beam in Fig. 6. 55.
Il.4l. Repeat P roblem 6.40 for t he beam shown in Fig. 6.56.
H. 42. Repeat ProbIern 6.40 for the bea.m shown in Fig. 6.57.
6.43. (a.) Show that the angIe between the tangen . a t two points A. and B of the
deflection curve in Fig. 6.58 equals the area of the (M / EI)-diagram between the
eorre. ponding vel'ticals, tha.t is, .
f
B
M
() = OA - OB = A E l dx .
(h) Show that the vertical distance of B from the t anp;ent drawn to the curve at
.\ iti equa.I to the moment wth respect to the vert.ical through B of the area of the
(.1{I El)-diagram between A and E, t hat is,
V{)' - VB = BB' = lA
[fhnt: AII angIes are assumed to be very .mall, so that d(BB') = dO.]
6.44. ( se the of P robl em 6.43 to find and Oat the free end of the cantilever
b,'am 'hown in F ig. 6.59. This method known as the aTea moment method.
ti.4.5. Draw the shearing-force and bending-moment diagrams for the beam >i hown in
6.27 (a).
6.16. Find t,he reucti m; for the statically indeterminate beam shown in Fig. 6.60 by
the principie.
6.47. HCl1cat Problem 6.46 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.61.
fi.4R. Hepent l'roblem 6.46 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.62.

f-- l, --!-l2 --j
Figure 6.81 Figure 6.62
164 BEAMS
p
b--j
F igure 6.83 Figure 6. 64 F igure 6.66
6.49. Repcat Problem 6.46 fol' the beam shown in Fig. 6.63.
6.50. Repeat Problem 6.46 for the bealll shown in Fig. 6.64.
6.51. Repeat Problem 6.46 for the beam shown in Fig. 6.65.
6. 52. Use the double-int.cgration method to solve Problem 6.46.
6. 53. Use theorem to sol ve Problem 6.46.
6.54. 1. se CaBtigliano's theorem to find the reactions for the beam shown in Fig. 6.6l.
6.55. U e Castigliano's theorem to find the reactions for the beam shown in Fig. 6.62.
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Buokling of a
L et us consid r a
rorces of magnit.udc P
for this problem was obtai
along thc length of tlw bar,
t ensor is
p
(1'",.,= - A'
whcre A is thl! f"", IlI<-:f\l'etltll:l.
the a sumption t,hat the
chapter we "ha.lI see t,hat,
configuration iH always nn
, certain limit t,herc will 1.0
fo rce P. When it han hot.h
the straight onc wiII be'
up the curved contigllmt
7.2 Equilibrium
Fixed-Free
By equiJibrium conl .
centroidal Iinc, or what 111
li' igure 7.1(a.) sho"'" u
compressive force P
t That s, onc CIIII of tllt'
free of any supporL.
CHAPTER 7
Columns
7.1 B uckling of a Colum n
Let us consider a straight bar acted on by equal and opposite compl'cssive
forces of magnitude P through thc ccntroid of its cnd faces. The state of stress
for this problcm was obtained in Chaptcr 4. In fact, if the x-axis is directed
along the length of the bar, then the only nonvaniHhing component of the stress
tenHor is
P
(jxx = - A '
whcrc A is the cross-sectional area. The abo ve solution is, however, based on
the fiHsumption that the bar remains straight in the deformed state. In this
chaptcr we lShall sec that, while for any length of the bar the straight equilibrium
configuration is always an equilibrium configuration, when the length exceeds
a certain limit there will be a curved equilibrium configuration under the same
force P. Whcn it has both the straight and the curvcd equilibrium configurations,
thc Htraight one will be seen to be unstablc so that, in reality, the bar will take
up the cm'ved configuration. This phenomenoll is called buckling of a column.
7.2 EquUibriuDl Configurations of a Centrally Loaded
Fixed-Free ColuDln
By cquilibrium configuration we mean the ddormed curve of the longitudinal
ccntroidal hne, or what in Chapter 6 we called the deftection curve of a bcam.
Figmc 7.1(a) shows a fixed-freet column of length 1, which is acted on by a
compressive force P passing through the centroid of the cross section at the
t That i , one end 01' the column i built into the Hupporting base; the other end is
fn'e uf any 'uppor t.
156
166 COLUMNS 7.2
.l
r
p
k

/
i(

I I P
I
:
I
,
I
,
I
1 ,
I
""
11
J
I
- y

--!J
v,
(u) (b) (e) (d)
Figure 7.1
free end. We "hall show t hat if P S -rr
2
EI/ (4l
2
), where E is Young's modulus
and 1 is the lea"t second moment of the section, the only equilibrium configura
tion is that showll in Fig. 7.l(a) (that is, the column remains straight) . If
P > -rr
2
EI/C4l2) , a curved equiJibrium configuration a hown in Fig. 7.l (b)
exists, in addition to the stl'aight one. We shall also fi nd the maximum slope
and defiection in the buckled column. In the next section we shall show that
whenever the curved equilibrium configuration exists, the straight one is un
stable and l.l therefore not realistic.
In beam theory, when the shear effect is neglected, the defiection curve is
determillcd from Eq. (6.18):
d
2
l) M(x)
dx 2 = - BI '
whcre M(x) is computed from the equilibrium equation based on the undefonned
configuration of tho beam. If \Ve computed lvf(x) in thi" way fOl" thc problcm
on hand, we \Vould obviously find M(x) = and v(x) = O. Therefore, for the
investigation of the existence of a curved equilibrillm cOllfiguration, the effcct
of the deJonned curve on the equilibrium eqllation must be taken into account.
Thus from the free-body diagram for the portion of the column aboye the
sectiol1 x (Fig. 7 .1e), the bcnding moment at the scction x i"
l\Il(x) = - P(o - v),
where ois. the (still unknown) deflection at the free end. Furthermore, it will
be seen a posleriol' i that even if P is only slightly larger than -rr
2
EI/ 4l 2, the
7.2 EQUILIBRI U1\{ CONF'lG UHA 'l' IO!
defonned curve do s not have II
ser ved that the left-hand sidf' o I
the approximate exprc"sioll t
t han unity. Thereforc to obt.U,lll
we have to use the exact expr
With reference to Fig. 7. L(b),
froro some convenient point, su
(measured from t.ho x-axis) of t,h
ture at every point is givcl1 h '
pl' blem at hand is
dO P(o - v)
ds = la
F or convenience, Jet k
2
= /' / R
dO o )
- = k"( - - o .
[a]
ds
If \Ve differentiate Eq. [a] witlt
d
2
0 2
11
/1
- - k - '
lb]
ds2 - ds
But dv/ ds = sin O(see Fig. 7.1
2
(i 0 + k
2
sin O= O
ds
2
Tbe boundary conditioI1H UI'l':
O = 0, whel1
dO
P( - 8)
s

ohviously, regardJe88 01' tJw
ahvays a soJution LO t1w
h refore the st.r ight colll
1l0W look fol' a SOl11tOll l'.OI'
\Ve obtain:
le]
On intcgration of Eq. [el, t.h
ld]
1 (dO)2
'2 /<,; 2 ds =
'.2
7.2 EQUl LIBRIUM CONFIGURATIO NS: FIXED-FREE COLUMN 157
deformed curve does not have the property dv/dx 1. In Section 6.2 we ob
sel'ved that the left-hand side of Eq. (6.11), and therefore of Eq. (6.18), is really
the approximate xpression for the eurvat ure when dvj dx is very much smaller
than unity. Therefore to obtain the deflection and slope of the buckled column,
we have to use the exact expression for the eurvature.
Witb referenee to Fig. 7.1( b), if s is tho length measured along the column
[rom sorne convenient point, say the origin, and O is t he angle of inelination
(measured from tbe x-axis) of tbe t angent to the buekled curve, then the eurva
tur at every point is given by dO/ ds. Thus the governing equation for the
problem at hand is
dO P (B - v)
(7.1)
ds El
1"01' convenicnee, let k
2
= PIEl ; then E q. (7. 1) takes the form
iU/ 7 2 ( ., )
[ ]
ds le - a = u V
If IYe differentiate Eq. [a] with respeet to s, we obtu"l
2
d 0 = _k2 dv .
[b]
ds
2
ds
Hut dv/ ds = sin O(seo Fig. 7. I d); t herefore
2
d 0 + k
2
. O O
(7.2)
ds
2
8111 = .
Thc boundary eonditions are:
O = O, when s = O; (7.3a)
dO = P (B - B) = O
when s = l. (7.3b)
ds El '
ObviouJy, regardless of the magnitude of k (and therefore of P) , O(s) == O is
always a 'olution to the problem beeause it satisf1es both Eq. (7.2) and (7.3).
Thcrefore th straight eolumn is always an equilibrium eonfigu'ration. We ahall
1l0W look foI' a soluLion eorresponding to the buekled column. From Eq. (7.2),
\Ve oh/ain:
I dO d
2
0 . . do
[e] -- - = - 1ll0 -
k
2
ds
2
ds ds
Un intcgratioIl of Eq. [e], there resulta
[d] 2!2 ( ~ ~ r = eos O + C.
158 COLUMNS 7.2
Table 7.1
I O
I
a 10 I 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
--1
F(a) I
1.5738 1.5828 1.5981 1.6200 1.6490 1.6858 1.7312 1.7868 1.8541
If we let a denote the (still unknown) angle (} at the free end, where dfJlds = 0,
then from Eq. [d] we have
[e] cos a + e = 0, e = -cos a.
Thus, in terms of a, Eq. [d] becomest
1 d(}
[f]
k ds = V2(cos (} - cos a)
or
[g] kds =
V2(cos fJ - cos a)
Integrating Eq. [g] from S = to S = l, and noting that (} = when S =
and fJ = a when S = l, we obtain
(7.4)
O V2(cos fJ - cos a)
The integral in Eq. (7.4) is a function of a alone; we sha11 denote it by F(a).
It cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. By suitable trans
formations, it is possible to transform the integral into the so-ca11ed com
plete Legendre elliptical integral of the first kind, for which numerical values
are tabulated in many mathematical tables. Table 7.1 gives a few values for
F(a). In terms of F(a), Eq. (7.4) becomes
[h] kl = F(a)
or, since k
2
= PI(EI),
(7.5)
t The negative root of dfJlds corresponds to a buckled curve to the left of y and does
not need to be con idered.
EQffi LIBRIUM CONFIGURATl Ol
7.2
From Table 7.1, i is ccn t,hal
fol' a11 a,
.,?-lE 1
(i]
P 4l2"'
wh re the equal tJign COIT
than 7f2EII4l2, thc only I:lolutior
straight equilibrium
is only the str:tight
a curved equilibrium conhgmnt l
present problem,
71"2E 1
Per = 412 - ,
where 1 is the least second fil O
P
er
, we obt:1in
= F(a)]2 .
P r 71"
E quation (7.7) is repr>sClI (
fJ == Ois represented by thc Vl'1
fJ = Oand v = O; thcreforc, fr
ti]
Thus, from Eq. [f],
[k] kS = V2(1 - CO>'
-
-
') SI11
w o.

2
or
s 2 sin (a / 2)
l P(o:)
Equ:1tion (7.8), when uscd in
of PI P er. Table 7.2 shows .
1.004 \.015
0.1108 0.2193
PI Pe,
Si l
---
7.2 E QUILIBRIUM Frx:; O-FRF:E COLUMN 159
From Table 7.1, it is seen t hat F(a) -r/2. It follows from E . (7.5) that
for aH a,
-r2E I
[i]
P 4i2 '
where the equal sign corresponds to a = O. In other words, if P is not larger
than -r2EI/4l
2
, the only solution to t he problem is O== O, which repres ,nt .. the
straigbt equilibrium confi gul'ation. The maximum val ue of P, for which there
is only the str aight equili brium confi guration and beyond which there exists
a curved equilibrium confi guration, wil! be called Euler's criticalload. For the
present pl"Oblem,
(7.6)
where l is the lea t second moment of t hc section. I f Eq. (7.5) is dividcd by
Pcr, we obtain
P [2
-
J2
. (7.7) - = F(a)
-r P
er
Equation (7.7) is represented by the cW"ve AB in Fig. 7.2. The other solution
(J == Ois l'epresented by the vertical line OAC. At the fixed cnd of the column,
O = Oand v = O; therefore, from Eq. [a],
dO = ,2.
[j 1
ds le u.
e
B
Thns, from Eq. [f],
.41-""" ,0-----.-=-=-=-=- ---------
1
[k] leo = V2(1 - eos a) p
Por
. a
2
= Sin 2'

01'
"4 "2
o 2 sin (a/ 2)
(7.8)
Figure 7.2
1 = F(a)
Efluation (7.8), when used in conjunction with Eq. (7.7), gives o/ l as a function
of P/ Per o Table 7.2 shows some of the ('csults of this computation.
Tabla 7.2
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
l.004. 1.215 l.01 5 1.035 1.064 1.102 1.1 52 0.6428 P/ Per 1 0.7071
.
0.1108 0.2193 0.3239 0,5126 0.4223 0. 5932 0.6626 1.2856 1. 4L 42 o/l O
160 COL UM N ::i 7.3
7.3 Effect of Eccentricity on the Eq uJUbriulD
Configuration
For the same fixed-free eolumn treated in Seetion 7.2, let us suppose that the
eompressive force P is not applied at the eentroid, but at a distanee e from it.
For Climplieity, let the point of applieation be on one of the principal axes of the
erai:iH i:iection. The bending moment at any seetion x is now given by (see
Fig.7.3)
[a] M.(x) = -P[(o + e) - v].
Following the same derivations as those of the previous
seetion, we can readily see that the governing equation
is still
d20 + 2 . O
[b]
ds
2
e sm O = ,
but one of the boundary eonditions beeomes di fferent.
, In faet, the boundary eonditions are:
[e] O = O, when s = O,
and
dO P 2
[d]
ds = [(o + e) - o] = k e, when s = l.
The seeond boundary eondition has a very important bearing on the eharaeter
of the solution. So long as e is nonzero, no matter how small it is, O == O is not
a solution. We reeall that when e is exaetly zero (Seetion 7.2), there are two
solutions eorresponding to P larger than 7r
2
El/ 4l
2
. Rere, however, no matter
how elose e may be to zero, there is only one solution for al! P. Fol!owing eaeh
step of the d ri vations of the last seetion, we can obtain the solution
[e] lel = roC< -r,:::;:::::=::::=;::=::::::;:= = = == dO
v Jr (k
2
e
2
/ 2) + (eos O - eos a)
For a given eecentricity e, Eq. [e] gives the relation between P and a. We note
that for any tinite a, when e ---? O, kl approaehes the rCi:lUlt given by Eq. (7.4).
And fOl" any finite e, whcn a ---? O, then lel ---? 0-.- The dashed curve in Fig. 7.4
Figure 7.3
P
Por B
A ----
1.0 ,,_--- - - - ----
I
Figure 7.4
o
7.4
shows the relat ioll betweeIl l'
curve as e approaehes zero is tI
point A, whieh is a bnwch 01" th
t he solution when e -' O.
T he situation here is exaetly
vert ex. So long as the grllvit.}
the equation of equilibrium is Hn
weight from the vertex will.
words, the upsid -down eql1lhl
t he same manner , f Ol" a
7r2E I / 412, the straight equilib
we ahall discuss the stablity O
of the mnimum potential l'11l'll
EXAMPLE 7.1. A fi x
rectangular croSi) seetio
axial load P. If E = :
P = 1.004 P cr, what s
curve?
Solution. We have
7r
2
EI
P er = 4[2 ,
From Table 7.2, whrll
o = (0.1l08)(:.lO :
7. 4 Maximum Norm.
Fixed-Free Colu:c
When P (7r
2
EI/412),
normal stress is
[a] (Tr I = - 1-'/A..
When P > (7r
2
EI/4[2) tlw
oeeurs at the fixed enel Hedi
Al = Po,
where Odepcnds Oll P amI
7.4 A BUCKLED FIXED-FREE COLlnf N 161
shows the relation between P and a for a sma.l\ but nonzero e. The limiting
curve as e approaches zero is the solid line OAB. The vertical line above the
point A, which is a branch of the solution when e is exactly zero, is excluded from
thc soIution when e ~ O.
Thc situation here is exactly the same as that of a circular cone resting on its
vcrtcx. So long as the gravity force on the cone passes through the vertex,
the equation of equilibri um is satisfied. However, the slightcst eccentricity of the
weight from the vertex wiII spoil the equilibrium at that position. In other
words, the upside-down equili brium configuration of the cone is unstable. In
the same manner, for a centrally loadcd fixed-frcc column, when Pis larger than
1f"2EI/ 4l2, the straight equilibrium configuration is unstable. In Section 7.8
we i:lhall discuss the stability or instability of a column from the point of vi ew
of the minimum potential encrgy.
EXAMPLE 7.1. A fixed-free stccl column, which is 20 ft long and has a
rectangular cross section of 1 in. by 2 in., is subjected to a compressive
axial load P. If E = 30 X 10 psi, determine Euler' s critical load. If
P = 1.004 P
er
, what is the maximum sidewise defl ection of the buckled
curve?
Solution. We have
Im in = 1\2(1)3 = t in
4
,
M= Po,
""hcrc odepends on P and is given in Table 7.2.
2
P = (7r )(30 X 106)(t) = 213 lb
cr 4(20 X 12)2 .
From Table 7.2, when P/ P
er
= 1.004, then o/ l = 0.1108. Thus
o= (0.1108) (20 X 12) = 26.6 in.
7.4 MaxiDlum. N ormal Stress in a Buckled
Fixed-Free Colum.n
Whcn P ~ (7r
2
EI/4Z2) , the column remains straight and the maximum
normal stress is
[a] <T
xx
= - P/ A.
Whcn P > (7r
2
EI/ 4l2) the column buckles. The maximum bending moment
occurs at the fixed end section. The magnitllde of this moment is
162 COLUMNS
7.4
Using t he flexural fOI'mula , Eg. (6.15), t.he llormal stress due to bending at
any poinl in t.he sedion is givell by
(P8 )y
[b] (u;r ;r ) bcnding = - - ,
wherc 1 is thc least second moment of the section and y is measured from the
principal axis about which 1 is computed.
In engineering theory, the total normal stress at any point in the section is
obtained by the addition of Eqs. [a] and [b]:
P (P8)y
U,." = - A + __ o
(7.9)
Since the column may buckle to either side of the x-axis, the maximum compres
sive stress is

P (P8)Yma.x
1
(7.10)
U"" =
-,
A
where Yrnax is the distance of the point most remote from the principal axis.
The maximum tensiJe stress is
(7.11)
It should be noted that Eqs. (7.10) and (7. 11), in general, correspond to buckled
curves which lie on different sides of the x-axis, unless the principal axis is also
an axis of symmetry.
EXAMPLE 7.2. Find the maximum normal stress for the column of
Example 7.1, where P = 1.004Pcr .
Svlution. In Example 7.1, we had that for
P = 1.004P
cr
= (1.004) (213) = 214 lb, 8 = 26.6 in.
Thus t.he maximum compressive stress is
. = - - (21_4)(26.6) (t) = -107 - 17100 = -17200 .
U n (2)(1) " pSI,
and the maximum tensile stress is
Un = -107 + 17,100 = +17,000 psi.
Note that the compressive force is only very slightly over the critical
load, but the bending stress arising from the buckling of the column is
more ,than forty times that of the axial compressive stress.
COL 1>fN
7.5
7.6 Euler's

This is not
.
the
Column
We hay s en that. t.he buck
t.he condition that the slope ii"l
i dctermination thc cxact
s ction we shall demonstrau! ,
et er the critical load, is concern
suffic s.
that is, when the force P is
amount, the buckled curve I
other words, when t.hc
will be valid up to and very sli
beyond the critical load, so
b obtained by su eh an
Using d
2
v/ dx
2
as
column shown in Fig. 7.1
d
2
v P .
- = - ,- (8 - I).
d X2 El
If we again let
k
2
[a1 = P/ RI,
\Ve then have
d
2
v ry ry
- 1.-'
_
+

V - h (J.
dX 2
Thc unknown constant { in
entiating the equat.ion one!.' wi
d
3
v k2 a" o
dx
3
+ : d'!: = .
The boundary conditions al' :
dv
v = - = O
dx
and
d
2
v/ dx = O
The last bonndal'Y cond
that equation.
The general solution 01' El
[a1 v = 11 Hin k.t -+
7..) EULER'S COLUMN FORMULA FOR A VrXED-FRE E COLUMN 163
7.5 Euler's Column Formula lor a Fixed-Free Column
We have seen that the buckled curve of column, in general, does not satisfy
thc condition that the slope is everywhere much smaller than unity, so that fol'
it; detcrmination the exact expression for curvature has to be used. In t his
scction we shall demonstrate that insofar as finding the very important param
etcr, the critical load, is concerned, the approximate expression d
2
vldx
2
for the
curvature suffices. This is not surprising because at the onset of instability,
that is, when the force P is beyond the critical load by only an infinitesimal
amount, the buckled curve indeed has infinitesimal slopes everywhere. In
other words, when the approximate expression for curvature is used, the equation
\Vill be valid up to and very slightly (mathematically speaking, infinitesimally)
beyond the critical load, so that infol'mation about the onset of instability can
be obtained by such an approximation. This is called Euler's theory.
sing d
2
vl dx
2
as the curvature, the governing equation fol' the fixed-free
cplumn shown in Fig. 7.1 becomes
d
2
v P
d.r
2
= El (8 - v).
(7.12)
If \vc again let
k
2
[a] = PIEl,
\Ve thcll have
(7.13)
The unknown constant 8 in the aboye equation can be elirninated by diffcl'
ent.iating the equation once with rcspect to x:
d
3
v 2 dv
d
. ~ + le -d = O.
(7.14a)
x 'x
The boundary conditions are:
dv
v = - =
at x = 0,
dx
alld
at x = l. (7.14b)
The b;t bOlllldal'y condition i' obtained fmm Eq. (7.12) by putting v = 8 in
thut eqnution.
The general ;olution of El!, (7.14a) is
[a] v = A sin kx -, B cos kx +C.
F'ORMTILA:
164 COLUMN. ' 7.6
Al :t = 0, v = O; thus, O = B + e, that s, e = - B . At x = 0, ilvldx = O;
thus O= Ak, that. is, A = O. And at x = l, d
2
vlclx
2
= O; thus O = -k
2
n
cos /el, t.hat is, ei lher B = O or cos kl = O. when B = 0, then v == O.
This l rivial solution of Eq. (7.14a) and Eq. (7.14b) corr ponds to the straight
equilibl'ium configuration. At the onset of instability, B is nouzero; therefore
[b] cos kl = O.
Th roots of Fq. [b] are
kl = E , etc.
2
2
3
'Tr, "2
5
'Tr,
Remembering that k
2
= PIEl, we have
V e see that accorcling to this theory there are infinitely many critical values.
Fl'om the I'esult of Section 7.2 we know, however, that only the first critical
load found here has real physical significance, beca use once the load P is beyond
thc fil'st ritical vaIuo, the column already buckles. Tho formula
p _ 'Tr
2
EI
or - l2
(7.15)
is kno\Vn as Euler's column formula fOl' a column.
Whcn the compressive force P is cqual to P
er
,
'TrX )
Ii = B co - - 1
(
2l
or
(7. 16) v = S (1 - cos 7) .
The magnit.ude of S (the bending dcflection at the free end) is indeterminate.
This indotcrmjllaten . of S arises f"om the assumption that dvl dx 1.
cerning q .. (7. Hi), al! we call say is that at the onsot. of inst abilit.y, it represent s
Lhe shape of the buckled curve where S is infinitesimal.
7.6 Euler's ColuDlD FOrDlula for Other End Conditions
(1) F'ixed-hinged column. Figure 7Jj shows a fixed-hinged column; R is the
latorall'eaetion. The bending moment at any section is given by
[a] Nl(:t) = Pv - R(l - x).
EULER'S COLUMN
7.6
Thus
v Il (/
[b)
-
d
2
+ k"v = 1.'1
dX2 D
k
2 - P I El The unknow
where - .
eli minated by differcntiating Eq. I
to x:
[c)
The boundary conditions arc:
nt
x - O,
[d)
v = O
ato x
[e) dul dx =
[[)
v = O
at .r = /,
[g)
d
2
vjdx2 = O
aL
Tbe last boundary condition il:i .
Th general solution of Eq. l('IIS
lh) v = A sin /ex -1- B
,:' E-'q [d) w have 0 = n
1.\ rom . ,
Ak+C,thatis, = - Ak,nnclf
Thns
B(t - ('os kl) .
A = .. in Id - kl
Fina.lly, from Eq. [g], W(' obtain
O = __ Ak
2
lit -
Thus
(1 - cos /;l) (sin
[i)
B [ sin kl - Id
At thc onset of ini'itu.bilit.y, B .
(1 - cos kl) siu kl
that is,
[i]
tan U = 1,;/.
7.ti EULER'S COL ~ [ N FORMULA: OTR ER EN!) ONDITION. 166
Thus
x
r
[b]
",here k
2
= PI El. The unknown l' eaction R can be
cliroinated by di ff el'entiating Eq. [b] t wiee with l'esp et
to x:
v(x)
[e]
The boundary conditions are:
[d] at x = 0,
v =
- y
[e] at x = 0,
dvl dx =
"""
[f] at x = 1, Figu re 7.6
v =
rd
d
2
vl dx
2
= J at x = l.
The last boundary condition is obtained by putting X = 1and v = O in E4. lb].
The general solution of E q. [e] is
[h] v = A sin kx + B COi.> kx + ex + D.
b 'om Ec. [d], \Ve hay O = B + D, t hat is, D = - B, froro Ec . [e], =
Ak + , that is, e = -Ak, and froro E <j.[f], 0 = A ' in kl + B eos kl + el + D.
Thns
l<'inally, froro Ec. [g], we obtain
= - Ak
2
sin kl - Bk
2
eos kl.
Thnl:;
[i]
At t1w onset of instability, B is nonzero; therefol'e
(1 - cos kl) sin kl + cos kl(sin kl - kl ) = 0,
tlmt is,
[j] tan kl = kl.
166 COLUMNS 7.6
f f=kl
:;
x
r
1


kl
Figure 7.6 Figure 7.7 Figure 7.8
The ;mallest root of Eq. [j] can be found from most mathematical tables, or it
can be obtained ,from the intersection point of the curve f = tan kl and the
curve f = kl in the (J, kl)-plane (see Fig. 7.6) . Its value is
kl = 4.49.
Thus Eulcr's formula for a fixed-hinged column is
P = (4.49)2El.
(7.17)
er l'.l
It will be left as exercises to obtain the following Euler's formulas.
(2) Hinged-hinged column. See Fig. 7.7:
7r
2
EI
Per = --:- . (7.18)
(3) Fixed-fi xcd column. See Fig. 7.8:
p = 47r
2
EI.
(7.19)
er l2
Euler's formulas for the different end conditions discusscd aboye can be written
in one eqllation:
(7.20)
where (3 dep nds on the end conditions, e.g., for a hnged-hinged column, {3 = 1.
7.8 ENF. RGY ON
7.7 Val1dJty 01 Euler's
Putting 1 = Ar
2
, where l' is tlw
area, in E q. (7.20), , e ob il!
Per .,rE
A
Per/ A i calIed the cri/.ical stress,
Hooke' s law is used irl the
is a li miting value of Per/ A fol'
in compl'esson for the material.
other words, for a given material
(7. 21) is valid only if the "'''''''''''''''
For example, for a hing d-hinged
proportional limit
u
p
= 30 X p "
we obtain
7.8
en
where (u:rx)o
volume of the column.
p
"""
Energy Considera
Let us consider a cent'ally
rgy of the column and thc
reference to Fig. 7.9, when the
tion, the potential encrgy 01' thc
V o = J dT
= P/ A, So = PI/A
On the
F iglue 7.9
7.8 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS 167
7.7 Validity ol Euler's Forxnulas
Putting 1 = A1'2, where l' is the radius of gyration and A i the cross-sectional
area, in Eq. (7.20), we obtain
P
er
1I'
2
E
(7.21)
A fJ2(1/ 1') 2
Per/ A is calIed the critical stress, and 1/ 1' is called the slenderness ratio.
Hooke's law is used in the derivation of Eq. (6.18). Thus in Eq. (7.21) there
a limiting value of P er/ A for eaeh material, namely, the proportionallimit
in compression for the material. Beyond this value Eq. (7.21) is not valido In
other words, for a given material and given end conditions of the column, Eq.
(7.21) is valid only if the slenderness ratio is not less than some minimum value.
For example, for a hinged-hinged steel eolumn with E = 30 X 10
6
psi and the
proportional limit
(fp = 30 X 10
3
psi,
\Ve obtain
(
l) = [11'2(30 X 99.
r mi" 30 X 10
7.8 Energy Considerations
Let us eonsider a eentralIy loaded fixed-free eolumn. We let the potential
enel'gy of the eoJumn and the force P be zero in the undeformed state. With
rcferenee to Fig. 7.9, when the eolumn is in the straight equilibrium eonfigura
tion, the potential energy of the system, VD, is
1 f .,
VD = 2E ((fxx)
dr
- Pso,
where ((fxx)o = P/ A, So = Pl / AE, and the integration is ayer the whole
voJume of the eoJumn. On the other hand, if the eolumn buckles, the potential
p
p
______1_________________ ---- l
80 I
--r-------------
t
---
: t
Figure 7.9
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
168 COLUMNS 7.8
encrgy of the system is
where ((]'xx)B = M(x)y j 1 and s' is the lowering of the free end due lo bending.
Thus,
v = ;E f dT + f((]'xx)O((]'xx)B dT
+ f((]'xx) 1dT - peso + s')
Now since f y dA = O, we have
2
v = V o + fM (x) dx - PS'.
(7.22)
From Eq. (7.22) we see that if
fM
2
(x) dx - PS' > O
for any s' close to s' = O, then V
o
is a minimum, and the straight equilibrium
configuration (for which s' = O) is a stable one. On the other hand, if
2
fM (x) dx - PS' < O
for any s' close to s' = O, then the straight cquilibrium configuration is an
unstable one. The margin of stability or instability is therefore given by
2
211 fM dx - PS' = O.
(7.23)
In other words, the strain energy of bending equals the decrease of the potential
energy of the criticalload P due to the bending of thc column.
In the neighborhood of s' = O, the slope of the buckled curve is small compared
to unity. Thus
d
2
M v
El -dx2 '
ENERGY ONSl1JBRA'I'IONH
7.8
i ur thermore, we have
s' = J(ds - d:r) =
when dv j dx 1, \Ve obbn
El
P
er
=
As a check, let us use Eq. (7.
v = B(CO
S

dv
dx =
Per =
In thc aboye computatioll,
satisnes both the equation of
d
3
v P dv _
+- -
dx
3
El dx
and the boundary CUIJlllIl,VUI
x=l.
lf the deflection curve i8
tained by assuming a curvn
Thus
1
f
l (
di-

s' = - -a-: dx.
2 o J
E quation (7.23) can now be
El t d.c _
2 Jo dx )
01'
7.8 :f:NERGY CONSIlJERATIONS 169
Furthermore, we have
l
s' = f(ds - dx) = i [V1 + (dv/ dx)2 - 1] dx;
when dv/ dx 1, we obtain
1 ~ ! (dv)2 .
2 dx
Thus
I
1 dv 2
S' ="2
J
O (dX) dx.
Equation (7.23) can now be written
2
El JI (d v)2 dx _ P
er
JI (dV)2 dx = O
2 o dX2 2 o dx
or
Pcr = EIH (d2v / dx2)
2
dx .
(7.24)
f ~ (dv/ dx)
2
dx
As a check, let us use Eq. (7.16) to compute P cr from Eq. (7.24):
v = 1)' B (COS ;;
dv 7r . 7r:t:
B
- 2l Slll 2f'
dx
d
2
v (7r)2 7rX
dX2 = - B 2l cos 2l '
2
P _ EI(7r/ 21)4B
2
HC08 (7rx/ 2l) dx = 7r
2
EI.
cr - (7r/2l) 2B 2 Hsin
2
(7rx/2l) dx 4[2
In thc above computation, we have used the dcftection curve Eq. (7.16), which
satisfies both tho equation of equilibrium
d
3
v P dv
dx3 + El dx = O
and the boundary conditions v = dv / dx = O at x = O and d
2
v/ dx2 = O at
x '- l.
U tho deflcction curve is unknown, an approximate critical load can be ob
taincd by assuming a curve which satisfies tbe bounda.ry conditions only. There
170 COLUM1\ S
are many ways to eonstruet sueh v's. ne is to express v as a polynomial in x,
that is,
and to determine the constants a
n
from the boundary conditions. For example,
so that v = dvj dx = O at x = O, we must have ao and al equal to zero. If
we take
then
Thus to satisfy d
2
vj dx2 = O at x = l, we must have a3 - (l j 3l)a2' With
1 3)
[a]
V = a2
(
x
2
- 3l x ,
we have
[b]
[e]
Fl'om Eqs. lb], [e], and (1.'24), we obtain
P
er
= 2.5
The cxact value of Pc r is
7r
2
EI El
---w- = 2.4674 12 .
PROBLEMS
7.1. A fi xed-free steel column, which is 15 ft long and has a rectangular cross section of
2 in. by 3 in., is subj ected to a compressive axial load P. If E = 30 X 10
6
psi, deter
mi ne Euler's critical load. If P = 1.004 P
er
, what is the maximum sidewise de
fiection of the bucklcd curve?
7.2. Repeat Problem 7.1, except that the cross section is circular with 2 in. radius .
.
7.3. Repeat Prolllcm 7.1, except that the cross section is that shown in Fi!?;. 6.5.
7.4. (a) If P = 250 lb, what is the maxi mum length that a fixed-free st.eel column of
1 in. radi us can support without buckling (E = :30 X 10
6
psi)? (b) With the above
lengt h, if P = 253.8 lb, what is the maximum compressive stre s ?
PROBLEM"
7.5. R epeat Problem 7.4, llxec:pt th
7. 6. Figure 7.10 is th ero 9. C' tioll
Th length of the column 18 20 ft .
stresses if
(a) P = 0.9 Per,
(b) P = 1.004 Per (E = 30 X
7.7. A column does not buckle ur
hinged-hinged column hy l
differcntial syst"m. Use Euler'R th
becomes
7.8. Show tha-l if we let sin c/> =
7.9. Derive Eq. (7.18).
7.10. Derive Eq. (7.19).
7.11. Find Euler's criti callo
ad
f,
The column iR 20 ft long.
P is applied at 11 dist.anel' e frll
e nslUlt El
7. 12. Repeat Prohlem 7.11, ('x(' !
7. 13. Repeat Prohlem 7.11,
7.14. Determine the ratio of ti)!'
diameter to that of :1 hollo\\' .
columns are of the same matena
the same end conditions.
7.15. Solve the above problem r
wall thickness of the hollo\\'
7.16. Find the defleetion cury
Rive force P and a coupl > "T,
7. 17. Find the ('\11' .
y
Figure 7.11
PROBLEMS 171
7.5. Repeat Problem 7.4, except that the cross section is 2 in. by 4 in. L
7.6. Figure 7.10 is the cross section of a fixed-free steel col umn. 1 in .
The length of the column is 20 ft. Find the maximum normal
stresses ir 1 in.
(a) P 0.9 P
er
,
(b) P 1.004 P
er
(E = 30 X 10
6
psi). F igure 7.10
7.7. A column does not buckle under tensile fOlces . Demonstrate this fact for a
hinged-hinged column by showi ng that there is no nontrivial solution to the governing
differential sy:;tem. Use E uler's theory.
7.8. Show that if we let sin rI> = (sin O/2)/ (sin a/ 2), then the integral In Eq. (7.4)
becomes
['Ir/2 -;::.===drI> ::::======
} o -VI (sin a/ 2)2 si n
2
rI>
7.9. Derive Eq. (7.18).
7.10. Derive Eq. (7.19).
JI. Find Euler's criticalload for a fi xed-hinged stcel circular column of 2 in. radius.
The eolumn is 20 ft long.
7.12. Repeat Problem 7.11, cxeept thut the column is a hinged-hinged one.
7.13. Repeat Problem 7.11, exccpt that the column is a fixed-fixed one.
7..14. Determine the ratio of the Euler critical load of a i:iolid circular column 5 in. in
diarnetcr to that of a hollow eircular column having a 2-in. waH thickness. The two
eolumns are of the same material, the same cross-sectional area, the same length, and
thc Ramc end conditions.
7.15. Solve tbe above problcm for squa,re cross sections, The area is 25 in 2, and the
wall t hiekness of the hollow column is 2 in.
7.l. Find the deflection curve for the hinged-hinged column under a central compres
5ive foree P and a couple 111, as shown in Fig. 7.11. ASll ume that P < Pero
7.\7. Find the deflection curve for the fi xed-free column shown in Fig. 7.12, where
P is applied al. a di::;tance e from the centroid of the section and is less than Pero
_E_ : p) M- x
I
11------===----- .x
' l--A'"'".
;;;
I

y
Figure 7.11
y
Figure 7.12
172 COLUMNS
l 21
~ p
~ AP
1/2 ., 1/2--J
1---1/2-+I- - l/ 2-----1
F igure 7.13 Figure 7.14
7.18. Find the defiection curve for the beam shown in Fig. 7.13, where P < Pero
7.19. Find the slenderness ratios for columns having the following cross sections:
(a) 2 in
2
square, (b) 2 in. X 3 in. rectangular, (c) 3 in. in diameter circular. The
columns are 10 ft long.
7.20. Find the slenderness ratio for a 20-ft long column with a cross section shown
in Fig. 6.5.
7.21. A hi nged-hinged steel column, with a rectangular cross section 1 in. X 2 in., is
axially compressed. Determine the minimum length below which the Euler formula is
not valid (E = 30 X 10
6
psi and u p = 30,000 psi). Determine the magnitude of
the critical stress ir the length is 5 ft.
7.22. Repeat Problem 7.21, except that the column is a fixed-free one.
7.23. Solve Problem 7.21 for a fixed-fixed circular column 1 in. in diameter.
7.24. Plot Eq. (7.21) for a hinged-hinged steel column ({3 = 1 and E = 30 X 10
6
psi).
Use PI A as the ordinate and l i T as the abscissa. Use a dashed line for that part of the
curve which corresponds to (PerlA) > U
p
, where U
p
= 30,000 psi.
7.25. Find an approximate critical load for a hinged-hinged column by the energy
method.
7.26. Find an approximate critical load for a fixed-hinged column by the energy
method.
7.27. Find the characteristic equation for the hinged-hinged column shown in Fig. 7.14.
7.28. Find an approximate value of Euler's criticalload for Problem 7.27. Use v =
{ sin (7rxl l).
APPENDIX
Matrix
A matrix is an aggregak of
following is a matrix of m rows
There are m X n elements iJl
element refcrs to the rOw in \
script refers to the columll.
column of the m:1trix. In
column. Thc matrix in (A.l)
a= (aij)
where
i= 1,2, ... , 111
{
j = 1,2, ... , /1
The double bar over thp
position of an element.
indicatc that there are In
r ---
APPENDIX
Matrices
Matra
A matrix is an aggregate of elements arranged In rectangular array. The
following is a matrix of m rows and n columns:
There are m X n elements in the above matrix. The first subscript of each
element refers to the rdw 'in which the cl ement is located, and the second sub
script refers to the column. Thus a32 is located in the third row and the second
column of the matrix. In general, a ij is the element in the ith row and jth
column. The matrix in (A.1) wil! be denoted by
where
i = 1,2, ... , m,
(A.2)
{
j = 1,2, ... ,n.
The double bar over the Ictter a indicates that it takes two indices to locate the
position of an element o Whencvcr necessary, we shall use the notation a",Xn to
indicate that there are m rows and n columns in the matrix a.
174 APPI:NnIX
Transpose of a Matrix
n m
We let b :--: = (b
ij
) be a matrix of n 1'OW8 and m columns. If b
ij
= aji, then
b; called the transpose of a, and will be denoted by *. Fol' example, if
~ *
then
[;3 X2 = [: ~ l
= a .
3 1
Note that G'23 = 1 = b
32
, al2 = 2 = b21 , etc.
Square Mat rix
matrix with an equal number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
For example,
is a square matrix of the third order. Here all, a 22, and a33 are ealled the
diagonal elements. The remainder of the element s are caBed nondiagonal
elements. ~
Symmetrio Matrix
A square matrix with the property aij = aji is called a symmetric matrix,
fol' example,
2
4
Note that for a symmetric matrix a= G:*.
Diagonal M atrix
A square matrix with the property that all nondiagonal elements are zero is
called a diagonal matrix :
Note that a diagonal m:1trix i ~ a symmetric matrix.
Identity Matrix
scalar matrix with the
called the ldentit matrix,
we 8ha11 use a :mbscript to
= (1 o)
E
2
= O 1 '
is called a scalar matrix, for
A matrix with only one
one index is nece8sary t.o
one bar over the letter a:
where the subscript r i
R ow Matra
1>L....'l'UIC:S
Soalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix with t,he
all = a:!2 = a ~ : \ =
Column Matrix
A matrix with only Olle col
1ic = (::) = (a
a;
is a column matrix. Note tJli
Throughout th:s booh, wc 8}
.
. means a row malnx.
MATRIC';S 176
Scalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix with the propert y that
iH called a scalar matrix, for example,
Identity Matra
A scalar matrix with the property that the d i a g o n a ~ elements equal unity is
called the identity matrix, which we shall denote by E. Whenever necessary,
\Ve shall use a l:iuhscript to indicate the order of the identity matrix. Thus
- (1 0)
E
z
= 1 '
\
Row Matrix
A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix. For a row matrix, only
one index is necessary to locate the position of an element. Thus we shall use
onc bar over the letter a:
where the subscript r indicates that II is a row matrix.
ColuDln Matrix
A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix. Thus
is a column matrix. Note that

Throughout tMs .book, wc .shall agree that whcncvCi' no 8ubscript is given, a always
'mca:I1S a 1'OW rnatnx.
176 APPENDIX
Matra Operations
mxn lllXn
(1) If a = (aij) and b = (bd, then a = bif and only if aij = bij.
(2) If a is a scalar, then
Example:
Example: = G:) + G
(1,2,3) + (0,1,2) = (1,3,5).
The following rules follow from the operation rules of scalars:
(commutative law),
a + (1) + e) = (a + 1) + e= a + b+ e
(associative law) ,
(a + {3)a = aa + {3a, a(a + b) = aa + ab.
(4) If (imXn = (aij) is a matrix of m rows and n columns, and b
nXp
= (b ij)
is a matrix of n rows and p columns, then
where the elements of eare given by
n
Cij = aiabaj,
a=l
for example,
all a12 al 3)
(
a21 a22 a23
b31 b32
= (allbll + al2b21 + a13b31, allb l2 + al2b22 + a I3 b32) ,
a2lbll + a22b21 + a23b31, a2lbl2 + a22b22 + a23
b
32
(ah a" a,) [::] a,b, + a,b, + a,b,.

2X2
Note that (i2X
3
;3X
2
= C ,
equation is also worth noting:
n
m \L._ _ _
a
_ _ --'
It is important to notc t hat ollly
is the same as the number of ro
for xample,
G:)G) el =
but
G)G :)
is not defined. The following
defined, they are, in general, nol
but
AIso
(
1) .
I 2 (3 4) -- ti
but
However, ir a i senlar
MATRICES 177
C
2X 2
1Jote that a 2X:lb3X2 = , and (l O is a scalar. The following diagrammatic
cquation is also worth noting:
n p p
mi
a
mi
e

n
/)
H is important to note that only when the number of columns of the first matrix
is the same as the number of rows of the seeond matrix is multiplication defined,
fOI" example,
is not defined. The following examples show that even if both ab and ba are
dejined, they are, in general, not equal. We have
but
(
10) (1 2) (1
2 3 3 4 = 11
Also
G) (3 4) = (: : ),
but
(3 4) G) = 11.
Howcver, if eL is a scalar matrix, that is,
178 APPENDIX MATRICES
then ab = 'Ca, provided that bot h aband baal' defined (that is, provided bis
P roof : Giv n
also a square matrix and of the same order as a). For example, we have
[ ~
o aa12
oa" ]
then
J
[au a" a,,]
a aa21 a 21 a22 a23 =
[oa"
a a22 aa23
O
a 31 a32 a33 aa31 aa32 aa33
O aa12
a,,] [o
J
[oau oa,,]
a21 a22 a 2 3 O
a
aa21 aa22
aa23 .
=* (l ..)"
x
m
a = Col.] ,
r'
a1 2
a31 a32 a33 O O aa31 aa32 aa33
In particular, if ais a square matrix of the same order as that of the unit matrix
E, then
Ea = aE = a.
The matrix product has the following properties:
that is, b*C* = (ab) . For e. al
a(be) = (ab)c, a(ab) = (aa)b = a(ab) ,
a=(1 2)
(a + b)c = ae + be, c(a + b) = ca+ eb.
'3 4
We shall show only the associative law: then
ab=(45).
8 11
Also
~
a
*
=
(1 : ~ )
,
2 11
=*=* (4 8)
b a =
5 11
Inverse of a Matrix
=(t
.,=1
and thus a(bc) (ab) e.
The Reversed Rule for a Transposed Product
In the following we shall show that the transpose of a product of matrices is
equal to the product of their transpose in reverse order, that is,
(ab)* = j *Ci*.
A square matrix b is
where Eis a uuit matrix.
'if-
1
= E.
It can be proved that if tite
then the invcrsc of (1exists
where ([-1 is unique. The
....~ I ~ r - - - - - - - - - _
MATRICES 179
ProoE: Given
= n
xp
= (b )
b ij ;
then
n
where Gij = ~ ajabai,
a=l
where d
ij
= aji,
where eij = b
ji
,
that is, b*a* = (al)) *. For example, if
(1 2) =Ci= and
3 4
then
Also
[;*0:* = (4 8) = (ab)*.
5 11
Inverse of a M atrix
A square matrix 1) is called the inverse of the square matrix a iE al) = E,
whcre E is a unit matrix. We shall denote bby a-l. Thus
aa-
1
= E.
It can be proved that if the determinant of a, that is, laij l, is not equal to zero,
thcn the inverse of el exists and
whcrc (-l is unique. The proof will not be given here.
180 APPENDlX
As an example, verify that the inverse of
1
2
V3
2
Wc have

4 4
_V3 +V3
4 4
The Reversed Rule of the Inverse of a Produot of Matrioes
In the following we shall show that the inverse of a product of matrices is
equal to the product of their inverses in reversed order, that is
This may be proved as follows:
(ab)(b-1a-
l
) = a(bb-l)a-
1
= aEa-
1
= a-
l
= E.
Thus b- 1a-
1
is the inv rse of abo
Dilferentiation of a Matra
If a = (aij), where aij are functions of x, y, and z, then
a_ (a )
..)
ay a ; ay aij , etc.
ax ax" ,
ExaDlple: Given
find
a = a = a
and
ax a, aya, az a.
('lto11 LHoIR
.1. (iiv u
i'i (1,2,2),
o
( 'Illll put
(11.) ! Ti
(b) 5i' I r,
(1') l'
(ti) lOOr \
2. Vrrify for lit
\.3. lf
ii - (.t , '/, ,
A.5. (u.
(b H
PROBLEMS 181
Solution
Z z
II Y
a = (1 e + ) , a _ (O e + ) , a _ (O 0).
ax a = O
o
aya = O
o
az a = 1 2z
PROBLEMS
A.l. Given
a = (1, 2, 2), b = (3, -1, -2),
[ ~
1
-3]
[:
o
;]
e 1 -2 d -1
O 1 1
Compute
(a) a+ 5 (e) a (i) ca (m) cd
(b) 5a + 45 (f) a*l (j) cd (n) acO:*
(e) e+ d (g) la (k) de (o) adl*
(d) 100;: + 40(1 (h) ac (1) cd* (p) a*c
(q) (a5*)d (r) the determinant of C.
,\ .2. Verify that for the egiven in Problem A.l,
A.3. If
(4, 2, 2) , a = (x, y, z),
obtain the three linear algebraie equations from the equation ab = c.
A.4. 'Vrite the following three equations in one matrix equation in t he form of ab = e:
3x + 4y + 5z = 1, x + 2z = 4, -2x + y - z = 5.
.\.5. (a) If a = OC, obtain o= ac-
J

1
(b) If el = bcb- , obtain e = b- l ab.
182 APPBNDIX
A.5. Gn' en that
(2,3),
3 4 - 5 i
if Da: = e, find o.
(2 1) ,
( '
f =
! -J)I (i-l =
A.7. If
f = (x, y) ,
find the elements of 1, where j = r
2
- r*f.
A.8. lf ti = - Ci*, wherc ais a square matrix, then j , called a skew-symmetric matri x.
::; how that the di agonal elements of a 'kew-symmetric matrix are a11 zcro.
A. 9. If eis a square matrix, show that e+ e* b a ymmetric matrix and e - e* is a
kcw-symmetric matrix.
A.IO. If e-
1
exists, verify that (e-
1
)* = (e*)-l .
A.1I. Write the following matrix equation in long fOl'm:
T
-
er
-*
= a, where 'f (x, y, z) and
A.12. Show that if e
nXn
is a skew-symmetric matrix, then a"a* o fol' any a
1X n

(Note that the transpose of a scalar is the scalar itself. )
r-----=---
Answers to P roblems
Answers to Problems .
Chapter 1
1.2. ~ A N '= 7.810 in
2
1.3. (h) ~ (680, 300, -240) psi
v61 '
100 ( ).
1.4.
3 5,6,5 pSI
1.5. 1 ~ 0 (- 6,7, 5) psi
1.6.
-
100
(13, -9, O) psi 1.7. 1 ~ (5, 1,9) psi
v'I4 vIO
1000 .
1.8. - (4,8, -3) pSI 1.10. 25 (V3, 1, -V3) psi
89
1.11. _1_ (200V3, 100, - 50V3) psi 1. 14. (h)
13
1.16.
sin O
[ 000' R=
"R = -sinO cos O
O O :1
(e) R-
1
=
1 1 1
- --
V3 V3
3
1 1
-_.
O
V2 V2
1 1 2
- ~ - - - -
V6 VG v'G
R*
1.17. (111.6, -6.75, -200) psi 1.22. O; -33.3 psi
1.23. - 12,850 psi, 13,890 psi, 19,790 psi; 24,170 psi
1.27. 7. 75 in
4
, 2.16 in
4
1.30. (a) 500 psi, -100 X 10
4
(pSi)2, -500 X 10
6
(psi)3
(b) 1000 psi, 500 psi, -1000 psi
(e) (0.267, 0.408, -0.872), (0.8, 0.408, 0.436), (-0.534, 0.816, 0.218)
185
186 ANf;WERS TO PROBLEMS
1.31. (a) 66 X 10
2
psi, 1344 X 10
4
(psi)2, 7840 X 10
6
(p13i)3
(b) 1000, 2800, 2800 psi
(e) - o) , o} (0,0,1)
1.33. (a) 260 psi
1. 36. 1000 psi
(b) 300 psi; (OJ _1_ ,
vI2 V2
Z71Z
1.37. 900 psi
1.38. 011 = 3123 psi, O = 8259'; U22 = -5123, O = - 701' ; Tm "x 4123 psi
1.40. 1000 psi, O = 45; -1000 psi, O = -45; 1000 psi
1.41. Tm." = 500 psi
Chapter 2
2.1.
Mv Mv M
2.2.
Eu = El X, El/lI = El x, Eu = - El X, 'Yx1/ = 'Yu = 'Y1f, = O
"
2.3. (a) JiP' = [r eos(O +00) - reos Ooli + [r si n(O+ 00) - r sin OJj
= (x eos O - Y si n O - x)i + (x sin O+Y eos O - y)j
(b) u = -yO, v = xO
2.5. AH strain eomponents are zero.
2.8. u, = f(x)y +!2(x)z +!3(x)
For x = eonstant, u = Ay + Bz +C
2 2 2
2.8. 1t = !I(x)y+!2(x)z+ Cyz+ h(x)
29
ay2 az2 ay uz
2.12. 644 .. in/ in 2.13. 148 .. in/ in
2.14. 200 .. in/ in 2. 16 . 476 .. in/ in
2.18. 288 .. in/ in 2.17. 100 .. in/ in
2.18. JI = 11 X 10
2
.. in/ in, h = 28 X 10
4
(.. in/ in) 2, J: 17 X 10
6
(.. in/ in) 3
2.19. EII = 761.7 .. in/ in, el = (0.749, 0.653, -0.116)
E22 = 89.82 .. in/ in, e2 = (0.476, -0.651, -0.591)
En = 248.5 .. in/ in, e3 = (0.462, -0.387, 0.798)
2.21. (x, O, z); CI = 2C2
2.22. Ex'.' = 5.42 X 10-
6
, 'Y .'y' = -6.72 X 10-
6
2.23. Eh' = -105 X 10-
6
, "1.'11 ' = -283 X 10-
6
2.26. 7.225 X 10-(;, O = 3143'; - 0.825 X 10-
6
, O = -5817'
2.28. 441.6 X 10-
6
, - 141.6 X 10-
6
2.27. -368 X 10-
6
, 17.5 X 10-
6
2.28. - 700 X 10
2.29. 1030 X l - o, {J ""
2.30. - 1000 X 10- 0
2.32. Eyy = (2Ez';o' +2f."
2.33. 100 X 10-
6
, -57.7 X
-
Chapter 3
3.6.
k = 25 X 10 psi, =
3.8.
G = 5.6 X 10
u
13.1 X
X
""
-
, f vv
, 'Yu
- n,
36//
241'Y
1 i, X
3.7.
v = 0.272, ). =
3.8.
v = 0.269, G - ,
-"18':9 . tJ"", = 1476 psi,
T xy = 144 pi, Tu
3.10. U n = 5400 psi, T ru
3.11. En = 33 X 10-
6
'Y x y = 350 X 10-
11
3.12. 3167 psi, 158 X l O
[ 12X
2
3.19 .
U = A
O
.20 . On x = O, - A
On y= - h, = .1(
2 .\
3.21. _ 6x y - :11'
(j = A - 6x!l
[
O
3 .22. Onx = O, 11 (411
3
,
On y = -!t, ir = A( l:
3.24. Lateral face:. ...
3 .27. U
u
= UI/Y = 11.. = T
3. 29. U
u
= U 1/1I = (fu = T
3.30. 2.59 in-lb/ in
J
'> 4
c- 2 2 1rc-l'lI
3.34. - (z +y ); - 40
27'
3 .39. w/ A; wl / 2111iJ
ANfH"l-:RS T PRBLF.MS 187
2.28. -700 X 10-
6
2.29. 1030 X 10-
6
,8 = -5633'; 269 X 10-
6
,8 = 3327'
2.30. -1000 X 10-
6
2.32. Ey U = (2Ez 'z' + 2Ez" - Eu )/ 3, 'Y XI/ = 2(Ex'x' - Ex"x") / v'3
2.33. 100 X 10-
6
, -57.7 X 10-
6
2.34. 126.7 X 10-
6
, -531 X 10-
6
Chapter 3
3.5. k = 25 X 10
6
psi, E = 29.9 X 10
6
psi, " = 0.3
3.6. G = 5.6 X 10
6
psi, A = 11.9 X 10
6
psi, k = 15. 6 X 10
6
psi
3.7. " = 0.272, A = 13.1 X 10
6
psi, k = 20.4 X 10
6
psi
3 .8. " = 0.269, G = 6.5 X 10
6
psi, A = 7.57 X 10
6
psi
-'3.1J. (fu = 1476 psi, UI/V = 1572 psi, U:z = 12 psi,
T ",v = 144 psi, T
n
= 360 p i, T y, = O
3.10. Un = 5400 psi, T
xy
= - 1200 psi
3.11. Eu = 338 X 10-
6
, fyy = -162.5 X 10-
6
, fu -16.7 X 10-
6
,
'YXII = 350 X 10-
6
, 'Yu = 50 X 10-
6
, 'Yyz = O
3.12. 3167 psi, 158 X 10-
6
,20 X 10
6
psi
2 2
3.19.
12x - 36y - 24xy
?
(f = A - 24xy + 12y
[
O o
..3.20. On X = O, ii = A (36y2, O, O)
On y= -h, ii = A(-24hx, -12x2 - 12h
2
, O)
3.21._ [6X
2y
:l
(j = A - 6xy O 1
2 O 3
O O ,,(6x y - 2y )
3.22. On x = O, ii = .1(4y3, O, O) 3.23. Lateral f3.ce: ii = (O, O, O)
On y = - h, ii = A (6xh
2
, 2h
3
, O) Left-end face: ii = (O; -Cz, Cy)
1 ? ?
3.24. Lateral faee:. ii = -;:.======((a- - n cyz, O, O)
a
4
y2 + b
4
z
2
3.27. U"'X = U
YV
= u.. = T",V = 0, Tzz = G(2x - y), T y = G(x - 2y)
3.29. Un = U yy = u .. = T",u = O, T u =
G(e sin y - y), T yz = G(e'" eos y +x)
3.30. 2.59 in-lb/ in
3
3. 32. G(5x
2
- 8xy + 5y2) / 2
224
(1 - 2,,)pgAl
2
3 34 e (2 + 2) 7rC lro
3.36.
.. 2G z y; 4O
2E
3.39. w/il; wl/ 2AE
188 AN:S WETlti TO PRODLEM"
Chapter 4
4.1. 0.018 in.
4.2. (a) 11 ,300 ]l i, 5650 psi
eb) 3.01 X in., 2.83 X 10--1 in.
4.3. 16,500 lb 4.4. 9 X 10-
4
in.
4.5. JI = 1\' P = -51,800 lb 4.6. 0.064 in.
4.7. 0.0784 in. 4.8 . 9.6 in
2
4.9. 6. in.
PI. 3Pl 2
4.11. fI
4 l E . 2 (nght), v = 8 lE sec a (down)
i I sIn a .1 I
2
4.12. l/ = csc a (right) , o = O
6
4.1.3. fI = 13 .tE in. (l eft), . = 21 :E in. (down)
P . P
4.14. fI = 72.6 .1R ft (nght), o = 46.8 AE ft (down)
4.15. l/ = 125 .tE ft (right) , o = 72.9 .tE ft (down)
4.18. P / 12, P/ 3, 7P/ 12 4.18. P/ 28, llP/ 28, 4P/ 7
4.19. 506,000 lb
4.20. 547,000 lb 4.21. P/ (2 sin a) , O, -P/ (2 sin a)
4.22. Force in middJe bar = P/ (l + 2 a)
4.23. 98.4F
4.24. LlT(a.ll + aaI12) / (IjEst + 12/ E al )
4.25. LlT(a./I + aal12 + a roI3) / ( I jE. / + 12/ E al + 13/ E co)
P
4.28. 2AR LlTa/ [l + 2 Caz / al)] 4.32. v = 27.3 Al? ft
4.37. Force in t.hc top bar = 0.438P 4.38. Force in the top bar = 0.467P
4.39. 2t1Jl/ C1I" d'2E) 4.40. - 3 in
3
Chapter 5
5.1. 42,400 in-lb, 4.44 X 10-
4
rad/ in. 5.2. 2.24 iu.
5.3. 34. in. 5.4. 3.44 in.
5.5. (M/),.!(lf
l
) . = H- 5.6. 214,000 in-lb
5.7. 2.22 in. 5.8. 105 in .
5.9. 5.85 in. 5.10. 807 hp
5.11. 646 hp 5.13. (a) 1.49 in.
5.14 .l/ lelt = 8260 in-lb
5.15. M
t
/ [(dz/ dl)4 (Ijl".!) -1 J
b+ 2c a -e
5.17. + M' - +b..J
a + b e a
" MI.a - MUI:
5.18. M2 = Ca+ b + e)
5. 29. (M/)c/ (l'l'It)c =
5.32. 21,370 psi (maximullI
5.33. 8960 psi (maximuIU
5.34. 2500 hp
5 38 16M", .
1I"(do + diHdo - di) ,
4
5.37. 7670 psi; 1.45 X 10
5.38. (M/) ..,/(Mt) c = 0.618;
5.39. Olf/).q/ (Mt ) . = 1.06
Chapter 8
8 .1. 4.08 in.
8.3. 7770 psi
P 12Pc
w
Y
6.9.
(f n = - bh - bita
8.10. V = 312.5 lb for
V = -187.5 lb f
M = 312.5x ft-lb
111 = 1500 - 187.5x
tlJl
6.11. V = -2 - 'IlIX, M
2
tlJl (1 :r. )
V
= - -- - - , J\r
6 12
., 2 3 12
8 .13. V = O for 2'
8.14. M = - PX-1- P(l
Pa .
6.15. M = -1 x tor
6.16. M = -500x".! -. 81
6.17. M = 12
6.23. 889 lb
r
ANSWERS '1' 0 PRODLEl\JS 189
6.16. Mt![(d
2
/ dl)4 (IJ/h) + 1J, M / [(dJ/d2)4 (/2/ 1
1
) + 1]
6.17. b + 2c M, a - e M 2a + M
a+b+c a+b+c 'a + b + c
6.31.
6.32. 21,370 psi (maximum tensile stre:ss), 16,600 psi (maximum shearing stress)
6.33. 8960 psi (maximum compressive stress), 5430 psi (maximum shearing stress)
6.34. 2500 hp
6.36. 16M, . 64M
t
7r(do + d
i
)2(do - di) , 7rG (do +d
i
)3(do - di)
6.37. 7670 psi; 1.45 X 10-
4
rad/ in.
6.38. (Mt)re/ (Mt)c = 0.618; Ore/Oc = 1.39
6.39. (Mt).q/ (Mt)c = 1.06
Chapter 6
6.1. 4.08 in. 6.2. 10 in.
6.3. 7770 psi 6.4. 3000 psi
6.9.
6.10. v = 312.5 lb for o < x < 3',
V = -187.5 lb for 3' < x < 8',
M = 312.5x ft-lb for O x 3',
M = 1500 - 187.5x ft-lb for 3' x 8'
2
wl wl wx
6.11. V = 2 - wx, M = 2 x - 2,
2 2
6.12. V = _ x ), M = WlX(l _ x )
1
2
1
2
. 2 3 6
6.13. V = O for 2' < x < 6', M = -1000 ft-Ib for 2' x 6'
6.14. M = -Px + P(1 + 2;) (x - a) for a x (a + b)
for fo\"
6.16. M = -500x2 + 8166(x - 4) ft-lb for 4' x lO'
6.17. M = 833( -x
2
+ 12x - 24) ft-Ib fOI" 4' x 8'
6.23. 889 lb 6.24. 178 lb/ ft
6.18. lvh
190 ANSW E R;- '1'0 PllOBL';M1;
V(ro - .In 4 V
6.25. 1170 psi 6.26. T ;r,y
2 'J
' Ttn:l X
7.18. v = 2 Pk kll'l.)sin"
31 .. 3
7 .19. (a) 208 (b) 208 (1')
3V h
6.27. ('T Xy) m:lX at from the base
oh 2 7.21. 28.6 in. ; 6 60 psi
6.28. (T"""), ,, ,,x = 1150 p:o i
7.23. 49.5 in.; 20,600 psi
6.29. (CT ",),,,,,x = 7550 psi ; at junction CT
xx
= 6610 psi,
hl k
T
Zlj
= 4430 psi, CT ",,,x 30 psi 7.1K1. kl tan = -- k2
l
an 2
2
Px
6.30. v = fiEl (3a - x)
f O l"
Appendlx
2
Pa
v = 6El (3x - a)
for
2
A.l. (h) (17,6,2)
(d)
= wx ( Ol:.! 01
2
, Z 2 3)
6

31

V
120lE1 1 - 1 x T () X - X
JJ:?
6.32. v
6.33 = W.t (l3 _ 21 2 + .3 )
. v 24.EI x x
'2EI
(h) (1, 3 - 5)
(j)
]fx
6.35. v = lEI (1 - x)(2l - x)
2
:1 :.!
wa 2 2
6.36. v = [x - (2a + I)x + a + al]
fol' a :s; x :::; (a + l)
t, .
(n) - 3
(p)
Pa
3 2
wa 2. 2
6.40. fj = Pab('2l - b) + . Mi
ti 6.37. v =--
24EI (a ' . 6l - 4la)
3EI 6z.;I 'JRI
Pa
2
(3l - a)
6.46. = 2l: 6.47. Rm i" "", = "H P
3
4 O
-" 1
A .4. (x, y, z)
2
Pab
5 2
-- :
6.49. M
lel t
= 6.50. Ml el t = Mri ght
l2
A.6. -}(-1,4)
Chapter 7
7.1. 4570 lb ; 1!).9 in. 7.2. 28,800 lb ; 19.9 in .
7.3. l8,200 lb; 19.9 in. 7.4. (a) 482 in. (h) - 34,300 psi
7.5. (a) 890 in. (h) -18,600 psi 7.6. (a) -32 (b) - 16,200 psi
7.11. 132,000 lb 7.12. 64,600 lb
7.13. 258,000 lb
(P cr)h
7.15. = 11
7 14
-(J: = 1.1
(P ) . .
cr li er
k
2
7.16. v = :1f kx - .::) whel'c =
P SIn kl l El
k
2
7.17. v = e 'ce kl(l - cos kx) where = PI El
r - - - - - - - = ~ ,
ANSWBRS TO PllOBLEMS 191
7.18. v = 2 Pk C ~ ~ (kl / 2)sin kx - 2 ~ x
for
7. 19. (a) 208 (b) 208 (e) 160 7.20. 173
7.21. 28.6 in. ; 6860 psi 7.22. 14.3 in.; 1720 psi
7.23. 49.5 in. ; 20,600 psi
kzl kl 2 P 2 P
7

27
k tan T = -k2 tau -z ' k = El ' k2 = 2EI
AppencUx
A.1. (b) (17 , 6,2) (d) [:::
(f) [: = ~ =:j
6 - 2 -4 120
(h) (1, 3, -5)
(j) [=: =: =:] (1) H=: =:]
(n) -3
(P; [: : J
(X,y,{
1-21]
A.4. O = (1, 4, 5)
2 -1
A.S. .g-( - 1,4) A.11. x2 +4y2 +4xy +6xz - 2y? = a
A
Angle of twist, 103, 108, 111, 115
Arca, sccond moment tensor of, 18-19
Area-moment method, 153
B
Beams,116
cantilever, 128
curvature of, 123
defiecton of, 134-145
engneering theory of, 130-134
shearing stress in, 131- 134
simple, 125
statically indeterminate, 145-147
Bending, of beam combned with axial
loading, 124-125
by coplanar force system, 125
plane of, 121
pure, 116-124
Bending moment, 126
dagram of, 129-130
relation of, to curvature, 123
relation of, to shear force and load
intensity, 128
Uih:umonic equation, 66
130dy force, 58
Boundary condition, for defiection curve
of beam, 135
Atress, 59
13uckling of columus, 155
Index
e
Cantilever beam, 128
Cartesian tensor, 12-15
Castigliano's theorem, 89-90,111,142-144
Circular shaft, in torsion, 98-106
Column, buckling of a, 155
effect of eccentricity of loading on the
equilibrium configuration of, 160- 161
equilibrium configurations for a
fixed-free, 155-159
Euler's theory for, 163
maximum normal stress in a buckled
fixed-free, 161-162
Column formulas, Euler's, 163-166
validity of, 167
Compatibility conditions, 50-53
Compressive stress, 5
Critcalload, Euler's, 159
determnation of, by energy method,
167-170
determination of, by Euler's theory,
163- 166
Cubical dilatation, 45
D
Defiection, of bea.m, 134- 145
Diagonal matrix, 174
Diagrams, bending moment and
shearing force, 129- 130
tensile-test, 34
193
194 rNDEX
Differential equations of equilibrium,
58-59
Dilat:ttion, 45
uniform,49
Ductile material, 94
E
Effect of eccentricity on the equilibrium
configuration of a column, 160- 161
lEffcct of shearing force on deflection of
bcams, 135-136
Elastic limit, 84
Elatiticit.y, 1, 60
Elongation, relation of, to strain tensor,
44
unit, 39-40
Energy, strain, 69-71
Energy method, 89-92, 111, 142-145,
147,167-170
Equations, of compatibility, 50- 52
of cquilibrium, differential, 58- 59
Equiv:dent static load, 72
Euler's column formula, 16:3-166
valiJity of, 167
Eulcr's thcory fol' columns, 163-166
simple, 82
F
Factor of safety, 94 .
Flexure, formu la, 117- 118
1) 7
Forces, body, 58
H
Hollow shaft, torsion of, 105, 109-110
Homogcneous material, 60
Hooke's law, 60- 63
1
Idcntity matrix, 175
IncomprcSRible material, 64
Invariants, scalar, of strain, 45
scalar, of stress, 22
Isotropic material, 60
L
Lam's constants, 61
Least work, principIe of, 91-92, 147
Limit, elastic, 84
proportional, 84
M
Matrix, 173
column, 175
diagonal, 174
differentiation of a, 180
identity, 175
in verse of a, 179
operations, 176
reversed rules for product of, 178, 180
rotation, 12
row, 175
scnlar, 175
skew-symmetric, 182
square, 174
strain, 41
stress, 4-5
symmetric, 174
transpose of a, 174
Modulus, buJk, 62
shear, 61
Young's, 62, 84
Mohr's circle, 37-38, 56
Moment, bending, 126
relation of, to shearing force and load
in tensi ty, 128-129
N
Neutral, l1Xi8, 120
state, 61
surface, 120
Normal stress, 5
o
Orthogonality of principal directions,
22- 23, 44
p
Plane, of bending, 121
Poisson's ratio, 62
Possible sta e of SLr , 71- 72
Potentio.l nergy, minimum, )
Principal, dircctions, 20-22,
orthogonality of, 22- 3, 44
planes, 20
strain, 44-45
str ,20-22
PrincipIe, of leas wOl'k, 91 - 92,
of Saint-Venant, 72
of superp sition, 68-69, 140
Proportiona,llimit, 84
Pure bending, 116-124
Pur shear, 93
R
Ratio, Poi 'son' s, 62
slenderness, 167
eciprocal theorem, 14 145
Redund nt 14.'i
Rigid body, 1
Rotation mo.trix, 12
s
Saf ty, factor of, 94
Saint-Venant, principie 01', 72
Shaft, torsion of (see t.orsion)
Shear, pure, 93
Shear force, 126
diagram of, 129
l'elation of, to load intcnsity
bending moment, 128 - (
Shear modulus, 61
Sheo.ring strain, 41
Shearing stress, 5
distribution of, in 1
effect of, on deflection uf
135-136
27-'29
Simple beam, 125
Simple extension, 82
elongation of a bar in, 83
lateral of :1 har
SlendernesH ratio, 167
Stability of 161, 167
State of 39, 44
INDEX 196
Possible state of stress, 71-72
Potent ial energy, minimum, 168
Principal, directions, 20-22, 30-31 , 44-45
orthogonality of, 22- 23, 44
planes, 20
strai n, 44-45
stre. ,20-22
PrincipIe, of least work, 91-92, 147
of Saint-Venant, 72
of superpo ition, 68-69, 140-142
Proportional limit, 84
Pure bending, 116-1 24
Pure shear, 93
R
Ratio, Poisson' ::, 62
slenderness, 167
Reciprocal theorem, 144- 145
Redundant constraints, 145
Rigid body, 1
Rotation matrix, 12
s
Safety, factor of, 94
Saint-Venant, principIe of, 72
Shaft, torsion of (see torsion)
Shear, pure, 93
Shear for ce, 126
diagram of, 129
relation of, to load intensity and
bending moment, 128-129
Shcar modulus, 61
Shearing strain, 41
Shearing stress, 5
distribution of, in beams, 131-134
effect of, on deflection of beam8,
135-136
maximum, 27-29
Simple beam, 125
Simple extension, 82
elongation of a bar in, 83
lateral contraction of a bar in, 84
ratio, 167
8tability of columns, 161, 167-168
State of fitrain, 39, 44
State of stres' , 4-6
po sible, 71- 72
Statically ipdeterminate problems,
86-89,91-92,104-105, 145-147
Strain, compatibili t y of, 50-53
components of, 41
lineal, 40
principal, 44-45
principal directions of, 44-45
shearing, 41
state of, 39, 44
theory of infinitesimal, 41
Strain energy, 69-71
density, 71
of bending, 142
of simple extension, 90
of twisting, 113
Stmin matrix, 41
Stmin rosette, 47
Strain tensor, 41-44
characteristic equation of, 44-45
scalar invariants of, 45
Stress, allowable, 94
compressive, 5
fiexure, 117
maximum shearing, 27-29
mean normal , 26
normal, 5
principal, 20-22
principal directions of, 20-22, 30-31
principal plane of, 20
shearing,5
staie of, 4-6
tensile, 5
working,94
yield,84
Stress boundary condi tion, 59
Stress matl'ix, 4-5
symmetry of, 7
Stress tensor, 11
characteristic equation of, 21, 30
scalar inval'iants of, 22
symmetFy of, 7
transfol'mation law for, 13-15
Stress vector, 3
rel at ion of, to stress matl'ix, 6
Str s-fitrain relation, 60-63
Surface, neutral, 120
Surface traction, 59
T
Tensile streR8, 5
Tensile-test diagram, 34
Tensor, 11
algebra of, 17-18
Cartesian, 12-Hi
second moment, 18-19
Htrain, 41-44
~ t r e H S , 11
transformation law for Cartesian, 13-15
Thin tubular shaft, tOrBion of, 110-111
Torsion, of circular cylinder, 98- 105
of elliptic cylinder, 106-108
of hollow circular cylinder, 105-106
of hollow elliptical cyJinder, 109-110
of rectangular shaft, 115
of thin tubular shaft, 110-111
of t riangular prism, 114
Traction, surface, 59
Twist, angle of, 103, 108, 111, 115
u
timate strength, 84
Unit, elongation, 39- 40
twist, 103, 108, 111, 115
y
Yield stress, 84
Young's modulus, 62,84
ADCDE698765