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SECTION ONE

GENERAL INFORMATION
CHAPTER
1

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
Part 1. Geographical Position.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandr is situated on the British Isles2 - a large group of islands lying off the north-western coast of Europes and separated from the continent by the English Channela and the Strait of Dovers in the south and the North Sea6 in the east.

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1. Where is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland situated? 2. Which waters separate the British Isles from the continent of Europe? 3. What islands do the British Isles consist of? 4. Which four parts is the territory of the United Kingdom historically divided into? 5. What is the total area of the United Kingdom?
The lsle of Wight

QUESTIONS.

Part 2. Nature.
Great Britain is situated in the temperate zone of Europe. The nature of Great Britain is greatly affected by the sea: there is no place situated more than 100-120 km from the seashore, in the northern parts only 40-60 km. The territory of Great Britain can be divided into three natural regions: 1) Scotland with highland and upland relief and coniferous and mixed forests; 2) Wales and mountainous England with upland considerably cut by ravines and valleys and covered with meadows, moorlandr and cultivated farmland, with patches of broadleaf forest; 3) South-east England with plain landscape, fertile soils, the predominance of cultivated farmland, with patches of broadleaf forest.

Great The British Isles consist of two large islands Britain and Ireland - separated by the Irish Seal, and the Isle of a lot of small islands, the main of which are Wigfrt' in the English Channel, Angleseaa and the Isle of ftann in the Irish Sea, the Hebridesb - a group of islands off the north-western coast of Scotland6 ' and t*o grorrps of islands lying to the north of Scotland: tft" d"m"y Islands? and the Shetland Islands8 '

is divided into four parts: Englande, Scotland' Waleslo and Northern Ireland. The total area of the united Kingdom is 244 square

Historically the territory of the United Kingdom

kilometres.
I
2 3

{
5

the Irish Sea ['alarrJ'si:] - I'Ip;lanAcKoe Mope the Isle of Wight [iatl av'watt] - ocrpon Vafir Anglesea ['.rlglsi:] - Enr.ncu the"Isle of nnut ['irl ev'rnren] - octpor Men the Hebrides ['hebrrdi:z] - le6pu4rt rJIaHArrfi Scotland ['skotl

1. What natural zone is the United Kingdom situated in?

QUESTIONS.

{' England [,rqglond] Anr.nus r0 Wales Valrc [wcrlz]

ih" ott tt.y ttl the Shetlancl Is

arlondz] darlendz]

o-p-xneftcxrre ocrpoBa Iller'nan4cKr4e ocrpoBa

moorland ['mualend]

nycrorub, rropocrrrag BepecKoM

2. What factor is the nature of Great Britain affected bY? WhY? 3. What natural regions can the Britain be divided into?

territory of Great

Part 3. Coasts.
mounespecially in the west and north-west where the tains come close to the coast' The coasts of Scotland' Orkney as well as the coasts of the Hebrides' the numerIslands and the Shetland Islands, are cut by the land gradually ous fiords. In the south and east are sandy slopes down towards the sea, and the coasts ani gentle, here and there interrupted by the ends of The coastline of Great Britain is greatly indented,

1. Why is the coastline of Great Britain especially greatly indented in the west and north-west? 2. Where are fiords especially numerous? 3. How do the southern and eastern coasts of Great Britain differ from the western and north-western coasts?

QUESTIONS.

Part 4. Relief.
The general slope of the land is from north-west to south-east. The mountains cover the greater part of northern, western and middle Great Britain. Th.ey can be divided into the following groups: 1) The Highlands of Scotlandl occupy most of the land to the north-west of a line drawn from Glasgow2 to Aberdeen3. Two parts of the Highlands the North-western Highlandsa and the Grampiansb - are separated by a narrow valley, through which- runs the Caledonian Canalo. At the south-western end of the Highlands rises Ben NevisT, 1343 m, the highest mountain of the British Isles. 2) The Central Plain of Scotland8 separates the Highlands from the Southern Uplands of ScotThe Highlands of Scotland |harlcndz ov'skotlendl - ceBepnan BbrconoropEafl qacrb TTTor;ranAran 2 Glasgow ['glo:sgou] l.rasro 'I Aberdeen [,rcbo'di:rr]-- E6ep4rEu tl-re North-western Higlilands ['nr:0'u,cstcn'harlondz] - Cenepoaarra.quafl qacrb BbrcoKoropHofi ITlotnaugltr ' the Grarnpians ['gricnrprenz] -- fparvrnlraHcnrle ropbl

hill-ianges, which form low cliffs'

'

The coast of Britain

kc'nrrl] the Caledonian Canal -- Ka.ne4onctir.ul xaHan ;' Ben Nevis ['bcn'ncvrs][.kclr'd:rrrlcn Ben Heenc * The Central Plain of Scotland ['sentrcl'plcrn cv'skrtlond] -

I{enrpa,trnas TITot.uanAcKafl

paBHrrHa

which landl. The Southern Uplands and the Pennines2 ' northstretch in the north-south direction across the form a practically ern and middle parts of England, continuous group. -";;.o|fiv-ttt.t*ttole of Wales is occupied bv the is Cumbrian.d. Th" highest peak of the Cumbrians

Part 5. Glimate.
Great Britain enjoys the humid and mild marine West-Coast climatel with warm winters and cool summers and a lot of rainfall throughout the year. The prevailing winds blow from the south-west. As these winds blow from the ocean, they are mild in winter and cool in surnmer, and are heavily charged with moisture at ali times. As they approach the mountainous ar()as near the rvest coasts, they rise up tire nlountain siopes. Their tenperahure drotrrs, which canses condensation of rnoisture in the form of rain. Therefor:e the wettest parts trf Britain are those areas where high mountains lie near the west coast: the western I{ighlands of Scotland, the Lake District2 ancl North Wales. The eastern part of Brilain is said to be in the rain-shadow, as the winds lose most of their rnoisture in tlieir passage over the highlands of the
west.

t Snowdona, 1085 m. part of England is lowland' inThe south-eastern terrupted in places by low chalk ridges'

QUESTIONS. general slope of the land 1. What is the

in Great

Britain? divided 2. Which three groups can the mountains be

into? situated? 3. Where are the Highlands of Scotland What 4. Which are the two parts of the Highlands? are theY seParated bY? 5. Which is thl highest mountain of the British Isles? How high is it? Can you show it on the map? 6. Where are the Souihern Uplands of Scotland? How are they separated from the Highlands? 7. Where are the Plnnines situated? In what direction do theY stretch? 8. Where are the Cumbrians? 9. Which is the highest peak of the Cumbrians? How high is it? Find it on the maP' part of 10. What is the relief of the south-eastern England? the Southern Uplands of Scotland ['s'rr6an'nplendz rb
2

All parts of the British Isles receive rain at any tinre of the year. Still autumn and winter are the wettest seasons, except in the Tharnesridistrict, where rnost r:ain falls in the sunrmer half of the -vear. Oxfordr, for example, has 29 per cent of its rain in surrnler and only.22 per cent in winter. As to ternperature, Great Britain has warnrer winters than any other district in the sarle latitude. It is
' the humid and mild marine West-Coast clirnate ['hjumrdcud'rnarld rnc'ri:n'westkoust'klarrnrt] - BirarrcHbrfi ra ltnrxnii uropcrcoir KJrr4Mar BanaAnoro no6epexcra 2 the Lake f)istrict ['lerk'drstnkt] - Oedpuufi rpafi 2 the Thames [temz] - Tevrsa I Oxford OrccQop4 ['oksfcd]

av'skct-

I
4

lend the the

roPbr

Snowdon ['snoudan]

CnoY4on

due in large measure to the prevalence of mild southwest winds. Another factor is the Gulf Streaml, which flows from the Gulf of Mexico2 and brings much

warmth from the equatorial regions to north-western Europe.

1. What climate does Great Britain enjoy? What are the characteristic features of this climate? 2. Which are the prevailing winds in Great Britain? What do they bring to the country? 3. Which are the wettest parts of Great Britain? whv? 4. The eastern side of Great Britain is said to be in the rain-shadow. What does it mean? 5. Which are the wettest seasons in Great Britain? 6. Why does Great Britain have warmer winters than any other district in the same latitude? Part 6. lnland Waters.
The rivers of Britain are short; their direction and character are determined by the position of the moun-

QUESTIONS.

erpool6, and the ClydeT in Scoiland, which flows west across the Southern Uplands and on.which the port of Glasgow is situated. owing to the fact that British lakes are rather smail and have no outlets, they afford limited economic possibilities in the system of navigable waterways.

counties of Cumberlands, Westmorlande and north

But most of them, especially those situated in ihe

tains. Most of the rivers flow in the eastward direction since the west coast is mountainous. Due to the humid climate and abundant rainfall, the water level in the rivers is always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter, most of them remain icefree. Many of the rivers are joined together by canals. This system of rivers and canals provides a good means of cheap inland water transport.
I

" the Tyne [tarn] - p. Taftn I the Trent [tr.ent] -- p. '' the Mersey ['mc:zr] ' Liverpool ['hvopul] tn" ttuo" [krard] -p'

['sevanj 2 the Bristol channel Cenepn ['brrsteltJrenl]

Severn

p.

Epzcron'cxutrr

BaJrrrB

tlie Gulf Stream ['g,rlF.stri:m] - fom(rcrpuvr the Gulf of Mexico ['meksrkou] Merccnnancrcurl

saJrrrB

],,

qr l"#"1""J;J*"^ Jlanxaurnp
11

10

and deep lakes, ravines, waterfalls and green meadows. The Lake District is one of the most popular holiday districts in Great Britain.

1. Why do most of the rivers in Great Britain flow in the eastward direction? 2. Why is the water level in British riyers always
3. 4.

QUESruONS.

5. 6.

7. 8.

htgh? Do British rivers freeze in winter? Many rivers in Great Britain are joined together by canals. What does the system of rivers and canals provide? Are British rivers navigable for ocean ships? What prevents the formation of deltas at the mouths of rivers? Where are most of the large sea ports situated? Which are the most important rivers in Great

Britain?

9. What are the British lakes famous for? Where

are most of them situated? 10. Give a description of the Lake District.

cultivated only the varley lands and the plains where the soils are deeper and richer. With its mild climate and varied soils, Britain has a rich natural vegetation. When the islands were first settled, oak forests probably covered the greater part of the lowland. In the course of the centuries, nearly all the forests have been cut down, and now woodlands occupy only about Z per cent of the surface of the country. The greatest density of woodland occurs in the north and east of scoiland, in some parts of south-east England and on the Welsh border. The most common trees are oak, beech, ash and elm, and in Scoiland also pine and birch. Midland Britain appears to be well wooded be_ cause of the numerous hedgesr and isolated trees. Hedges are a typical feature of countryside land_ scape in England. Farming land is divided inio fields by hedges or stone walls. Most of countryside p"S_ land is agricultural land, about a third of *hi"h i. arable, and the rest is pasture and meadow.

Part 7. Vegetation.

In the mountainous regions of Great'Britain the vegetation is represented by coniferous and mixed forests with the predominance of pine, oak and etation? birch. Many parts of highland Britain have only 4. What has happened to nearly all the forests? thin, poor soils. As a result, there are large stretches What parts of Great Britain do most woods still of moorland in the Highlands of Scotland, the Penremain in? nines, the Lake District, the mountains of Wales and in some parts of north-east and south-west England. In most of these areas the farmers have ' hedges [hed3rz] xcprBbre r,rcropoAlr 12
13

1. What is the vegetation represented by in the mountainous regions of Great Britain? 2. Where are stretches of moorland to be found? Why are these places covered with moorland? 3. Why does Great Britain have a rich natural veg_

QUESTIONS.

Which are the most common trees in Great Britain? 6. What is a"typical feature of countryside landscape in England? Why does midland Britain appear to be well wooded?
D.

Part 9. Mineral Resources.

Great Britain is rich in coal. There a,re rich coal basins in Northumberlandr , Lancashire, yorkshire2, Nottinghamshires, South Wales, North Wales and near Glasgow. Among other mineral resources, iron ores found alongside coal layers are of primary importance, but the iron content of most of the ores is very tow. There are tin and copper mines in Cornrvalla and De_vonshire5, copper and lead mines in England. Lead and silver ores are also mined in DJrby"hi"eu and CumberlandT and Lancashire.

Part 8. Animal

Life.

The animal life of the British Isles is now much poorer than it was a few centuries ago. With the disappearance of forests, many forest animals, including the wolf, the bear, the boar, the deer and th Irish elk, have become practically extinct. There are foxes in most rural areas, and otters are found alon many rivers and streams. Of smaller animals are mice, rats, hedgehogs, moles, squirrels, hares rabbits and weasels. There are a lot of birds, including many song-birds. Blackbirds, sparrows and starlings are probably mos common. There are many sea-birds, which nest rou the coasts and often fly far inland in search of f or shelter in rough weather. QUESTIONS.

1' what mineral resources is'Great Britain rich in? 2. Where are the coal basins? 3' where are the iron ores found? what is the drawback of the iron ores in Great Britain? 4. In what parts of Great Britain are the tin, copper, lead and. silver deposits?

QUESTIONS.

part 10. Economy.

The United Kingdom was the first country in 1. Why is the animal life of the British Isles mu poorer now than it was a few centuries ago? Wha the world which became highly industrialized. Or"_ forest animals have become practically extinct? ing the rapid industrialization of the lgth century, 2. What animals can be found in most rural a along many rivers and streams? 3. Are ther many birds in Great Britain? Whic
are most common?

t4

15

coal one of the most important factors was that a"potit. were situaied near the ground surface' whieh made mining easy' CoaI mining is one-of-the *o.t developed industries in Great Britain' The bigg".i .out urrd iron mines are-in the, lort-h-."T1..;.f Errltur,a, near Newcastlel, in Lancashire and Yorkales near s-hi-re; in Scotland near Glasgow; in Cardiff2 and Bristols '

ir mainly concentrated in the centre of England and Cov the London region. Such towns as Birminghama ' ;;try; and sheffield6 produced h-eavy machines' rail way carriages and motor-cars' In the 20th centurl ;; il;;h;s of industrv have appeared: electronics radio, chemical industry and others' Of great importance for Britain is ship-buildi industry. It is concentrated in London' Glasgow Newcasile, LivbrPool and BelfastT Great Britain produces a lot of wool' and woolle industry is deveioped in Yorkshire' British woolle products are exported to many countries' S"u-ports play a great'role in the life of the coun try. l,ondorr, Lirr""pool and,Glasgow are the b ilgfish ports, from which big liners go to all prod of in" world. Great Britain exports industrial ucts to other countries and imports food and somr other products.
I
2

Untilrecenttimes,Britain'sheavyindustryw

Sheep-farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farming are also important branches of Great Britain's economy. Chicken farms produee a great number of chickens and eggs for the population. The south of England is often called the "Garden of England", because there are many gardens and orchards there. In the orchards people grow apples, pears, cherries, plums and other fruits, and there are also large plantations of different berries.

1. What was one of the most important factors of the rapid industrialization of the country in the
19th century?

QUESTIONS.

2. What industry is mostly developed in Great Britain? Where are the biggest coal and iron mines
situated? 3. Where was Britain's heavy industry mainly coneentrated until recent times? What was produied in Birmingham, Coventry and Sheffield? 4. What branches of industry appeared in the 20th century?

5. What towns is ship-building industry concentrated in? 6. Great Britain has always been a great exporter of wool, hasn't it? Where is the woollen industry
concentrated?

7. Do sea-ports play a great role in the life of Great Britain? Which are the biggest sea-ports of the

Newcastle ['nju:ko:sl]

I
5

Cardiff ['ko:drtl Bristol Ibrrstl] - BPucro.nr Birmingham ['bc:mrqcnt] - Blrpmrznreu

Coventry ['krvcntrl] - Koaenrplr Sheffield ['Jefi:ld] - ilIetbOurg Belfast ['bclfo:st] - Belc[act

KaP4utP(P

Hlronacn

8. Why is the south of England often called the "Garden of England"? What fruits grow in the
orchards?
17

country?

ft

t6

CHAPTER REVIEW I. Fill in the blanks with the correct'words from the

II. Write a 20o-word composition on the geography

'

of Great Britain.
CHAPTER
2

COMPOSITION OF THE COUNTRY

ernpties, agricultural, pasture , !^-: ^- ^ t. Vtost of ttt" Iarge sea-ports of Great rritain are situated in the Iand, a, Most of countrYside England is and the rest is about a third of which is The territory of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is historically divided into

four parts: 1) England; 2\ Scotland; 3) Wales; 4) Northern

Ireland.

S. Ttt" *i"ds blowing from the ocean are heavilY charged with zone of 4. Gre-at Britain is situated in the Europe' 5. Farming land is divided into fields bY and stone walls. West-Coast cli6. Great Britain enjoYs the mate. greatly 7. The coastline of Great Britain is by is greatly 8. The nature of Great Britain the sea. into the North Sea. 9. The Thames landscaPe and 10. South-east England has soils. covered wi 11. f-h" rrigttlands of Scotland are fdrests' ;nd tnpart of England is t2. Tn" .onttt-eastern
'

and

Part 1. England.
Kingdom, England is the largest. It occupies an area of 131,8 thousand sq. km. England borders on Scotland in the north. In the east it is washed by the North Sea. In the south it is separated from the continent by the English Channel. In the west it borders on Wales and is washed by the Bristol Channel and by the Irish Sea. The highest part of England is in the west, from where the land gradually slopes down to the east. The Atlantic Ocean washes the rock"y and broken west coast of England, Wales and Scotland and is gradually wearing it away, leaving caves and sandy beaches. On the east coast the land is low and sandy. The rivers flowing to the east and emptying into the North Sea form deep estuaries well protected from the sea. The greatest port of the country Lonclon is conveniently situated in the Thames estuary. The white chalk cliffs of the south coast washed
19

Of the four countries which make up the United

-'

miles by the English Channel ean be seen from many

QUESTIONS, four parts is the United Kin om of Great 1. Which Britain and Northern Ireland historicatly divided into? 2. How does the west coast of England look? To* one? does the east coast differ from the west 3. Where is the port of London situated? What makes its Position convenient? 4. What is characteristic of the south coast of Eng

457 m above sea level, though some peaks are much higher, rising over a thousand metres. Ben Nevis, the highest peak in the BritishJsles, reacheB the height of 1343 m. The Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish, nation. They are densely populated. The Southern Uplands seldom rise over 579 m above sea level. It is one of the most sparsely populated districts in Great Britain.

1. Where is Scotland situated? 2. What is the coastline of Scotland like? 3. Which three regions can the territory of Seotland be divided into?

QUESTIONS.

5. What parts can England be divided into as con

cerns the relief?

Iand?

4. Are the Highlands very high? 5. What part of Scotland can be called the cradle of
the Scottish nation?

Part 3. Wales.
Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides: the Bristol Channel in the south, the St. George's Channelr in the west, and the Irish Sea in the north. Its territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km. Geographieally Wales may be considered part of highland Britain, the Cumbrian Mountains occupying most of the land. It is an area of high mountains, deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes. Wales is a region of heavy rainfall brought by the prevailing west winds from the Atlantic Ocean. The valleys are sheltered by the high mountains from-told east winds. The climate is rather mild. I the St. George's Channel [srrt'd3o:d3iz'tJrenl] - npo.nnr Ca.
feopra
21

Part 2. Scotland'
tha Scotland is the most northern of the countries an constitute the United Kingdom' It occupies of 78,8 thousand sq. km' -in Scotland i's washed by the Atlantic Ocean north and west and by the North Sea in the east' The coastline of Scotland is greatly indented'-I many places deep fiords penetrate very far inland' - -Cuogtuphically

divided inlo three regions: the Northern Highlands it C"rrttal Lowlands and the Southern Uplands' th " The Highlands are the highest mountains in British Isles. Their average height does not
20

the territory of Scotland can

bt

Wales has never been densely populated:. T1" rs Welshl have kept their own language, but FJngtrsn spoken in town as well.
QUESTIANS. 1.'What kind of relief does Wales have? a lot of 2. How do you explain the fact that the;e is rainfall in Wales? 3. What language is sPoken in Wales?

etables and potatoes. Large areas are taken up by meadows, where cattle graze. On the river banks and on the coasts the population is engaged in fishing.

1. Where is Northern Ireland situated? What coun-

QUESTIONS.

try

does

it

border on?

2. Describe the relief of Northern Ireland. 3. What is characteristic of the coastline of Northern Ireland? 4. What kind of climate does Northern Ireland enjoy? 5. What vegetation prevails in Northern Ireland? 6. What do people grow on their farms? \ CHAPTER REVIEW I. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the list: historically, rnahe up, slopes, rochy, brohen, sandy, estuaries, conueniently, chalh, Pennine, peninsula, sheltered, cradle, sparcely, uolcanic, indented, agrariun, graze. 1. Wales is a washed by the sea on three
sides.

Part 4. Northern lreland' Northern Ireland occupies the north-easterrr Pa of Ireland, which is separated from the island ",19:: Britain by the North Channel2. In the south-we Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republi
(Eirea ).

a plai Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is t-".1" of volcanic origin, deepening in the centre-to the largest lake of the British Isles, Lou.9h ^l-i^{i-Irel The greatly indented coastline oi Notthern is abundant in rocks and cliffs. - ii;;h;;; i""i""a has a tvpical ocebnic climate with mild damp winters (the mean temperatutg,ltt- *l:, (the ary is +4, +5) and cool rainy suLmers temperature in July is +14, +15'). , --- scarie, moors and meado prevail. Northern Ireland is mostly an agratian distri oats' veg on small farms they grow crops' ".pE"iuilv I The Welsh [wclJ] YeJIbcqbI 2 the North Channel [inr:0'tJtcrrl] Cenepnrrfi flpo-'rrlB---.--.pecnyoruri Irish Repubri"i'i,,"tiitip^ui'r.t llpianacfias

2. The rivers form

deep

;ili]';;';;il"'

4.
5.

6.
7.

'' the a;
22

Eire ['ccrc] - EfiPe Lough Neagh ['lox'ner]

the sea. Cattle in large meadows. The greatly coastline of Northern lreland is abundant in rocks and cliffs. The territory of the United Kingdom is divided into four parts: The territory of Northern England is mostly taken up by the low Mountains. populafed. The Southern Uplands are
23

_,

well protected from

03. JIox Hefi

the United 10. Of all the four countries which Kingdom, England is the largest' 11. On ihe east coast the land is low and - so coast are cliffs of the L2. The whit e Engllsh Channel' washed bf the of the Scot13. The Central Lowlands are the tish nation.plain 14. Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a

8. The land in England graduallY west to east. 9. Northern Ireland is mostlY an

down from

the Established Church of Englandr and the head of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

district.

origin. of 15. The port of London is

Thames estuarY.

1. Who is the official head of the state of Great Britain? 2. What are the official titles of Queen Elizabeth II? 3. The monarchy in Great Britain is founded on hereditary principle, isn't it? What does "hereditary principle" mean? 4. Explain the following sentence: "The power of the monarch is not absolute but constitutional."

QUESTTONS.

situated in

Part 1. The Constitution.

and Practically speaking, there is no written constitu16. The Atlantic Ocean washes the -tion in Great Britain. The term "English Constituwest coasts of England, Wales and Scotland' by the high mountains tion" means the leading principles, conventions and 17. The valleys ate laws, many of which have been existing for centufrom the cold east winds' ries, though they have undergone modifications and extensions in agreement with the advance of civiliza3 CHAPTER tion. These principles are expressed in such docuPOLITICAL SYSTEM ments of major importance as Magna Carta2, a fais a parliamentary monarchy' Official mous document in English history agreed upon in Great Britain pt L2t5 by King Johns and the barons, which set cerIy the head of the state is the king or queen' The is not absolute but constitutional. tain limits on royal power and which was later reol tt," monarch garded as a law stating basic civil rights; Habeas monarch acts only on the advice of the ministers' The hereditary principle upon which the monar Corpus Acta , a law passed in 1679, which guarantees chy is founded is strictly observed' The now reigni I the Established Church of England locuo4crByroqafl monarch, Queen Elizabetlr, II is a descendant of t rlepKoBb Anrnnu Saxon king Egbert. '' Magna Carta ['rnrcgno'ko:tc] - Marna Kapra ( Beturcaa xapmufl The monarch, be it king or queen' is the head ao,nunocnt.eil ) the executive body, an integral part of the legisla ' King John [tl3rn] KopoJrb,[rxon (Hoarun Benemenunwii) ture, the head of ihe judicial body, the commander ' Habeas Corpus Act ['hcrbjos'ko:pes irkt] --. Xa6eac Kopnyc (Jq,rou 1679 e. o HenpurcocHoleHHocmu nuvruocntu) in-chief of the armed forces of the crown' the head
24
25

acts, separate laws and agreements'

1. Is there a written constitution in Great Britain?

QUESTIONS.

What does the term "English Constitution" mean? 2. Name some important documents which contain the leading principles of government' 3. When was Magna Carta signed? Who signed it What did Magna Carta set limits on? 4. When was Habeas Corpus Act passed? What do Habeas CorPus Act guarantee? 5. When did Parliament pass The BilI of Rights? What did The Bilt of Rights confirm?

Parliament Square

Part 2. Three Branches of Government.

Power in Great Britain is divided among th branches: the legislatives branch, the executiv branch and the judicialT branch.

The legislative branch is represented by parliament, which consists of two chambers, or houses: the House of Lordsr and the House of Commons2. Parliament in Britain has existed since I26b. Hav_ ing been organized in the reign of King Edward Ia, it is the oldest parliament in the world.
Jreersa, including the "lords spiritual"t: the Arch_ bishop of Canterburyo, the Archbishop of yorkz, and
the House of Lords - Ilanara JrropAoB the House of Commons - flanara o6rqranE.qyapg I King Edward I ['cdrvcd do'tb:st] - Koporrb peers [prcz] napbr "lords spiritual Ispr'rrqjucl]" - Bbrcruee AyxoBerrcrBo the Archbishop [o:tJ'br1cp] of Canterbury ['k:rnrebcrr] apxrrerrr{crcou Kenrep6eplrricxHii the Archbisllop of York apxuerr4crcou froprccxrzft

The House of Lords consists of more than 1000

2 the jury ['d3ucrr] ilprrcfllrcnble saceAareJrlr 3 The Bill of Rights Bu.nnr o rpaBax r the laws clecidi'g the successionlsck'scJn] of the royal famil '' 'i i judicial [cl3tr'drJcl] 26
SaKOHbI , OUpeAeJ'IflIOIqUe UOpflAOri HaCJIeAOBaHI4 npecro.Ila legislative ['led3rslctrv] - aaxonoAareJlbHas executive Irg'zckjutrv] - racuo;rrulreJlbHafl
KOpOJIeBCKOTO

I court of justice

['kc:t ev'd3nstrs]

cy4

_
27

cy4e6naa

24 bishoPs of the Church of England. The peers (with the

exception of th "lords sPiritual" their lifetimel

have the right to si in Parliament

transmit their righ to their eldest sons. During the sent century a practice has aPPea red: the practice "creating" ne peers. TheY are cal Ied "life peers", be cause their child do not inherit thei r,itles like the chil The House of Lords dren of heredit by the monarch on th peers. New peers are created ud-ri"" of the Prime Minster. Sometimes a prominen civi sometimes fotti"iutt is made a peer'the country a leading a re 'servantt who has served As well' Lords today are not rep sult, about one-third of the di resentatives of hereditary nobilitya but company rectors, bankers, newspaper proprietors and ot
businessmen.

fhe House of Commons

The nrembers of the House of Commons are elected lry a general electionr. The whole country is divided rrrto constituencies2, every one of which chooses one rlclegate. Big cities are divided into several constitutrrcies each. Members of the House of Commons are r,lected for five years. Parliament's main function is to make laws. The grrocedure of making new laws is as follows: a memlrt:r of the House of Commons proposes a bill3, which is discussed by the House. If the bill is approved, it is sent to the House of Lords, which, in case it does rrot like it, has the right to veto it for one year. If the llouse of Commons passes the bill again the followng year, the House of Lords cannot reject it. Finally lre bill is sent to the Queen for the "royal assent"a, rl'ter which it becomes a law.
by a general election - eceo6rqzM roJrocoBauueMoxpyra constituencies [kan'strtjuonsrz] lra6npareJrbrrbre
a

2 3
C,rYXaUlr'rfi

&Barb cBoe rrpaBo Ift rocY4aPcrBenlrbl [hr'rcdrtcrr]

' hereclitary
28

nobility -

HacJIeAcrBeHHafl 3Harb

"royal-assent [c'scnt]" - KopoJreBcroe ogo6penlre

29

bill

3axoHorrpoexr

The executive branch is headed by the Prime ister, who is appointed by the king (queen)' Ac ing to tradition, the Prime Minister is the leader ItZ pu.tv that has won the elections Td. h*.:l-t,l Ministt loriiy in-the House of Commons' The Prime uppoints the ministers to compose th.e,Sover"*:l After that the newly appointed minigters are serited to the *orr'u""h for the formal bpproval' *.tt important ministers of the government-(abo

ll. The British Parliament is the oldest parliament in the world, isn't it? Since what time has it existed? How old is it? 4. Which are the two chambers of the British Parliament? l'r. How many peers are there in the House of Lords? Who are the "lords spiritual"? 6. Who are "hereditary peers'.' and "life peersl'? How are life peers created? 7. How are the members of the House of Commons elected? How often do general elections of the House of Commons take place? 8. What is the main function of Parliament? 9. Explain in detail how new laws are made. 0. Who is the executive branch headed by? 1. How is the Prime Minister chosen? t What is the procedure of forming the government? 3. What is the Cabinet? What is the work of the Cabinet? What is the highest judici.al body of the country called? Which two divisions does it consist of? Why is it often said that English law is superior to the law of most other countries?

l*""tvl

the Cabinetl' Memb"It.of tl:. 9uPio Minister' mak" loi"t decisions or advise the Prime of The main function of the executive branch .tl (to see to it,thl government is to administer the liws the countryj Th" h*. are carried out, actually to rule the laws' The iudicial branch interprets "friett"st judicial body is the Supreme 9""* itt. Hi .luJicatui2, which consists of two divisions: the It is^ ofl ' C."* Justices and the Court of Appealalaw of "f English law is superior to the ."iJ tnut judicial s other countries. Indeed, the English many rules which protect the individual agait """iti". actions by the police and the government'

^fot*

""Ufi*w

QUESTIONS, power 1. Which are the three branches of state the United Kingdom? Z. Wfrat body is the legislative power represented
the Cabinet - rca6unet MrltHrrcrpoB the Supreme [rju"pri,m]t";-ik;*i Li 'luaicuture ['d3u:c'katJa] ' Bepxoanrtft cY4 ths rrioh cnrrrt of .Iustice ['d:,rstrs'l -^nBucor-lrl :Xl:-.1 1anam c nPuc0urcqu nep

Part 3. Political Parties.

tre Conservative

I
2

The two main political parties of Great Britain are Partyr and the Labour Party2. The Conservative Party (otherwise called the Tory3 arty) is right-wing, tending to be opposed to great
the Conservative [kon'sc:votrv] Party

Hu the arb

uu)

qraonnuft cy4 Jrbgbre geficreuc

the.Labour ['lcrbc] Party Tory ['o:r'r] - Topu

Jleft6opucrcKas raprr.Ifl

KoncepnarvBHafl naprr{ff

v0

)1

order of and sudden changes in the established lt is against state control of industry' "tV. Labour Party, sometimes called the Socialis The Unionsl ' has a close u.ro"iuiion with the Trade as it used to be' though it is now not as left-wing working-cl has many supporters, especially among 1 and middle-class PeoPle' QUESTIONS. the two main political parties in Gret 1. Which are

corrrse

of centuries, the huge British Empirer came into being. After World War II, with the growth of

Britain? Z. Wnat is the Conservative Party otherwise How can the general policy of the Conservati Party be described? 3. Whai is the Labour Party sometimes called?a c organization does the Labour Party have Pr u.So"iution with? Where does the Labour have the majoritY of suPPorters?

rrutional liberation movement2 in the world, the countries which were dependent on Great Britain and l'ormed parts of the British Empire, began claiming inclependences. As a result of this movement, the llritish Empire fell aparta. However, centuries-long cconomic, cultural and political ties of these former colonies and dominions with Great Britain were too strong for them to completely break away from each other, and it was found advisable to maintain the old bies. A new organization was established: the British Clommonwealth of Nationss, including about 50 indellendent states which were formerly parts of the British Empire. The British Commonwealth of Nations oncourages trade and friendly relations among its trtembers. The Queen is the official head of the Commonwealth.

Part 4. The British Gommonwealth of Nations.

For centuries British sailors and merchants a lands ettea aII over the world, discovered new .i.i*"a them for England2 ' Large territories in Not Ausl Americas, Africaa, the whole continent of of ftarl$s i;;; N"; Zealand', India? ""q3 lot graduallv' i1 t in ;;; llt ,rna"t British rule' Thus'

1. How was the British Empire formed? 2. What international movement brought about the fall of the British Empire? When did this movement start? 3. Why didn't for.mer dependent countries completely break away from Great Britain? Why was it found advisable to maintain the old ties?
the British Empire ['hrrtr{'cnrpara] BpuraHcrcaa rrMrreprrfl national ['nrc]cncl] liberation -ilrbc'rcrJn] movernent Ha

QUESTIONS,

1A i, A ,, -N 7 India
)2

rerljc]-Aacrpa,rur
'nji:'ii:lcnd]
['rndro]

Atlpuxa

r"yxTH;H*"'
Hoaas Senangua

rlrlroHa.rrbno-ocao6o4IrTeJIbHoe ABrl)KeHrre

began clairning independence Irndc'pendcns]

BATb HESABIICI4MOCTII

EaqaJrrr rpe6o-

llugua

pacnaJ'Iacb flell apalt the British -Comrrronwealth ['krrncnwcl0] of Nations crioe coApyxrecrBo naquft

- BpuraH11

association of f 4. What is the name of the new British colonies and dominions? Commonwealth of Na 5. What does the British encourage? British Common 6. Wh; i. ihe official head of the . wealth of Nations?

Act to a person arrested the right to appear in court of _. The monarch Queen Elizabeth II is a of the Saxon king Egbert. I il. The main function of the executive branch is to
I 1. Habeas Corpus

laws.
1,4.

CHAPTER REVIEW words from I. Fill in the blanks with the correct

Many leading principles, conventions and laws modifications in agreement with the have advance of civilization.
The power of the queen of England is not

I l-r.

lfi. The

branch of power is represented by Parliament. 17. The House of Lords consists of more than 1000

lli.

Magna Carta set certain limits on royal branch of power is headed by the

Prime Minister. 20. Parliament's main function is to make a bill l. The House of Lords has the right to for one year. Write a 200-word composition on the political sys;m of the United Kingdom.
peoPle.

6.

i;i;"iten

orinciPle. f the governme 8. The most imPortant ministers o form the _-Minister.is t 9. According to tridition' the Prime rn the --leader of the party which has Ilouse of Commons' do not 10. The children of life peers

is founded 7. The motu,"hy-i" Ct"ut Britain -

said that English law is Iaw of most other countries'

to

titles.
15

34

SECTION TWO

HISTORY
UNIT ONE

THE EARLY DAYS OF BRITAIN peopled Around, 10,O0O BC Britain was They fo ^b oS t'unters and fishers' ";;il Jroup''of d'eer ' wh ich prouid'ed them wit lowed' herd's

food' and' clothing' p": In the "ou,r" i1 tim'e' d'iff erent g.roul: ".f cu.s gists find their tools and weapons, as well as remains their pt) taept arritting in Britain'bringin$ p i e d''B r it oli primitive houses. w h o o c cu ', olnr- i'o a sh iLLs.-T h R o * an s' These people were religious, though we know very " th" ,ty.::I:r: in the -l*t c"ntury' broug-ht word' was im' little about their religion. Some temples which they ain frry wriiten lrrrilt still stand in many parts of England and Scotreading ona culture' lund. These temples are also very primitive. They piortan"t for spreaans ideas and rr:e just circles of great stones standing vertically. CHAPTER 1 he greatest of them is Stonehengel in the south BRITONS ANCIENT rf England.

A hut of ancient people inhabiting the British lsles (reconstruction)

*'iii"g'

Part 1. The Ancient PoPulation' population Little is known about the ancient
the British Isles'

;;il' ;;;t'"tood. Graclually they learned to

ilt"Li" ftt
36

iitt" otft"r primitive people in ot *o'ta, t1"v.. ti13{ ll ":"^": -1*::: grow co

QUESTIONS 1. Where did the ancient population of Britain live? How did they get their food? 2. What material did they use to make tools and
weapons?

They made primitive-t^or and breed domestic animals' Later they learned to smel

;]. What is known about the religion of the ancient population of Britain?
Stonehenge ['stounhcrrd3]

and weapons of t1o""' weapons' Archaeolc metal and make *Lt"f tools and

- Ctoyuxen4x

)7

Part 2. Who were the Britons?

these people Britons and

island

Britannia. - centuries the Brito course of

In th

workers. TheY made things ou of iron, bronze, tin, cIaY wood, and decorated them wi beautifully drawn lines and Pa terns2. TheY made moneY out gold and silver. TheY began make roads, along which travelled about the country, buying and selling things There were some good and rather big houses it Britain, which had many rooms and corridors' richer Britons lived in these big houses' When had feasts in their houses, they sat round low tabl There were no forks or spoons. They took big pi of meat in their fingers and tore them apart' or cu them with their knives. They drank from big made of earthenware or silver' 1 the Celts 2 patterns
38 [kelts]

partly killed the native PoPu lation, partlY mixed with it' The Britons were skilfu

- KeJlbrbr Ysopbr

A village of Britons

39

In the moun offer up sacrifices of human beings. The Druids put Not all parts of Britain were civilized' there wer lrren into huge baskets and burned them in the presnorth tains and forests of the west and of iron and did nc ence of the people. the use ;;;;";ho did not knowreal house:'b:'-"'llll":.1: The Britons often fought among themselves. The tto use money. They tt"J remains of forts built by the Britons can be seen in werr ;;; The parts in the south-east of Britain con rlifferent parts of the country. From time to time t3;!-he *o.t "irrilized, because they were neare;t t,he Britons had feasts arid entertainments. During il"."t, from which people got new knowledge' n feast a minstrel usually sang songs about brave QUESTIONS rleeds of famous warriors. After the minstrel's songs How did his listeners began to boast of their own brave deeds. 1. Where did the Britons come Jrom? What were theY armed-with? And when they had drunk too much, they began look? were skiiful workers' weren't rluarrelling and fighting, and usually some men 2. The Britons were killed. What could theY do? of life t<,'ow about the Britons' way 3. What do we -' QUES?/ONS have? Wit"t kind of houses did thev they make i.h: l. What do we call the people who believe in many ?td th nuV" to"t s or knives? What did gods? plates and cuPs of? 2. Where did the gods live, according to the early W a. frni"f, parts o1B'ituitt were most civilized? Britons' religion? 3. Who were the Druids? How did they worship their Part 3. Their Religion' gods? that is they believeJ 4. How did the Britons entertain themselves during The Britons were polytheistic' the feasts? that diffet?11-s-""1t:i":l i" *."v g"ds. Thev felievedparts of the fores'ts' So in the thickest and darkest CHAPTER REVIEW ;ch as the mistl"t': 11-11".??l;i"-T:-1th historians think that some Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the by a class,:f ptlu^tT :1t]: ist: Britons were Sorr"t""a powgr minstrel, temples, to smelt, sacred, polytheistic, ilidJ *ft"ft"ua greatDruids' over them' Stonehe just as it rtt id s, c an) e s, sw ord s, c orn, u orshippin g, hunt e d, b ree d, oith" *"" ift" temple Td P::l p"i*itive men^before' The Druids wi crifices, to boast, ancient, ffi;;iit-" th"i' wavs of worshipPi"g th"tt'slw 1. The ;;;;T;"" ur,d oft"tt declared that a god in animals for food. and ;;; ""tut too. They god's pardon the people had and 2. Gradually people learned to grow to get thl ""UtU, ""d domestic animals. I Druids ['dlurdz] APYI'IAbI 41

;ir""; ffi#'#'J;";i.

40

3. The Britons were armed

with iron
of Pries

bY a class 4. The Britons were governed called liked b. During their feasts the Britons their brave deeds.
6. The

knives.

Druids' waYs of

their

gods

strange and cruel' of human bei 7. The Druids offered uP' , that is theY beli 8. The Britons were in manY gods. conslctere( 9. The mistletoe and the oak-tree were

to. I-n.irnt people

learned

metal and mak

still stand in many parts 11. Some ancient England and Scotland' usually sang songs abou 12. Du-ring a feast a brave deeds of famous warriors'

metal tools and weaPons'

CHAPTER
2

THE ROMANS
Part 1. The Goming of the Romans' In the year 55 BC the great Roman general J tiris Caesart sailed to Britain with about Lz'Ol th ,ofai"tt in eighty ships' When they were near an spears .outt, they saw the Britons armed with Roman sol the Still .*otit, ready to fight them'the Britons' They wo with ;tr* landed and fought
Julius Caesar in Britain

llre battle, but did not stay long and soon departr.d. In the I'ollowing year Julius Caesar came to

llritain again. This time, after fighting the Brit-

ons on the shore, the Romans marched north-west where London stands today. The British attacked l,hem in chariots and on foot, but the Romans had

Julius Caesar ['d3u:hes'si:za]

IO'nufi I{esapr

lretter arms and armour, and were much better lrained. The Britons could not stop them.
43

42

staY in Britain som time, the Roman Ieft again and di not appear on British shores f

Having

8U ESTION S How many times ctid Julius Caesar come to Brit-

about a hund years.'Then, in year 43 AD, t Roman EmPero

ain? When was it? What did he do the first and

l. When did the

Romans come and stay in Britain?
What facts show that the Ronrans

the second time?

Claudiusl sent

general wit 40 ,000 men t conquer Britai

all over again. Th

i.

British

were practical
people?

ough bravely, but cou not hold back th

f

[. How were the Roman ports ar trained Roman built and what equipment did my. Soon th
they have?

whole of the sout of Britain wa conquered. pructical people' and thl The Romans were very first thing they clid in Britain was to make and forti fy the po"t. where they landed their soldiers and sup pii... th" Rornun pottt were-very well built' wit] ,ton" quays and warehouses' There were big cranes which tittea the cargo from the ships' holds' and manl carts transported goods along the great Roman road which ,un it long straight lines to different parts o the countrY.
The Romans landing in Britain

Part 2. The Revolt of Queen Boadiceal

Although the Romans had occupied Britain, there re many British men and women hidden away in lre great forests and swamps who refused to submit. hese men were fierce fighters, and they often came rrrt of their hiding places and attacked small Roman orts or outposts. Then, when the Romans brouglrt p reinforcements, they disappeared into the forests here the Romans could not find them.
Boadicea [,bouctlr'src]

Clauclirts ['kl:r:djcs]

K;ran4rlli

Boa4lrcea 45

44

Some

of the Brit-

ish tribes were mo warlike than others and one of these w the tribe of the Ice

ri1, who lived i what is now Nor folk2. In those da

this part of Englan

was covered wit swamps, and th

Roman soldiers ha

l he revolt of the Icerri reached him, he was in the middle of rr campaign against l,he men of Wales. In npite of it he decidt,cl that he must rrrarch across Englrrnd and attack Boa-

rlicea and the Iceni as Hoon as possible.

never comPletel

He had about

conquered it. Less than twen years after the Ro

10,000 trained Rorrtan soldiers with

him, and although lloadicea had ten man invasion, th times that number, men of the Icen Fiuetonius had no

tribe revolted head rloubt that the trained by their warlik ing and discipline of Fighting off the rebellious Britons lhe Roman army Queen Boadicea. in No would give him the victory. The Roman army was far away fighting Suetonius placed his men on the slope of a hill, 100,000 fighting men Wales, when Boadicea, with ant protected by woods on both sides. The British thought destroyed first the Roman town of Colchesters' then, soon afterwards, the towns of London and S that the Romans were trapped, and they crowded in Albansa. These towns were all burned to the ground ltre woods to attack them. At the right moment, when lloadicea's men were so crowded together that they and all the people were cruelly killed' time was could not use their arms, the Romans attacked, and The Roman Governor of Britain at that famous soldier named Suetonius5' When the news o tlie British were completely beaten. I
'z Norfolk ['nr:fck].- HoPdronx :J (lolchester ['koultJ rstc] Ko.nuectep 1 St Albans [snt'r:lbcnz] - Cest O"n6anc t' Suetotrir.rs [su'i:'tounjcs]- Cyeroulrit
Iceni [ar'si:nar]

Acesu

l.

QUESTIONS How did the Britons fight against the Romans? Why was it difficult for the Romans to crush
them?
t7

46

2. Who was Boadicea? How many men did she gat in her armY? 3. Where was the Roman army when Boadicea stroyed Colchester, London and St Albans?

ful, the Romans realized

that at any moment some tribe might try to revolt. So they built forts in many parts of the country, in which they stationed small groups of soldiers.

4. Whv was Suetonius sure that he would win victory in spite of the fact that Boadicea's
queen?

greatly outnumbered his army? What advantag aia ni. army have over the army 6f the Ice

For the next three

hundred and twenty-five years Britain remained a Roman province, governed by Roman Governors and protected by the Roman legions. During this time there were long periods of peace, and Britain became a civilized country of towns and villages and good roads. Wherever the Romans went, they built roads. If we Iook at a modern map of England, we see that

f . Wnat tactics clid Suetonius use to beat Boadicea army?

Part 3. Britain under the Romans' In the year 70 AD, when the Romans had nearly thirty years in Britain' many Britons co

not remember a tinte when the country had been fr and it seemed quite natural to them to be goverr not bY British ki or chiefs, but bY Go ernors from Rome.

There were sti

three legions of man soldiers in

country, but

eve was now so thing

et that the soldie spent most of the

time enjoying the selves in sPorts or the games in the a
phitheatres.

there are great main

highways running across

the country, often in

one town to another. Many of these roads which are still in use toclay, were built by the
Romans.

long straight lines, from

Although Bri

Roman soldiers

was now fairlY

Roman roads in Britain

tt

part 4. Hadrian's Wall.

In the year 122 the Roman Emperor Hadrian, came to Britain. Hadrian was a great traveller and wher_ cver he went in the Roman Empire, he strengthened its frontiers. Some years before there had been a serious rebel_ lion in the north of Britain. Tribes of the picts2, the ,eople who lived to the north and south of the scottish border, had risen in revolt and killed the whole the 9th Roman legion which was station"a-rivrlir. 'f a man was Not left.

A kitchen in a Roman house (reconstruction)

farmhouses, often with water supply and baths. QUESTIONS

of wealthy Romans and Britons. There were

The south of England was covered with the

The rebellion was t:rushed, but Hadrian

vill
Ia

rlecided that in

1. Why did it seem natural for many Britons to 2. How many Roman soldiers were constanily sta tioned in Britain? 3. Britain was now faily peaceful, wasn't it? Ho
ruled by Roman Governors?

rnuch more difficult I'or the Picts to cross t,he border into peace_ 1'ul Britain. So he r:hose three legions of

it should be made

future

li,oman soldiers

4. Why did the Romans build forts in many par

of the country? 5. What kind of country did Britain gradually
come under Roman rule?
6.
7.

did the Roman soldiers spend much of their time

be

of building a great wall running right rcross the country

l'rom Newcastlea on
A4przan

rrbout 20,000 men nnd set them the task

What reminds us of the Roman rule when look at a modern map of England? What kind of houses did wealthy Romans Britons live in?

Hadrian ['hcrdrrcn.l _-

Picts [prkts] rrr{Krbr York [o:k] - ftopx

Hrrorcacn

Newcastle ['rrju:ko:sl]

50

l
the eastern shore to Carlislel on the western shore. In seven years the building of the wall was finished. Parts of this wall can still be seen. Hadrian's wall was seventy-three miles long, seven to ten feet thick, and sixteen to twenty feet high. It was built of stone and it had a row of forts situated about four miles from each other. At every mi there was a strong tower which held a hdndred men, and at every third of a mile there was a signal turret. Hadrian's Wall was the strongest of all the Roma f rontier fortifications. guESTroNS 1. When did Emperor Hadrian come to Britain?
2. Who were the Picts? 3. What fact gave Emperor Hadrian the idea to

chester or -caster, like

Dorchestert or Lancasterz, (:ome from the Latin word t'astra rneaning a camp or n fortified place. Each large town had a [heatre, open to the sky, with some seats in a great semi-circle. Many towns had amphitheatres like the

where the Roman towns have stood from the names of the English towns which were later built on their ruins. The names of rnodern towns ending in -

the famous wall? 4. How long did it take to build Hadrian's Wall How long was it? How thick? How high? Was i built of stone, earth or wood? How far apart we the towers and signal turrets?

Part 5. Roman Towns.

The Romans remained in Britain for three hun dred and fifty years, and during that time they buil many towns. Strangely enough, London was not chief town in early Roman times. The capital city from which the Romans governed the island, wa Colchester. Many of these towns were large. The walls of S Albans, for instance, were two miles round, and t town covered two hundred acres of lancl. We kno

Ooliseum3 in Rome, but smaller. Here the soldiers rlid military exercises and played all sorts of games. There were shops in all lloman-British towns. The shops were usually locatcd on two sides of the rnain' square. The shops were of all kinds: butchcr's, baker's and greengror:er's; there were shoemak.(op.recrep

A Roman town

Jlanxacrep
Ko"unaefi

Dorchester ['clc:tJlstc] Laneaster ['larTkcstc]

Shopping in a Roman town

I
52

Carlisle Iku:'larl]

Kapaarin

Coliseum [,kclr'srcm]

er's, and locksmith's,

carpenter's and jewel-

ler's shops. Tailo

and leather worke
could be seen at work behind their counters, and everywhere mer

tlay. After the bath l,he young Romans went into the large high gymnasium to grractice boxing and

wrestling and all

chants invited th passeis-by to bu their goods.

chants: Britons i

The eustomers as varied as the mer-

liinds of gymnastics. At the same time, l,he Roman gymnasirrm was much more than just a place for

physical exercise.

A Roman town

rough woollen c Romans in togas, sol diers in scarlet an brass, women in graceful dresses and cloaks, and slaves in short tunics. It was a bus
scene.

'['here were places, loo, in this Iarge building, where peo-

Many business operal,ions were done in it.

tlrink. In fact, a Ro-

ple could buy food and A gymnasium

The social centre of every Roman town was t great building of the baths. This building usuall occupied one side of the main square and contained, in addition to the hot and cold baths, the law courtsr, the municipal officesz, the school building and t
gymnasium3. The Romans believed in keeping clean. They built wonderful baths and used them two or three times
law courts ['lo;.ko:ts] cyA municipal of f ices I mj Lf-n s pcl'of
r
r

rnan citizen could go to the baths in the morning and spend the whole busy rlay there, without wasting a moment.

z]

ACHIIfi

Mynr{qrrnaJrbHbre }rqpe}K-

gymnasium [d3rm'nerzjcrn]

cuoprusurrft saa

How long drd ,h"a#":':.1t"o"T; in Britain? what town was their capital? How do we know from the name of a town that it was built in Roman times? 3. Were there theatres in large towns? 4. What were the amphitheatres for? 5. Where were the shops usually located? What shops were they? What clothes did different groups of people wear?
55

54

What was the centre of social life in every Ro

8.

9. What is a gymnasium? What facts show tha the Romans attached great importance t
sports?

man town? Did the building of the baths contain only baths What else did it contain?

10. The --merchants.

I

in the shops were as varied as the

1. The social centre of every Roman town was the great building of the 12. After the bath the young Romans went into the large high __ to practiee boxing and

Fill
list:

CHAPTER REVIEW in the blanks with the correct words from

CHAPTER

gymnasiutn, customers, Hadrian' s, chariots, arnxs baths, wrestling, fortified, prouince, tribes, quays, f tifications, cargo, cranes, arnlolrr, warehouses, to s mit, holds. 1. The Britons attacked the Romans in on foot. 2. The Romans had better and

ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND Part 1. The lnvasion by Anglo_Saxons.

Towards the end of the 4th century Europe was in_ vaded by barbaric tribes. The Romans had to leave llritain because they were needed to defend their own t:ountry. The Britons were left to themselves, but they had very little peacel
Very soon sea-robbers came sailing in ships

than the Britons. 3. The Roman well-built ports had stone

I'rom the continent.

4.

and There were

big

in the Roman ports fo

'l'hese invaders were

from the ships' 5. There were many Britons who refused the Romans. 6. Some of the British were more warlik than the others. 7. Britain remained a Roman for over th

Iifting the

rulled Angles2, Sax-

(lermanicr tribes

ons3 and Jutesa. They

were wild and fearIcss people, and the

8.

hundred years.

'

Wall was the strongest of all the Roma

a

frontier 9. The Latin word castra means a camp or

place.
56

IepMaIICKIre ',\ngles Irurlglz]

iI

Germanic [d3c'mLr:nrk]
HIJIbI

'Saxons ['sl:kscnz] ('aKc6I

I

.Iutes [d3u:ts]

rorbr

The Anglo-Saxon invasions and the kindoms they established

57

An Anglo-Saxon village (reconstruction)

iiritons could 'neve., drive them away. The Bri fought many battles, but at last they were forced retreat to the west of Britain. Those who stayed came the slaves of the Anglo-Saxons. For a long time the tribes of Angles, Saxons a Jutes fought with one another for supreme Britain split up into seven kingdoms: Kentr, sex2, Essexs, Wessexa, Mercias, East Anglia6,
NorthumbriaT. The Anglo-Saxons lived in small villages. each village there was a ditch and an earthen w with a wooden fence on top. The earthen wall and fence serwed to defend the village against robbe and wild beasts.
2 3

A ditch and wall surrounding a village

The Anglo-Saxons were tall, strong men, with lllue eyes and long blond hair. They i"r" ar"r""a Irr tunics and cloaks which they fastened with a brooch above the right shoulder. On their feet they wore rough leather shoes. Their usual weapons were I spear and a shield. Some rich men had iron sword.s,

I Kent

I '6 Mercia ['nrc:Jrc] - Mepcua East Anglia t Northumbria['i:st'rcqgLo] - Bocroqnas Anr.nra.s Inr:'0,rmbrrc] - Hopryu6praa
58

Sussex ['s,rsoks] Caccercc Essex ['csoks] -Eccercc Wessex ['wescks] - Vaccercc

[kent]

Kenr

An Anglo-Saxon warrior

An Anglo-Saxon woman

59

wo which they carried at their left side' The he wore long dresses with wide sleeves' Their

Part 2. Christianity.
Christianity first penetrated to Britain in the 3''d rrcntury. It was brought there from Romer by Christinn refugees who were fiercely prosecuted for thei'r fuith at home. In the year 306, the Roman tr'lmperor (jonstantine2 the Great stopped the prosecution of the (lhristians and became a Christian himself. Christinnity was made the Roman national faith. It was brought to all dependent countries. It became the official religion in Britain, too. The Druids disappeared. The new lcligion was called the Catholics Church ("catholic" rneans "universal"). The Greeka and Latins languages txrcame the languages of the Church all over Europe. When the Anglo-Saxons, who were pagans, invadotl Britain, most of the British Christians were killed. 'l'hose who remained alive, fled to Wales and Ireland, where they lived in groups called Brethren6 (brotherhoods). They built churches and devoted themselves to worship. They told people stories of Christian mariyrsT and visitations by saints8 (called visions). Such xtories were typical of the literature of that time. Towards the end of the 6th century Christian monks hcgan coming from Rome to Britain again. The head ol'the Roman Church at that time was Pope Gregoryr'. He wanted to spread his influence over England
llome [roum] - Pzvt (lonstantine ['krnstcntarn] - KoncraHrl4u (latholic ['krcOclrk] Karorll4rrecxaa (ireek [qri:k] - rpeuecxlrfi l,atin ['la:trn] -- .;ratrrrrcxul"r Bpatra llrethren ['brcOrcu] tttartyrs ['nro:tcz] - MyrreHu6u cBflrbrx visitations by saints - flBJIeHuflrara lpuropuft l'ope [poupl Gregory ['grcAcn] 61

were covered with a hood' In their villages the Anglo-saxons bred cows' grew whea urrJ pig* They ploughed the Jields and ot outs for bread and barley for beer' "V" SUESTIONS. tribes was Europe invaded by towards 1. What end of the 4th centurY? 2. WhY did the Romans leave Britain? i. Wf,"t tribes invaded Britain after the Roma Ieft?

4. What parts of Britain did the Angles'

ancl Jutes settle in?

Saxo

all of t f . Wfrat did the Britains have to do? Did g;; the west? What happened to those who
mained? and Ju O. WttV did the tribes of Angles' Saxons fight with one another?

?. Which seven kingdoms were finally formed Britain? 8. Did the Anglo-Saxons live in towns? 9. Why were the Anglo-Saxon villages surrou by walls and ditches? , clr 10. Iiow did the Anglo-saxons look? What did theY wear? have? 11. What weapons dicl the Anglo-Saxons 12. What domestic animals did the Anglo-Sax fields? breed? What did they grow on their

60

by converting the people to Christianity. He

in Kent (the south-eastern part of Britain), and t first church they built was in the town of Can buryl. Up to this day Canterbury has remained t English religious centre and the seat of the
bishop of Canterbury2, head of the Established Ch of Englands.

monks to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The monks

Part 3. The Raids of the Danes. Uniting the Country.

As we know, Anglo-Saxon Britain was not a unit_ ecl country. There were a lot of small kingdoms which constantly waged wars against one another f.or supreme power._ As a result-, these litile king_ doms were weak and could not hold out againri ut_ tacks from abroad. _ Beginning with the gth century, pirates from Scan_ elinavial and Denmark2 began raiding the eastein ehores of Britain. They u"" frro*n in English history os the Daness. They were brave, cruel and merciless people. They landed their long boats, killed and robbed the population of the towns and villages and sailed away. They returned over and over again and contin_ ued killing and robbing the population. Gradually they

1. When did Christianity first penetrate to Bri

ain? Who brought

QUESTIONS.

it

there?

2. When did the prosecution of Christians stop Rome? Who stopped it? 3. What was the new Christian religion of called? What does Catholic mean? 4. What languages became the languages of
Church?
b. What happened to many of the early

British

tians with the coming of the Anglo-Saxons? 6. Who were Brethren? What did they devote the selves to? What stories did they tell people? 7. In what century did Christian monks begin ing to Britain again? 8. Why did Pope Gregory want to convert the Saxons to Christianity? 9. Why is the town of Canterbury considered English religious centre?

began settling in Britain and seized more and rnore land.

unite in order to strug_ gle against the Danes Successfully. In the 9th eentury Egberta, the
Scandinavia [.skrendl'nelrjo] - Crcangranaarza Denrnark ['dcnmo:k] _ .(axua

The Anglo-Saxons understood that their small kingdoms must

['kentaben] -2 the Archbishop [o:d'brJep] of Canterbury - apxr4errr,rc Kerrep6epufrct<wir 3 the Established Church of England Iocuo4cray Keurep6epu
rlepxoBb A-srrurt

Canterbury

the Danes

Iclernz]

AATqAHE

Egbert ['egbct]

62

Dr6epr

lnvasions from Scandinavia

cnd Denmark 63

king of Wessex, one

the stronger Angl

Saxon kingdoms, un ed several neig ing kingdoms. T united kingdom got name of ERgland, Egbert became the fi

of England. The kingdom that was left in Alfred's

grossession was Wessex. There were some years of

t,hem. He had to give the Danes the greater portion

l)eace, and during l,)nglish navy.

this time Alfred built the first

king of the unit

country.

QUESTIONS. eastern shores of Britain in 1. Who raided the fro 8tr' century? Where did the pirates come 2. Why was it impossible for the Anglo-Saxons hold out against the Danes? What 3. What kind of people were the Danes? they do on the British shores? 4. Who was Egbert? What did he do?

Part 4. Alfred the Great' Alfredl, the grandson of Egbert, became king greate the year 8?1, when England's danger was

Alfred is the only king of England who got the nirme "the Great." And he was really a great king. lIe was very well educated for his time. He had learned to read and write when he was quite young. He had l,ravelled on the continent and visited France. He knew l,atin. He is famous not only for having built the f irst navy, but also for having tried to enlighten his people. He worked out a code of laws. He translated the Church history and parts of the Bibler from Latirr into Anglo-Saxon. He started the famous AngloSaxon Chroniclez, which is the first history of England: it begins with the history of the early Britons. 'l'he Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was continued by various rtuthors f.or 25O years after the death of Alfred. QUESTIONS. l. When did Alfred become king of England? 2. Why did Alfred have to fight with the Danes? 3. In what year did Alfred win a victory at Maldon? ,4. Why did Alfred have to give the Danes a great
Maldon?

fh"

Durr"s, who had settied on the eastern shores Britain, continued robbing and killing the peop.tl England and occupying more and more land' Alf gaihered a big army and gave the Danes a great b It" at Maldon' in dgf . The Danes were defeated' this battle, but still they remained very strong peace dangerous, and Alfred hurried to make

portion of the territory of England in spite of the fact that he had won a victory over them at

5. How did Alfred use the time of peace that folIowed the battle of Maldon? 6. When did Alfred learn to read and write?
tlre Bible [barbl] - Bn6rns t lrc Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ['kronrkl]
.XpOHLIHII

I Alfred -- AnlOPel 2 Malclon['rcltrcd] ['ml:ldcn] - Mor4on

64

<Axr.rro-caxcoHcnue 65'

7. Alfred was a very educated man for his wasn't he? What works did he translate fro Latin into Anglo-Saxon? 8. What is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle?

Part 5. England after Alfred the Great's Reign.

The Anglo-Saxon kings that ruled after Alfred Great, continued fighting the Danes, until all land was once more ruled by English kings. But eigh years after Alfred's death the Danes came again wi

1. What was the name of the Danish king who be_ came also king of England? When was it? 2. How long did Canute rule England? 3. When was the Danish rule over? 4. Who.became king of England in lO42? 5. What kind of man was Edward the Confessor? What did he build?

QUESTIONS

great armies and occupied much of the terri Again Britain was divided into two parts: the ern part ruled by the Danes, and Wessex in the sou ruled by English kings. The Danes continued attacks on Wessex and finally occupied the whole the territory. In 1016, the king of Denmark Canu became also the king of England. Canute was a strong monarch and gave Engla peace for nearly twenty years. When he died in 103 his two sons ruled England for a short time one a the other. With the death of Canute's second son i
LO42, the Danish rule was over. An English king to the throne. It was Edward the Confessor2. He the name of Confessor for being a very religious The famous Westminster Abbeys in London was bui during his reign, and when he died in 1066 he buried in the Abbey.

Catholic, Canterbury, shield, Archbiihop. 1. Towards the end of the 4th century Europe was invaded by _ tribes. 2. Britain was invaded by tribes called An_ gles, Saxons and Jutes. 3. After severe battles with the invaders the Brit_ ons were forced to the west. 4. Britain into ,"ru., kingdoms. _ 5. *." b"o.rght: to Britain from Rome. 6. -- first Christians were fiercely The in Rome. 7. The new Christian religion was called the Church.

list: split up, to retreat, Germanic, barbaric, ploughed,, Confessor, Chronicle, Christianity, conuerting, to enlighten, bred, worship, ditch, speer, prosecuted, fled.,

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the

CHAPTER REVIEW

1 Canute [ke'nju:t] Kanyr 2 Edward ['edwed] the Confessor [ken'fesa] 3 The Westminster Abbey ['westmrnsta'abr]
a66arcrso

9gyapn

Becrrrzncrepc

and aevotea "t.r."t "s themselves to 9. Pope Gregory wanted to spread his influence over E-nSland by_the people to Christianity. 10. The of is head of the Established

8. Many British Christians Ireland, where they built

--

to Wales and

--

66

67

Church of England. King Alfred the Great

people.

UNIT TWO

MEDIEVAL BRITAIN
and a 15. In their villages the Anglo-Saxons sheep and Pigs. the fields and 16. The Anglo-Saxons wheat, rYe and oats. 1?. Westminster AbbeY was built during the reig of Edward the Who were these people? What did they do? Write short about each of them. Hadrian Julius Caesar Alfred the Great Boadicea Edward the Confessor Suetonius

William the Conqtlerorl organized his English

hingdom" accord,ing to the feud.al system whieh had, ulready begun to develop in Europe. The central id,ea of feudal soeiety was that all land, was owned,by the hing but it was held by others, called vassals, in return for seruices and, goods. Thc hing gaue large estates to his main nobles in return for a promise to Berve him in war. The nobles also had to give him part of the prod,uce of the land. The greater nobles g&ve part of their lands to le-sser nobles, called hnights, and other freernen. Some freernen paid for lhe Land,by doing military service, while others paid, rent. The noble kept serfs to worh on his land,. These eerfs were not free to leaue the estate and were often Iittle better than slaves. There were two basic principles to feud.alism: euerA nlan had a lord,, and euery Lord had. land and, uassals. At each leuel a man had to promise loyalty and service to his lord. On the other hand., each lord. had responsibilities to his vassals. He h.ad, to give lhem land and protection.

UNIT REVIEW

I William
68

Sagoesarear

['rvrljom] the Conqueror ['k:rqkcrc]

Bu.nrre.nrlr 69

CHAPTER 4

ENGLAND AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST

Part 1. William the Conqueror.
For a hundred and ty years after the time Alfred the Great were continuallY figh one another all over land. What the count needed was a strong ki
who could keeP order. In France there was young boY named W liam, who was the son the Duke of NormandY This was the boY who i the year 1066 came an conquered England. The Duke Robert2 Normandy, William's

At the same time there wirs in England a young

l'iaxon named Haroldr, who was the son of the Earl2 of Wessex, one of the most l,owerful English nobles of the time, Most Saxon nobles did not want a French l<ing, and after Edward the (lonfessor's death they pro-

claimed Harold King of

l,)ngland.

William gathered a great nrmy and sailed across the l,)nglish Channel on hunclreds of ships, Harold's lrmy met him on the Eng-

William of Normandy and King Edward. The Confessor

lish coast. There was

William the Conqueror

ther, was a cousrn o King Edward the Confessor of England, and w

William
was 24 years old he came to England to v
a green and pleasant

his relative. When William saw what

great battle at Hastingss on October 14, 1066. Harold's soldiers fought bravely, but William's army was stronger. Harold was killed in the battle, and with the death of their leader the English understood that the battle was lost.

try England was, he wanted very much to be its ki King Edward the Confessor liked his young and promised him the crown. I Normandy ['nc:mandt] Hopruan4rns 2 Robert ['rcbet] Po6ePt 70

William marched his army to London. Nobody tried to stop him on the

' Harold ['hrcLcld] - lapo.nr4 ' Earl [c:l] - rpatp ' Hastings ['herstrqz] - factunrc

The battle at Hastings

way, and when he aPProach

ed London, he found th gates of the city oPen. H

was met by the Saxon bish ops and nobles. TheY kn that they could not sto William, so they asked to be the King of Engla without any more fighting So a Normanr duke came King of England. H was crowned in Westmi Abbey on Christmas day, t 25rh of December, 1066.
The death of Harold

rrew masters of the land. Wiliiam and his barons, as well as all the other Nornrans who had come with

lrim, did not know the Anglo-Saxon language and did

rrot want

to learn it. And l'or a very long time two

languages were spoken in the r:ountry. Norman-French was the official language of the r:ourt, law and government

To protect himself f possible attacks of the ons, William ordered build a strong tower on left bank of the Tham

rdministration. Common Saxon people and the few

Saxon nobles who remained nlive spoke Anglo-Saxon. There were many people
Bilding the Tower of London

This tower still stands. It called the White Tower cause it is built of whi stone. Later other buildi were added and the who place was surrounded bY stone wall to form a stro fortress which we know as the Tower of London. William the Conque took lands from Saxon bles and gave them to Norman barons who beca
HoPMaITAcK

The English crown offered to William

72

t Norman ['no:mcn] -

in England who did not want to be ruled by a Norrnan,.king, and in many parts of the country there were rebellions. But with the strong army of his barons and knights, William cruelly put down all the rebellions. Lots of people were killed, villages and towns were completely destroyed. William sent groups of rnen all over the country to nrake lists of all the population together with the information of how much land every family had and how

Making the Domesday book 73

much cattle and what other property they had their land. All this information was put into a which was called the Domesday Booh'. By means the Domesday Booh, William's government kn exactly where everyone lived and how much prope they owned. Thus, for the first time in the history o England, it was made possible to collect,the rig taxes for the king.

11. There were rebellions against William's rule. How did he put down the rebellions? 12. What isthe Domesday Book? HowdidWilliammake it? What did he make the Domesday Booh forT

Parl2.
English Kings of the
11th

and 12th Genturies.

1. Why

was

it

QUESTIONS necessary for England to have

IlIrrH' r king?

2. Whose son was William? Where did he live as boy? How was his father related to the Engli king Edward the Confessor? 3. When did William see England for the first time Why did Edward the Confessor promise Willia 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10.

the crown? Who was Harold? Why was he proclaimed Ki of England after Edward the Confessor's dea When did the battle of Hastings take place? did it end? Was William's march to London difficult? Wh Why did the Saxon nobles and bishops in Lond ask William to be King of England? What was William crowned in? When was it? What fortress did William build on the bank the Thames to protect himself? Why was it call the White Tower? Why did William take lands from Saxon nobles How did it happen that for a long time two Ia guages were spoken in the country? Who s Norman-French? Who spoke Anglo-Saxon?

After William the Conqueror's death in 1087, three nrore kings of the Norman dynasty ruled England: his two sons, William II (1087 ,1100) and Henry Ir (1100-1135), and his grandson, the son of his daughter, Stephenz (1135-II54). After Stephen's death, the English throne passed to the Plantagenets dynasty. William lhe Conqueror's son Henry I had a daughter, Matildaa, who was married to the French count of Anjous, Geoffreyo Plantagenet. Their son Henry
Stephen's death in 1154. Richard I the Lion-Heart (Richard Coeur de Lion)z (1189-1199) was the second king of the Plantagenet dynasty. He was famous for his good education (he knew Latin and was fond of music and poetry) and courage. His contemporaries described him as a man of excellent manners, kind to his friends and cruel and merciless to his enemids. Richard was seldom seen in England, spending most of his time taking
I
',J

Plantagenet was made King of England after

il
I

rl

tl

I
74

the Dontesdag Booh ['du:mzder.buk]

Seue.nbxas orlr{cb

- Crusen flaanrarerrer Plantagenet Iplzen'ted3rnrt] Matilda [mc'trlde] Maru.nr4a Anjou [o:q'3u:] - Anrxy Geoffrey ['d3cfir] - Axeclr$pu Richard I IrrtJcd do'tc:st] the Lion-Heart ['laren'ho:t] (Richard Coeur de Lion ['ko:de'larcn]) Puvap4 I JlrsuHoe Cep4qe 75

Stephen [sti:vn]

Henry I ['henrr 6e fe:st] - lenplrx I

part in crusadesr in estine2. At home the ons, in the king's strengthened their and acted like little ki Prince John3, the king
brother, with the help the barons, tried to the English throne. Co mon people were
oppressed. Richard the Lionwas killed in one of battles in France, and Henry ll's empire English throne passed his brother John. great territories in France belo At that time to England. Naturally, the French kings and did not like it and wanted to win back these lands,

QUESTIONS 1. Who were the three kings of the Norman dynasty who ruled England after William's death? When did they rule? 2. What dynasty came to the English throne after Stephen's death? How was Henry Plantagenet related to William the Conqueror? 3. When did Richard I the Lion-Heart rule England? What was he famous for? How did his contemporaries describe him? 4. Richard did not have much time for ruling England, did he? Where did he spend most of his time? 5. What did Richard's brother Prince John try to do in Richard's absence? Why was the life of
common people hard? 6. How did Richard the Lion-Heart die? 7. What fact caused constant wars between EngIand and France? 8. How do you explain the fact that great territories of France belonged to England? 9. What caused an open rebellion of barons against King John in 1215? 10. What important document was the king made to sign in l2l5? Why was the document very im-

the English and the French waged continuous w in France. King John wanted a lot of money to w these wars. He made the barons give him that ey, and the barons did not like it. There was struggle for power between the king and the ba Finally the barons organized an open rebellion. t2l5 the king was made to sign a document cal the Great Chartef (Magna Carta in Latin). For t first time in the history of England, the Great Ch ter officially stated certain rights and liberties of' people, which the king had to respect.
2 Palestine [kru'scrdz] ['prchstaln] -

portant?

Part 3. Education. The First Universities.

Before the 12th century most people were illiternte. Reading and writing skills were not considered lnrportant or necessary. Monasteries were centres of education, and priests and monks were most educated people.
77

crusades

KpecroBLle noxoAbr

:' t

fla.necrnna John [dgon] Axon the Gieit bhqrter ['tjo:to] - Be,urxas xaprlils sorsgocrefi 76

But with the devel ment of such sciences medicine and law, ganizations of gene study called universi appeared in Italy a

Cnrnbridgel. Towards tlrc end of the 13th centrrry colleges appeared

ground the universities,
wcre studied.

where other subjects Getting an education

France. A gniversi had four faculties:

One of thd oldest colleges in Oxford

ologyl (the study of ligion), Canon La (church laws), Medici and Art, which incl ed Latin grammar, r oric3 (the art of maki speeches), Iogic, ari metic, geometry, tronomy and music. In the middle of 12th century a group professors from Fra

hr those times was very difficult. Printing had

not yet been invented, nrrd all the books were

hand-written. That's
why books were rare and vcry expensive. Only the
William Caxton

came to Britain

founded schools in t town of Oxforda in 11 lt was the beginning the first English uni sity. A second uni ty was formed in 1209
Theology
[0 r'rlcd3r] TeoJTorr{fl ( 6oroc,roerae) Canon Law ['keencn,l:r:] IIepKoBHOe IIpaBO

richest people could afford buying books. If a man had twenty or thirty books, people said that he had a great library. Special rules existed for handling books. You were not to touch books with dirty hands or put them on the tuble at meal times. In almost any monastery you could find one or two or more monks spending hours
every day copying books. Printing was invented in the middle of the 15th century in Germany2, by Johann Gutenberg!. To Englund it was brought by William Caxtona. In his early youth Caxton was an apprentice to a company of London merchants. Later he lived in Flanrlerss where he worked as a hand-copier of books for t,lie royal family. He was a learned man and did trans-

rhetoric ['rctarrk] TOpr.rKa

A monk copying a book

Oxford ['cksfcd] -

'' ' I '

Cambridge ['kcrmbrrd3] - Kervr6pu4xc Gerrnany ['d3c:rncnr] -fepvrauua Johann Gutenberg [JoLrhcn'gutanbc:g] - }{orann fyren6epr William Caxton ['wrljcur'kiekstcn] Vu;rrsru Itaxcron (D,ran4pua Flanders ['flrrndoz] -

79

lations from French

5. Which were some of the rules

English. When he on business in Germa he learned the art printing. In 1476, w

Caxton returned to Iand, he set up the

Wouldn't

it be advisable to observe these rules

for handling books?

nowadays? 6. When was

.f

t.

fi

English printingin London. Two y later, a second printi press was set up in

printing invented? Who invented it? Who brought the art of printing to Britain? When did Caxton set up the first printing-press in London? Where and when was the second printing-press set up? How many books did Caxton print during the next fifteen years?
Part 4. A Medieval Town

ford. During the n fifteen years Caxt

printed sixty-five wor

both translations
originals. QU ESTIONS

Medieval towns were surrounded with walls. It was done to defend the town from possible attacks of enemies. Along the whole length of the wall there were

Were there many educated people in England fore the 12th century? Who were the most cated people? 2. Where did universities first appear in E Which four faculties did a medieval unive have? What subjects were studied in each ulty? 3. flow was Oxford University founded? When it? When was Cambridge University opened? 4. It was difficult to get an education in those ti wasn't it? Why were books rare and very ex sive? How many books did your library have contain so that people might say that you h great library?
1.

I printing-press 80

tnuorPatPua

towers with loopholes narrow - very the town windows through which the defenders of could shoot at the attacking enemies. Round many towns there were moats filled with water. You entered the town by the drawbridge over the moat and through a wide archway with very strong gates which were closed every night. Outside the walls there were meadows where cattle grazed and where the citizens spent holidays, running races, playing sport games or just walking about. The houses in medieval towns were built of stone or wood, some of them partly of stone, partly of wood. The second floor overhung the first floor. The streets were very narrow, so the windows of the overhanging second floors of the houses standing on the opposite sides of the street were very close to each other. The narrow streets were very dirty, covered with mud, mixed with all sort of rubbish. People who kept pigs or horses or cows threw all the wastes from the pig81

sties, stables and cow-houses into the street. streets were never cleaned. The wastes often got in the wells from which the townspeople got their drin ing water. There is no wonder that epidemics very frequent. On market days farmers living in nearby vill came to the town to sell cheese, butter, eggp and ot er things. Some of them came with their wives children. The shops
no glass windows.

rything was open to street. Across the f of each shop there was counter with things f

sale. The shopkee

stood behind the coun

Specialists of different trades (or professions) were rrnited into corresponding trade guilds, which were a kind of professional associations or clubs. Members of a guild obeyed the rules of the guild. One of the rules was to sell the things they made at a fixed price. Nobody was allowed to sell his things cheaper than unother member of the guild, for this would increase his trade and spoil the other men's. Today every trader Lries to sell cheaper than others to increase his busirress. It is called competition. There was no competition in the medieval towns. The guilds took care of their members. When members fell ill and lost their trade, they received help. If they died, the guild paid lor the funeral, supported the widow and educated the children. QUESTIONS

On market days the ci izens and the farrne who came to the

1. Why were medieval towns surrounded with walls

and moats?

were fond of watchi

plays performed by dering actors. They u ally acted scenes fro

2. What were loopholes? What were they used for? Do you understand why they were made very
narrow? 3. How did you enter a medieval town? 4. People living in medieval towns kept cattle, didn't they? Where did the cattle graze? 5. What did the citizens do in the meadows outside the walls of the town on holidays? 6. Were the houses built of stone or wood? Can you explain why the floor spacer of the second floor of a house was larger than that of the first floor? 7. How did the streets of a medieval town look? Why were they so dirty?

the Bible.
Many people living the towns were enga in craftsmanship.

developed differen

craf ts. In mediev towns there were cob blers, tailors, blac

smiths, goldsmith

Houses with the second floor

overhanging the first 82

butchers, bakers and Iot of other specialis

I floor

space

rrJrorr{aAb

8j

9.

for? 10. How did the shops look? 11. What entertainment was organized
days?

Of course there was no water supply in the Where did the citizens get water? Why were demics frequent? Who came to the town on market days? W

7. Richard the Lion-Heart was the

mar

12. What were most people living in the towns gaged in? What craftsmen could you meet in medieval town? 13. What are trade guilds? 14. How did the guiids take care of their members

dynasty. 8. Richard the Lion-Heart spent most of his time taking part in in Palestine. o In the king's P"ince John tried uf,",iln"" the English throne. 10. In 1215 the king was made to sign a document called 11. In the Middle Ages monasteries were centres of

the

secoird

king of

t2. The art of printing was brought to England by William 13. A *"diuvul .*i.,r"rsity had four faculties: ,
14. Round rnany medieval towns there were filled with water. 15. You entered a medieval town by the over the moat. 16. The wastes often got into the __ from which people got drinking water. t7. Specialists of different trades were united into

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and eombinations from the list: guilds, cru,sades, education, Art, proclaimed, doutn, Plantagenet, Canon Law, Hastings, d.rawbr TheologA, Magna Carta, crowned., Court, wells, rnoa Domesday, to seize, Med.icine, Caxton. 1. After Edward the Confessor's death Saxon Harold King of England.. 2. There was a great battle at on Oc 14, 1066. 3. William the Conqueror was in Westmi ster Abbey. 4. William the Conquerdr cruelly all the bellions. 5.. The Book contained information everybody's property. 6. Norman-French was the official language of
84

and_

correspoldipg

WARS ABRoAD AND AT HoME '

Part 1. England in the 14th century. By the t4th century the process of centralization

CHAPTER

of-

ods

the king'g power was completing. The same methof government were applied to all parts of EngIand. The old contradictiohs between the Normans and Saxons were gradually disappearing.
85

The Norman kings made London their reside It became the largest town in England. The Lon dialect of the English language became the centr dialect and was understood throughout the coun It was the London dialect from which the natio Ianguage developed. Other towns were also growing. The townspeop that is the craftsmen and tradesmen, who later f the class of bourgeoisie, were becoming an impor social force. They became rich by trading with ders (a country across the English Channel that now called Belgiumr). The English traders shi wool to Flanders, where it was sold as raw materia Flanders had busy towns, and the weavers who li and worked there, produced the finest cloth. Fle ishB ports were the world market of northern and commercial rivals of England. Flemish weave were even invited to England to teach the Engl their trade. QUESTIONS. 1. What town became the largest and most im tant one in the 14tr'century? 2. What dialect did the national language of Iand develop from? 3. What class was growing and becoming an im tant social force? 4. How did craftsmen and traders become rich? 5. How did the English develop their relations wi
Flanders?
Belgium ['bcld3cm] - Eelrrrascrrprt! raw material ['n: mo'trcrtc[] Flemish ['llcrnrJ] - O;rarvranAcxufi 86

Part 2. The Hundred Years' War.

llngland was Edward III. He was a powerful king, nnd he wanted to become King of France as well, because some of the French provinces, such as Norrnandy, had once belonged to England and others had been the property of Edward's mother, a French princess. Meanwhile the feudal lords in France were making plans to seize the free towns of Flanders. For lingland it would mean losing its wool market. Saying that he wished to defend English trade, Edward III declared waf on France in 1337. This war is now called the HundredYears'Wer because it lasted over n hundred years.

In the first half of the 14th century the king of

The Hundred Years'War 87

Part 3. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381

( Iish fleet defeated the French fleet in the English nel. Then the English also won battles on land' English had certain advantages over the French' 1 hal cannons, which had just been invented and w the French army did not have. Besides, the Eng archers could shoot their arrows from a distance, w as the French knights, armed with swords, could fight in hand-to-hand combatsl. When the thunder the first cannons had scared the horses of the enen the arrows of the English archers reached the knights before they could use their broad swords'

At first England was successful in the war' The

1. What did Edward III want? On what grounds

he claim2 French territories? 2. What plans were the feudal Iords of France r ing? How did their plans threaten England? 3. When did Edward III declare war on France? did he exPlain his reason? 4. Was England successfut in the war? What the advantages of the English army over French armY?

QUESTIONS

The ruin of France and the famine that followed caused an epidemic of the plague. It was so infectious that there was no escape from it. People died within twenty-four hours. From France the epidemic was brought over to England. The English soldiers called rt the Blaeh Death. By the year 1348 one-third of England's population had perished. The position of the peasants was very hard. They had to give part of their harvest to the lord. They also had to work on the lord's fields regularly. After the epidemic of the Black Death, when the population of England had diminished by one-third, there were not enough labourers to work on the lords' fields. So the surviving peasants were made to work on the lords' fields lnuch more. They were paid for their work, but the payment was very little. As years went by, the French feudals united against their enemy, and the English were beginning to lose their advantage. As the king needed money for the war, Parliament voted for extra taxesl, which made the life of peasants stiil harder. In 1381 the peasants revolted. Sixty thousand people from the counties of Essex and Kent marched to London led by Wat Tyler2 and Jack Straws. In London they broke open the prisons, destroyed many buildings and killed many royal officials. They came to the royal palace and demanded to see the king. The king of England Richard II was then a l4-year-old boy. He boldly appeared be-

I voted for extra

taxes

hand-to-hand combats ['kcmbcts] 2 On what grounds did he claim - Ha raxou [peTeHAoBaJI Ha

pynouarrrrrble cxBarx
ocHoBaHI4lI

t "

HAJIOFLI

rporoJrocoBaJr sa AonoJIHIlTeJrbHbre

Wat Tyler ['wct'tarle] Vor Tafi.rrep - ,(mer Crpo Jack Straw ['d3rck'str.'r:] -

88

89

7. Did the king fulfil his promise? How did the peasants' revolt end? Part 4. The War of the Roses. The Hundred Years' War, in which England lost practically all its lands in France, ended in 1453, but there was no peace in the country. Long before the cnd of this war, a feudal struggle had broken out between the descendants of Edward III. When the Magna Carta was signed in 1215, the Norman barons were united with the Saxon nobles und the growing bourgeoisie of the big towns, and they took part in governing the country. During the flundred Years' War some of the barons, who were professional soldiers, built castles with high walls and kept private armies of thousands of men. They wished to lead their armies over to France to seize lands there. These big barons formed a small group of their own. They thought more about their "family politics" than about national politics and were a real
threat to the king's power. Realizing the danger which these big barons represented to the Crown, Edward III tried to marry his sons to their daughters, the heiresses of these Houses. Thus representatives of the royal family became relatives of many big barons. But that did not help to strengthen the position of the House of Plantagenets. During the reign of Richard ll (L377-1399), the last king of the Plantagenet dynasty, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancasterl, seized the crown and became the first king of the Lancaster dynasty, Henry IV (1399-1413).
Henry Bolingbroke ['henrr'b:rlrrlbluk], Duke of Lancaster ['lrr1ksstc] fenpux Boaunr6poK, tep4or JfaHxacrepcrcrafi

The murder of Wat TYler

fore the crowd of rebels, listened to them and pro ised to fulfil their demands. But the king did keep his promise. Wat Tyler rffas treacherously mu dered and the rebellion was suppressed. 1. What epidemic broke out in France? Why di the English soldiers call it the Black Death? W the epidemic brought over to England? How di it affect the population in England? 2. Why was the position of the peasants hard? I what way did the epidemic of the plague this position still harder? 3. Why did Parliament vote for extra taxes? 4. When did the peasants' revolt start? How man people joined the revolt? Who headed the revolt 5. What town did the rebels march to? What di they do in London? Whom did they want to see 6. Who was King of England at that time? Did listen to the rebels? What did he promise them
90

QUESTION S

91

'l'lre ltttet'ort-E of lltn llottsei of Lancaster su lty Ilte bl5 ltnr.orra rrollklotl with the interests of the el hnt'ottl ntttl tttet'clttrttts of the towns, who supp( llrc llottEe of Yorkr. The feudal struggle grew into opon wR1' ltotwrxltt the Lancastrians2 and the York 'lilre htrttlttsters had a red rose in their coat of a: tlre Yorkists had a white rose. That's why the war tween them got the name of theWar of the Rbses"l war, which lasted for thirty years (1455-1485)' tu into a bitter struggle for the Crown, in which party murdered every likely heir to the throne of opposite party. It was a dark time for England, a of anarchy, when the kings and nobles were busy fig ing and murdering each other and had no time to care of the common people, who suffered greatly' The War of the Roses ended with the battle Boswortha in 1485. King Richard III of the House York was killed in the battle, and, right in the fie Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond6, was proclaimed of England. The war was over at last, and every sighed with relief. Henry Tudor was head of the House of Lan A year later, in 1486, he married the Yorkist Princess ElizabethT of York. This marriage was great political importance. It meant the union of tl red rose of the House of Lancaster with the whi rose of the House of York.
1

1. Why were the big barons a threat to the king's power? How did King Edward III try to neutralize this threat? 2. Who was the last king of the Plantagenet dynasty? Who seized the crown during his reign? 3. The House of Lancaster was supported by the big barons. Whom did the lesser barons and the merchants of the towns support? 4. Why did the war between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists get the name of the War of the Roses? When did the War of the Roses begin? How long did it last? 5. Who was proclaimed King of England when the War of the Roses ended? 6. Whom did Henry Tudor marry? Why did this marriage have a great political importance? CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word combinations from the list: feudal, reuolted, haruest, plague, merchants, Bosworth, Iesser, social, eombats, descendants, Lancaster, collided, conl.nlon, heir, Plantagenet, taxes, uoted, declared war,threat. 1. In the towns the craftsmen and tradesmen were becoming an important force. peasants had to give part of their 2. The to the lord. In 1337 Edward III on France. The ruin of France and the famine caused an epidemic of the The French knights, armed with swords, could only fight in hand-to-hand
91

SUESTTONS

il I

Bosworth ['brz.we0] - BocYoPt Henry Tudor ['tju:dc], Earl of Richmond rpa$ Pttvtvlon4 Elizabeth Ir'lrzoba0] - Eazsaseta 92

York [o:k] - froPrc LancaJtrians [, laeq'kas trr cnz] - cropoHltrrKl4 Aoua Jlanx Yorkists I jr;krsts] - cropoHHI4KlI AoMa I4oprcoe coat of arms - reP6

- lenpux

6. The king needed money for the war, and Parl for extra ment 7. ln 1381 the oPPressed Peasants
against the lords. 8. AJter the death of Edward III a struggle broke out between his 9. The big barons were a real

UNIT THREE

ABSOLUTE MONARCHY During the Tudor period", from 1485 till 1603, Ungland.'s foreign policy chqnged seueral tirnes. enry VII was careful to remain friend,ly with neighbouring coun:tries. His son Henry VIII was more gmbitious, hoping to play an important part in European politics. He was unsuccessful. Mary aWied, England to Spain by her m.arriage. Elizabeth and her adItisers consid,ered, trad,e the most important foreign policy ntatter, as Henry VII had done. For them a ry whiclt" was England's greatest trad,e riual was its greatest enerny. This idea remained" the basis England's foreign policy until the 79th century.
CHAPTER 6

to the ki
',

power. 10. h,ichard

II

was the last king of

the
first king of

'

dynasty'
11.

ln fggg Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancas

seized the crown and became the dYnastY.

12.

with the interests of the of the towns who U----u-"*"al ___,_ ported the House of York' party 13. buring the War of the Roses each to the throne of likelY dered "n"tY opposite PartY. 14. Th; king and the nobles had no time to take

The interests of the House of Lancas'

THE NEW MONARCHY

Part 1. Henry Vll.
Henry VII is less known than either Henry VIII or izabeth I. But he was far more important in estabishing the new monarchy than either of them. He had the same ideas and opinions as the growing classes of merchants and gentryl, and he based royal power good relations with these classes. Henry VII firmly believed that business was good for the state. Only a year after he became king, he rnade an important trade agreement with the Netherlandsz, which allowed English trade to grow. Henry

PeoPle' of the 15. The War of the Roses ended with the battle

in 1485.

Who were these people? What did they do? Wri short about each of them' William Caxton Witliam the Conqueror' Richard the Lion-Heart Edward III

UNIT REVIEW

Wat Tyler

I gentry ['d3entrr] Me,rrrconoMecrHoe ABoI]flHcrBo s Netherlands ['ne6olcndz] - Hr4epJrauAbr

94
95

understood that Engl future wealth would

pend on internatio trade. And he built a fleet of merchant shi

He also believed that ruined a countty's

2. Why was the trade agreement with the Netherlands important for England? 3. Why did Henry VII build a huge fleet of merchant ships?

4. Why did Henry VII have much money? 5. What measure did Henry VII take in order to
strengthen his power?

ffiy, and so he avoi

quarrels either with

6. What made Henry VII unpopular with the old

nobility? 7. Why did Henry VII keep the friendship of the merchant and gentry classes?

land in the north

France in the south.

Henry was fort Many of the old nobil had died or been de in the recent wars, King Henry Vll their lands had gone to king. This meant that Henry had more money t earlier kings. In order to strengthen his power' forbade anyone, except himself, to keep armed Henry's aim was to make the Crown financ independent, and the lands and the fines he took the old nobility helped him do this. Of course it him unpopular with the old nobility, but he kept friendship of the merchant and gentry classes' him they wanted peace and prosperity. He crea new nobility from among them, and men unk before now became Henry's statesmen. But they knew that their rise to importance was compl dependent on the Crown.
QU ESTION S

Part 2. Henry Vlll. Henry VIII was quite unlike his father. He was cruel and wasteful with money. He spent so rnuch on maintaining a rich court and on wars, that his father's carefully saved money was soon gone. Henry VIII wanted to have an important influence on European politics. But much had happened in Europe since England had lost its lands in France in the Hundred Years' War. France was now more powerful than England. Spain was even more powerful, because it was united with the Holy Roman Empirer (which included much of central Europe). Henry VIII tried to ally himself with Spain against France, then he changed sides. When friendship with France did not bring him anything, Henry started talking again to Charles V2 of Spain. Problems with the Catholic Church. Henry disliked the power of the Church in England: it was an interthe Holy ['houlr] Rotnan Empire - Caaulennas Plrvrcraa r{MIIeprrfl
Charles V ['tJo:lz dc'tit0]

1. Henry VII established a new type of mona didn't he? What did he base royal power on? W principle did he believe in? What did he
96

Kap;roc V 97

national organization, so he cou not completely control it. Th power of the Catholic Church England could work against Hen ry's authority. Besides, He had another reason for oPPosin to the authority of the"Church.

try, and this became law after Parliament passed fbe Act of SupremacAt in 1534. Now Henry was free to
<livorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne Boleynz. He hoped Anne would give him a son to follow

King Henry Vlll

Catherine of Aragon

1510 Henry had ma Catherine of Aragonl. But b 1526 she had still not had a who could be the heir to throne after Henry's death. Hen' r"i; asked the Pope to allow hi tc divorce Catherine. But th Pope was controlled bY Char V, who was HoIy Roman Em or and king of Spain, and a Catherine's nephew. For bo political and family reasons wanted Henry to stay marriecl Catherine. The Pope did not wi to anger Charles V, and he for bade Henry's divorce. Henry was extremely angry He persuaded the English bish ops to break away from the Cath olic Church and establish a Church in England, the head o which would be the English mon arch. In 1531 the Church of Eng land was established in the coun

In

him on the throne. The Reformation. Henry's break with Rome was purely political. He simply wanted to control the Church and to keep its wealth in his own kingdom. He did not approve of the new ideas of Reformation Protestantism3 introduced by Martin Luthera in Gerrnany and John Calvins in Geneva6. He still believed in the Catholic faith. But when he broke with Rome, lre wanted to make the break legal. Between L532 nnd 1536 Parliament passed several Acts, by which England officially became a Protestant country, even though the popular religion was still Catholic.

1. In what ways was Henry VIII unlike his father? Why did he soon spend all the money saved by
his father? 2. Which European countries were more powerful than England? How did Henry try to influence European politics? 3. Why did Henry VIII dislike the power of the

QUESTIONS

4. Why did Henry want to divorce his first wife Catherine of Aragon? Why did the Pope forbid
I the Act of Supremacy [s.ju'prcrnesr] Sarcon o rJraBeHcrBe anrar.ritcnoro Kopo,afi HaA rlepxoBbro I Anna Boleyn ['acn'bulrn] Anna Bo.reftn ' Reformation Plotestantism - Pedropvraqllonr{oe [porecranTcrBo Martin Luther ['rno:trn'lu:0c] Maprun Jlrotep ' ' John Calvin ['d3on'krh'rn] - -]Itau Karssnn " Geneva [d3r'ni:vc] - ]Itenesa

Church?

Anne BoleYn

I Catherine ['kaeOr'rn] of Aragon ['rc gcrr] - Eriarepuna Aparoncrcaa

99

him to divorce his wife? How did Henry get out of the difficulty? When was the Church of Eng land established? 5. Whom did Henry VIII marry after the divorct with Catherine of Aragon? ': 6. Was Henry VIII really a Protestant? Who hat introduced the ideas of Reformation Pr6testant ism? Did Henry approve of the new ideas? 7. When did England officially become a Protestani
,i

that all churches followed the

country?

rr

;t

Part 3. The Protestant-Catholic Struggle.

,r

Henry died in !547,leaving three children. tvta"y the eldest, was the daughter of Catherine of Arago$ Elizabeth was the daughter of his second wife, An41 Boleyn, whom he had executed because she was un faithful. Nine-year-old Edward was the son of Jani Seymourl, the only wife whom Henry had really iovd,l but who had died giving birth to his only son. Edward VI, Henry VIII's son, was only a child of I years old when he became king, so the country wai ruled by a council. All the members of the counci were representatives of the new nobility created b; the Tudors. They were keen Protestant Reformet't because they had benefited from the sale of monaq tery lands. Indeed, all the new landowners knew thri they could only be sure of keeping their new lands fi they made England truly Protestant. i Most English people still believed in the old Catholir religion. Less than half the English were Protestant b1 rnt rrs. belief, but these people controlled religious matters. Ir 1552 a new prayer book was introduced to make) sun I Jane Seymour ['d3etn'si:rno:] .(xcefiu Ceiirvryp rl

Mary's lifetime. Mary's marriage to Phililr King Edward Vt was the first mistake of her. unfortu*ate reign. Then she btgaii burning protes_ tants. Three hundred people died in this way during her five-year reign. For these mass executions she was called Bloody Mary.
QUESTIONS

Mary;s marriage unwillingly and made a condition that Philip would be regarded as King of England only during

gon, became queen when Edward, aged sixteen, died in 1553. Mary was unwise and made mistakes in her policy. For political, religious and family reasons, she married King Philip of Spain. It was a bacl choice. The English people disliked the marriage. They were afraid that this marriage would place England under foreign control. Parliament agreed to

Mary. Mary, the Catholic daughter of Catherine of Ara-

new Protestant religion.

Jane Seymour

1. How many children did Henry VIII leave after his death? Who were they? 2. How old was Edward VI when he became King of England? Did he rule the country himself? 3. Whom did Mary marry? Why did the English
101

100

people dislike this marriage? What were t uftuia of? On what condition did Parliament ag to the marriage? 4 What was Mary's second mistake? Why was called Bloody MarY?

Part 4. Elizabeth l.
When she became q.u in 1558, Elizabeth I wan to find a Peaceful answer the problems of the Engli Reformation. She wanted bring together again

parts of English

socie

(Catholic and Protestan which were in disagree

And she wanted to make Iand prosperous. As a resul Queen Elizabeth I the Protestantism in En remained closer to the Catholic religion than to Protestant groups. But Elizabeth made sure that church was still under her authority, unlike politi< w dangerous forms of Protestantism in Europe' In a she Lade the Church "part of the state machine"' The parisht, the area served by one church' usue Iy the .u*" size as a village, became the unit of sta administration2. People had to go to church on Su days by law and they were fined if they stayed awa Elizabeth also introduced a book of sermons3 to used in church. 'Besides containing texts of the I parish , lhe .ni 1, a book
102
n

rrlons based on the Bible, this book also taught the people that rebellion against the (lrown was a sin against God. Mary, the Queen of Scots. 'l'he struggle between Catholics und Protestants continued to cndanger Elizabeth's position l'or the next thirty years. There was a special danger from those (latholic nobles in England who wished to remove Elizabeth and replace her with the (lueen of Scotland, who was a Catholic. Mary, the Scottish queen, usually called Queen of Scofs, was the heir to the English throne because she was Elizabeth's closest living relative, as Elizabeth had no children. Mary quarrelled with some of her nobles and had to escape to England, where Elizabeth kept her as a prisoner for almost twenty years. During that time Elizabeth discovered several secret Catholic plots aimed at making Mary queen of England. Finally Elizabeth agreed to Mary's execution in 1587. Many people approved of Mary's execution. The Catholic plots and the dangers of a foreign Catholic invasion had changed people's feelings. By 1585 most Iinglish people believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy of England. This hatred of everything Catholic became an important political force.

- c6oprurH

aAMlturlcrparrrBHafl.eAnH

nPouoeegeir

QUESTIONS 1. When did Elizabeth I become Queen of England? How did she want to settle the problem of disagreement between the Catholics and Protestants? What was the result of her efforts?
10)

2. How did Elizabeth ensure that the Church of land was "pdrt of the state machine"? What i

6. Henry VIII wanted to have an important

on European politics.

paiish? How did Elizabeth make the parish a u of .tut" administration? How were people ished if they did not go to church on Sunday?

7. Spain was a very powerful country because it was united with the Roman Empire. 8. Henry VIII's break with Rome was purely

3. What
churc 4. What 5. Why was Mary the Queen of Scots the heir to English throne? 6. WhV did Mary come to England? Why did Eli beth keep her a Prisoner? ?. Why-did Elizabeth finally agree to Mary's exec tion? 8. Why did many people in England approve Mary's execution?
CHAPTER. REVIEW

9. In 1531 the Church of England was in the country. 10. Elizabeth I wanted to find alreaceful answer to
the problems of the English 11. Elizabeth I made the Church part
12. The
became the

of the state

unit of state admin-

istration.
to be 13. Elizabeth introduced a book of used in church. 14. The Church taught the people that against God. against the Crown was a 15. The struggle between Catholics and Protestants Elizabeth's position. 16. Elizabeth discovered several seciet aimed at making Mary Stuart queen of England.

Fill in the blanks with the conect words

f,rom

list: HoIy, rnerehant, nobtlity, gentry, plots, serrno end.an-gered', rebellion, agreernent, forbade, est lished., sin, political, Reformation, parish, machi influence. 1. Henry VII had the same ideas as the merc

cAr

N rN

2. Henry VII made an important trade with the Netherlands. 3. In order to strengthen his power' Henry anyone' excePt himself, to k
armed men. 4. Henry VII created new merchants and gentrY. 5. Henry VII built a huge fleet of
104

and

ofr?ff lt^irl

EXpAN

D rN

Part 1. The New Foreign Policy.

Elizabeth continued Henry VII's work and encouruged foreign trade. She considered Spain her main trade rival and enemy. Spain at that time ruled the Netherlands, where many people were Protestant and were fighting for their independence from.Catholic Spanish rule. To reach the Netherlands from Spain
105

from

shi

by sea, Spanish soldiers to sail through the Engl Channel. Elizabeth hel the Dutchl Protestants allowing their shiPs to

Philip started again and built a new Armada, a still larger fleet. But most of the ships were designed to carry soldiers, and the few fighting ships were not
as good as the

English ones. English ships were long.

English harbours fro which theY could att

Spanish shiPs, often wi

the help of the Engli

Walter Raleigh

ca loaded with ver and gold. Aithough these tr)nglish ships belor to privale people, the treasure was shared with q.rJ"t. These seamen were traderd as well as piratt and adventurers. The most famous of them were Joh Hawhinss, Francts Drahea andWalter Raleighl' -itt" Spanish king Philip decided that he had conquer England if he wanted to defeat the Du in the Netherlands. He hoped that enough Ca ".beisin England would be willing to help him' H olics built u g""ut fleet of ships, an Armada6' But in 15-8

When the Dutch rebels the city of AntwerP2 1585, Elizabeth helPed with moneY and soldiers. war on SPain. attacking SPan

er and narrower, so they were faster, and besides, their guns could shoot further than the Spanish ones. The Spanish Armada was defeated more by bad weather than by English guns. Some Spanish ships were sunk, but most were blown northwards by the wind, and many of them were wrecked on the rocky coasts of Scotland and lreland. For England it was a
glorious moment. A Trading Empire. Elizabeth encouraged English traders to settle abroad and create colonies. This policy led directly to Bri.tain's colonial empire of the 17th and 18th centuries. The first English eolonists sailed to America towards the end of the century. One of the best known was Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought tobacco back to England. England also began selling West Africari slaves for the Spanish in America. By 1650 slavery had become an important trade. Only at the end of the 18th century this shameful trade ended. The second half of the 16th century saw the development of trade with foreign lands. During Elizabeth's reign so-called chartered companiesl were established. A charter gave the company the right to all the business in its particular trade or region. In return for this important advantage the chartered company gave some of its profits to the Crown. A number of these companies were established during Elizabeth's reign: the Eastland Company to trade with I chartered ['tJo:tcd] companies KoMrraHl{rr, opraHrtsoBaHrrble Ha ocrroBaHr{r{ rtpaBlrre,rscteeHHofi Kouqeccprr{
107

Francis Drake attacked and destroyed part of fleet in Cadiz7 harbour. I Dutch td,trll roJrJralrAcxlre eH 2 AntwerP ['irntiva s John ffawtins [' Axou Xorlrnc @paxcnc APeftx t f,.u""i" Drake i vo.nrep Ponz walter Raleigh '6 Armada [o:'rno:dc] - APvra,4a r Cadiz [ke'drz] KaAIac 106

Scandinaviar and the Balticz in 1579, the Leuants panq to trade with the Ottoman Empirea in 1581, Africa Company to trade in slaves in 1588, and East India Company to trade with Indiab in 1600.

1. Did Elizabeth I encourage foreign trade? W country did she consider to be her main rival and enemy? 2. Why did Elizabeth I help the Protestants in Netherlands? How did she help them? 3. Who were the most famous English seamen t caused trouble to Spanish ships in the Atlan Ocean? Why did Elizabeth support these seamen 4. Why did the Spanish king Philip decide that had to conquer England? 5. What did Philip call the fleet which he built

QUESTIONS

11. What is a chartered company? What right did a charter give a trading company? What did the company give the Crown in return for the charter? Name four chartered companies which were established during Elizabeth's reign. What did each of the four companies do?

Part 2. Wales and lreland. Both Henry VII and Henry VIII tried to bring Wales and Ireland under English control. Wales became
joined to England under one administration between 1536 and 1543. Representatives of local Welsh gentry were appointed magistratesr, and Welsh representatives entered the English parliament. In Ireland the situation was more difficult. Henry VIII persuaded the Irish parliament to recognize him as king of lreland. But when he tried to make the Irish accept his English Church Reformation, he met a stubborn resistance, as the majority of the Irish population were Catholics. Thus Irish nationalism and Catholicism were brought together against English rule. It took Henry a long time to destroy the old way of life and introduce English government in Ireland. The effect of English rule was greatest in the north, in Ulstef, where many good lands were taken from the native Irish population and sold to English settlers. Even today most good land in Ulster is owned by Protestants, and most poor land by Catholics.

fight England? 6. What were the disadvantages of the Armada in comparison with the English ships? What the result of the sea battle between the A
and the English fleet?

7. What did Elizabeth encourage English traders do? What did this policy lead to? 8. What parts of the world did English col begin to settle? 9. What did Walter Raleigh bring from America
10. What shameful trade did English colonists

in West Africa?
t Scandinavia [.skcndr'ncrrjc] Crcangranaana i Baltic ['bcltrk] - Barrnra 3 Levant Ir'vrnt] Jleganr ' the Ottoman Empire ['ctomcn'emparc] - Orrovrancrcafl " India ['rndre] - VIrtAus
108

1. What did both Henry VII and Henry VIII try to do in Wales and Ireland?
r4Mue

QUESTIONS

rnagistrates ['mcd3r stnts] vrarracrparbl, Mr{poBbre eyAbld Olsctep Ulster [lrrlstc]

109

2. When did Wales join Engtand under one ad

istration? How was it done? 3. Henry VIII persuaded the Irish parliament to ognize him as king of Ireland, didn't he? did he meet a stubborn resistance? Why? 4. Did it take Henry a long time to introduce e lish government in Irelandr 5. What was the effect of English rule in Ulster this effect still felt in our times? How?

French husband died soon after their marriage, and to Scotland. Mary was a Catholic, but rluring her time in France Scotland had become officially a Protestant country. The Scottish Protestants did not want a Catholic queen on the throne. There was a struggle, as a result of which Mary had to escape to England, where she was held by Elizabeth for nineteen years and finally executed.
ghe returned

Part 3. England and Scotland. For a long time the Tudors were trying to Scotland to England. In their attempts to
the independence of Scotland, the Scottish kings

1. Why couldn't the Scottish kings get much support from Scottish nobility in their struggle
against England? 2. Why did the Scottish kings try to avoid war with England? Why did the Scottish king James IV marry the daughter of Henry VII ? Did this marriage help to avoid war with England? 3. How many wars did Henrfi VIII make on Scotland? What were the results of both wars? 4. Why did Henry VIII want to marry his son Edward to the Queen of Scots Mary? Why didn't the marriage take place? 5. Why wasn't Mary welcomed by many Scottish nobles when she returned from France? Why did she have to escape to England? What happened to her in England?

QUESTIONS

not get much support from their nobility, Scottish nobility was not united: some of them ed closer friendship with England, and others ed to remain loyal to the old alliance with Knowing how weak they were, the Scottish usually tried to avoid war with England. They a peace treaty with Henry VII, and James IV, Scotland, married Henry VII's daughter Ma But it did not help. Henry VIII made two wars, Scotland. King James IV was killed during the war. James V, whose army was also badly de during the second war, died soon after the war. Henry VIII hoped to marry his son Edward James V's daughter, the baby Queen of Scots and in this way join the two countries together der an English king. But the Scots did not want marriage and sent Mary to France, where she ried the French king's son in 1558. However, I Margaret ['mo:gerrt] Maprapnta 110

Part 4, A Scottish King for EnglaRd.

Elizabeth I never married and had no children. Her closest relative was Mary's son, the Scottish king James VI, and after Elizabeth's death in 1603, he inherited the English throne. So, after a long struggle the two countries were united, but, ironically, j under a royal dynasty which came from Scotland.
111

QUESTION Who inherited the English throne after Elizabet death? Why? When was it?

CHAPTER 8

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

Part 1. Tudor Parliaments.
The Tudor monarchs did not like governing through parliament. Henry VII used Parliament only for introducing new laws. Henry VIII used it to raise money for war and for his struggle with Rome. The Tudor monarchs were certainly not more dem-

Fill
list:
st

CHAPTER REVIEW in the blanks with the correct words from

ubb
o

rm, Dut c h, c hart e re d,, E li z ab e t h, inhe

iit e d,

recognize, control, to auoid, harbours, encou reign, slauery, profits, destroyed, riual. 1. continued Henry VII's work and foreign trade.

ocratic than the kings that had ruled the country

before them. In the early 16th century Parliament only met when the monarch ordered it. Sornetimes it met twice in one year, but then it might not meet again for six years. Henry VIII assembled Parliament to make the laws for Church reformation. In forty-five years of Elizabeth's reign she only let Parliament meet fourteen times. Only two things persuaded the Tudor monarchs not to get rid of Parliament altogether: they needed money and they needed the support of the merchants and landowners, whose representatives sat in Parliament. But by using Parliament to support their own policy, the Tudors actually increased Parliament's authority. During the 16th century real power in Parliament moved from the House of Lords to the House of Commons. The reason for this was simple. The Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons represented richer and more influential classes than the Lords. In fact, the idea of getting rid of the House of Lords, a question which is still discussed in British politics today, was first suggested in the 16tr' century. Parliament did not really represent the people. The monarchy used its influence to make Parliament sup113

2. Elizabeth considered Spain her main t

and enemy. 3. Elizabeth helped the Protestants allowing their ships to use English 4. In L587 Francis Drake attacked and part of the Spanish Armada. b. By 1650 had become an important tr
6.

During Elizabeth's

so-call

companies were established.

7. The chartered company gave some of i to the Crown. 8. Both Henry VII and Henry VIII tried to b

9. Henry VIII persuaded the Irish parliame

him as king of lreland. 10. In trying to make the Irish aceept his Engl Church Reformation, Henry met a
sistance. 11. The Scottish kings usually tried with England. 12. After Elizabeth's death, James
112

Wales and Ireland under English

VI of

Sco

the English throne.

port royal policy. In order to control discussion Parliament, the Crown appointed a Speaher. today the Speaker is responsible for good beha during debates in the House of Commons. The growing authority of Parliament led to question about the limits of its power. MPs were ginning to think that they had a right to
more and rhore questions. By the end of the 16th cei tury, when the gentry and merchant classes their strength, it was obvious that sooner or l, Parliament would challenge the Crown. Eventually resulted in war.

1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

,
tI4

QUESTIONS. monarchs like governing the Did the Tudor try through Parliament? What did Henry VII ar Henry VIII use Parliament for? Did Parliament meet regularly in the 16th tury? How many times did it .meet during forty-five years of Elizabeth's reign? If the Tudor kings did not like governing country through Parliament, why didn't they g rid of it altogether? Why did the House of Commons play a more portant role in Parliament than. the House Lords? Whom did the MPs in the House of Co mons represent? Why did the Crown appoint a Speaker in Parl ment? What is the Speaker responsible for in t day's Parliament? What question did the growing authority of liament lead to? What were the MPs beginn to think? What was obvious by the end of t 16th century?

side was still untouched. There were great forests of oak trees and unused land. There were still wild animals: wild pigs, wild cattle and even a few wolves. QnIy a few towns had more than 3,000 people. Most towns were no more than large villages, and the people living there worked on their own fields and farms, like in a village. Even London, a large city of over 60,000 by 1500, had fields around it, which its citizens farmed. In the 16th century, however, this picture began to change rapidly.'The population increased, the unused land was cleared for sheep, and large areas of forest were cut down to provide wood for the growing shipbuilding industry. England was beginning to face great social and economic problems. The price of food and other goods rose steeply during the 16th and early 17th centuries. At the same time real wagesl fell by half2. Another problem was the sudden increase in population. In England and Wales the population almost doubled from 2,2 lrrIllion in L525 to 4 million in 1603. Twice the number of people needed twice the amount of food. It was not produced. Great masses of population became poor. The countryside population divided into two parts. The people who did bests in this situation were the yeoman farmersa who had at least 100 acres of land. They employed men to work on their land and produced
peaJrbHafl BaprrJrara real wages ['wcrd3rz] fell by half - cHltalrJlacb HauoJroBrrHy Jlro4u, Koropbre rpeycne.rrr.r 6olrrue The people who did best
BCeX

Part 2. Ghanges in the Life of People. At the end of the l5th'century much of the country-

yeoman farmers [Joumen'fo:nrazf rpepxepw\

fiomenrr (sa.atuntounwe
115

food to sell. They worked as farmers during the but were "gentlemen" on Sundays. They were able increase the prices of the food they produced, beca there was not enough food in the markets. Most people, however, had only twenty acres

always belonged to the whole village. This process

of fencing off
common land is known as enclosuresr. Enclosures were often carried

land, or less. Because of the growing population, it wad for a man to find work or to produce enough food his family.
QUESTIONS 1. How did the country look at the end of the 15 century? Was there much difference between tl way of people's life in towns and villages? Whr was in common? 2. How did the picture change in the 16th centu What was the unused land cleared for? Why wer large areas of wood cut down? 3. How did the price of food change? How did thi
:

out against the

law, but because

magistrates were themselves land-

Spinners at work

lords, few peasants could prevent it. As a result, many poor people lost the land which they had farmed, as well as the common land where they kept animals.

4.

wages change? How did the countryside population divide? Wtil were the yeoman farmers? What helped them become still richer?

The production of cloth, the most important of England's products, reached its greatest importance during the 16th century. Clothmakers bought raw wool and gave it to spinners. The spinners were mostly women and children, who worked in their poor cottages for very little payment. After the spinners the wool was passed to weavers. When the cloth was ready,

it was sold.

Part 3. Economy.
\Mool and Clothmaking Industry. Many ers found that they could make more money fror breeding sheep than from growing crops. They-co sell the wool for a good price to the rapidly grolt/ clothmaking industryr. They needed more land the sheep to graze, so they fenced off2 land that

Coal and Steel. In the 16th century people learned to burn coal in stoves instead of wood. Coal gave greater heat when burning. By using coal instead of wood fires, people were able to produce greatly improved steel. Improved steel was used to make knives and forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Birminghamz, by using coal fires to make steel, grew in the 16th century from a village into an important industrial city.

I clothmaking industry [poMbrruJlerrnocrb -cyrcouHas 2 fenced off o6nocuau aa6opou, (oropaxclilBaJlr4D 116

I enclosures Irn'klougcz] -oroparxr{Bar{rre i Birmingham ['bc:mr4cm] Bupvrunrenr -

117

A coal-mine

1. Why did many landowners decide to breed sheep? 2. What did the big landowners do to get more land for their sheep to graze? 3. Enclosing land was of ten against the law, yet tho

QUESTIONS

order to eat. In the middle of the 16th century there were over 10,000 people on the roads. Crime was inr:reasing. In order to control the growing problem of wandering homeless people, Parliament passed a law lorbidding people to move from the parish where they had been born without permission. Any person who was caught on the road homeless and unemployed could be executed. However, even these severe measrrres did not solve the crime problem. There were years in which the harvest was very poor, and that made the problem of the poor still worse. In 1601 Parliament passed the first Poor Law. This law made local people responsible for the poor in their own area. It gave power to magistrates to raise moneyr in the parish to provide food, housing and work for the poor and homeless of the same parish.

4. What

peasants could not prevent it. Why? became the most important of England't

products in the 16th century? 5. What did people learn to burn in stoves instead of wood in the 16th century? What was the ad.
vantage of burning coal? What did they make of improved steel?

1. What was the damage caused by enclosures? 2. What law did Parliament pass? With what purpose was this law passed? What was the punishment for wandering along the roads? Did these
measures solve the crime problem?

QUESTIONS

3. What law was passed in 1601? What is the contents of this law? Part 5. Domestic Life.

Part 4. The Problem of the Poor.

Enclosures caused great damage. Peasants who lost their Iand could not provide forl their families. Peo. ple Ieft their homes and went from place to place trying to find work or food. Many people stole in

Everyday life in families was hard. Most women had between eight and fifteen children, and many women died in childbirth. About half the children died at a young age. No one could hope for a long married life because the dangers to life were great.
I to raise molley co6upatb Aeubru
119

provide for

118

o6ecue.rueart

4. What improvements in domestic life appeared in

the
16th century?

Part 6. Language and Gulture.

A wealthy family in the 16th century

Both rich and poor lived in small family groups. Grown-up brothers and sisters usually did not live with each other or with their parents. They tried to find a place of their own. Over half the population was under 25 years of age, while only few were over 60. Queen Elizabeth reached the age of 7O, but thie
was unusual. Most people worked hard and died young, Poor children started work at the age of 6 or 7, In spite of the hard conditions of life, most people had a larger and better horne than ever before. Stoveg

with chimneys, which before had only been used in the homes of the rich, were now built in every house.
This made cooking and heating easier and more com. fortable.

1. What facts show that family life in the 16th cen. tury was hard? 2. How long did people live? 3. At what age did the children of poor familiea start work?
120

SUESTTONS

by lord and peasant alike. From Tudor times onwards the way people spoke began to show the difference between them. Educated people began to speak ,,cor_ trect" English, and uneducated people continued to speak the local dialects. Literacy increased greatly during the 16th centu_ ry. By the beginning of the 16th century about half the population of England could read and write. Renaissance2 is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries, when, after the period of Middle Ages during which there had been litile edu_ cation, people became interested in the art, litera_ ture and ideas of ancient Greeces. This interest caused the appearance of outstanding thinkers, scientists, artists and writers. England felt the effects of the Renaissance later than much of Europe because it was an island" In the early years of the 16th century English thinkers be_ came interested in the work of the Dutch philosopher

in the mid_fourteenth century, London Englistt, had become accepted as standard English. Printing made this standard Eng_ lish more widely accepted among the literate public. For the first time people started to think of London pronunciation as "correct" pronunciation. Until Tu_ <ior times the local forms of speech had been spoken

Since the time of, Chaucert,

I ' "

t{ocep Chaucer ['rf.r:sc] Renaissance [n'ncrsons.l peaeccanc (anoxa Boepox4eHua) Greece [gri:s] fpequa-

121

Erasmusl. One of them, mas More2, wrote a book which he described an nation. The book was Utopia3. It was very PoPu throughout EuroPe. .

4. What is Renaissance? 5. Who was Thomas More? What book did he write? What did he describe in his book? 6. What spheres of life did Renaissance influence? 7. What kind of painting did English masters develop?

enced religion, music a painting. In painting Engl masters develoPed their special kind of Painting'
miniature Portrait. In literature such names Christopher Marlowea, Jonsont and WilHam Shakespeare6, were very lar. The plays which they wrote were staged in theatres, and the public enjoyed them' Shake'spedr popularity, os we know, has not died down until o{ iirr,", and his plays are still staged in many theattt throughout the world.
Thomas More

The Renaissance also in

8. What writers were popular in the 16th century?

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word

combinations from the list: dattage, breeding, introducing, rid, gouerning, Speaher, Aeoman farmers, fenced off , responsible, increased, amoltnt, royal, influential, challenge, enclostlres, to graze, literacy. 1. The Tudor monarchs did not like through Parliament. 2. Henry VII used Parliament only for
neW laws.

CHAPTER REVIEW

1. Since what time had London English become

cepted as standard English? 2. Was there any difference between the way ity and common people spoke before Tudor ti When did a difference become noticeable? 3. How did Iiteracy increase during the 16th cen

QUESTIONS

tury?
2 'r Utopia fiu'touPje] - Vtonr'r'a '5 Christophei ['krrstcfc] Marlowe ['nro:lou] - Kpllcrotpep Ben [ben] Jonson ['d3cnsn] - Beg ,{xconcon 'r Williaml'u'rljcrnl Shakespeare ['Jerkspro] VrE'nrsu III

their own policy, Parliament's authe Tudors actually thority. 4. MPs in the House of Commons represented richer classes than the Lords. and more 5. The idea of getting was first suggested in the 16th century. 6. The monarchy used its influence on Parliament policy. to make it support the 7. In order to control discussion in Parliament, the
3. By using Parliament to support

Erasmus Ir'rrezmcs] - EPaarvr Thomas More ['tlmcs'mc:] - Touac Mop

.Croryn appointed a 8. It was obvious that sooner or later Parliament the Crown. would 9. Twice the number of people needed twice the of food.
127

122

10. The employed men to work on produced food tcrsell. land and 11. Many landowners found that they could more money from growing crops. t2. The big landowners needed land for the so they land that had ia belonged to the whole village. 13. The practice of fencing off comm6n land is

UNIT FOUR

THE STt'ARTS
The Stuart ntonarchs were less successful than lhe Tud.ors. They quarrelled with Parliament and, this reaulted, in ciuil war. One of th.e Stuarts was executed. Another Stuart king was driuen from the lhrone. When the last Stuart, Queen Anne, died. in 1714, the monarchy was no longer absolutely poucrful as it had. been in the Tudor titnes. These important changes were the result of basic ch.angea in society. During the lVh century ecorlornlc pouter rnoued, into the hands of the merchant and landowning farmer classes. The Crown could, no longer raise rnoneA or govern usithout their cooperation.
CHAPTER 9

t4. Enclosures caused great

15. The Poor Law made local people for poor in their own area. greatly- increased during the 1 16.

century.

UNIT REVIEW
Who were these people? \Mhat did they do?'Write short about each of them. Henry VII Mary Tudor Mary Queen of Henry VIII Elizabeth I Thomas More

THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT

Part 1. James l.
Like Elizabeth, James I tried to rule without Parliament as much as possible. He believed in the diuine right of hingsl: the king was chosen by God and therefore only God could judge him. He expressed these ideas openly and this led to trouble with Parliament. When Elizabeth died, she left James with a huge debt. James had to ask Parliament to raise a tax2 to 'pay the debt. Parliament agreed, but in return insisted on the right to discuss James's home and forI the divine [dr'varn] right of kings 6oxecrseunoe npaBo rcopo.neft I to raise a tax BBecrr{ IraJIor -

124

125

eign policy. James did nd

agree to this, and so hf did not get the money.

James managed to rul the country without Parr liament between 1611 and 162I, but it was only po!. sible because Britain r. mained at peace. Jam6l

r,y, the national budget and the law. Charles realized l,ltat the Petition of Rights was putting an end to a king's divine right. So he dissolved Parliament again.

King James

Between 1629 and 1640 Charles successfully ruled without Parliament. He was able to balance his budgr,ls, he got rid of dishonesty among officialsl and rrrade administration efficient. By 1637 he was at the lrt:ight of his power. It seeined that Parliament would lrL)ver meet again.

could not afford the cogt of the army. In 1618, at the beginning of the Thirtl Years' War in Europe, Parliament wished to go t0 war against the Catholics, but James did not agretr Until his death in 1625 James was alwals euarrolr ling with Parliament over money and over its desitl to play a part in his foreign policy. Parliament against the Crown. Charles 11 quar. relled with Parliament even more bitterly than hlr

father had done. Mor. than once Charles diE. solved Parliament, but
had to recall

QUESTIONS 1. Why did James I try to rule without Parliament? What did he believe in? 2. Why did James I have to ask Parliament for money? Did he get the money? Why? ll. Did James manage to rule the country without Parliament? 4. How did Charles I's relations with Parliament develop? Why did he dissolve Parliament in 1628? 5. How did Charles I rule the country without Parliament between 1629 and 1640?

it again bo. cause he needed money. Ii t628, in return for moR.

ey, Parliament wanted Charles to sign a doett.
ment known as the Petl, tion of Rightsz, whiclt would give Parliament tho right to control state moR. I Charles I ['tJo:lz dc'fc:st] =
=

Part 2. Religious Disagreement.

The religious situation in Britain was not simple. There were people in the country who disagreed with the teachings of the Church of England. They said that the services of the Church of England had become too complicated and too rich and took too rnuch money. They wanted to make the Church of l,)ngland more modest, to purify it. These people were r':rlled Puritansz. Charles, who was married to a French
qrrHoBuuFiI{ officials [c'lrJclz] Puritans ['pjuclrtcnz] [yprrraHe -

King Charles

/the Petition Ipe'trJn] of Rights - flerrrrlza o rpaltal

Kap"r

r27

Catholic, disliked Puritans. Many MPs either Puritans themselves' or sympathized with them Events in Ireland. Events in Ireland resul civil war. James I had continued Elizabeth's po and had colonized Uister, the northern part of' land. The Catholic Irish were driven off t ir which were given to Protestant settlers from Er In 1641, at a moment when Charles badly period of quiet, Ireland exploded in rebellion ag ihe Protestant English settlers. 3.000 people women and children - were killed, most of thel Ulster. In London Charles and Parliament quarre over who should lead an army to defeat the ret Many MPs were afraid to give an army to Char they thought that Charles would use the army iri der to dissolve Parliament by force and to rule again. Charles's friendship towards the Catlt C-hurch increased Protestant fears' In 1642 Cha tried to arrest five MPs in Parliament' Althoug} was unsuccessful, it convinced Parliament and supporters all over England that they had good; son to fear.
'

Part 3. The Givil War.

London, where Parliament's influence was stronger, locked its gates against the king, and Charles moved to Nottinghaml, where he gathered an army to defeat those MPs who opposed him. The Civil War had started.

Most of the House of Lords and a few from the

House of Commons supported Charles. The Royalistsz,

known as Caualierss, controlled most of the north and west. Parliament controlled the east and southeast, including London. At first Parliament's army consisted of armed groups of London apprentices. Their short hair gave the Parliamentarian soldiers their popular name of Roundheadsa. The forces were not equal. Parliament was supported by the navy, by most of the merchants and by the population of London. So it controlled the most important national and international sources of wealth. The Royalists had no money. The soldiers of the Royalist
t
2 3 4

Roundheads ['raundhedz]

Nottingham ['nctrrlem] - Horrunreu pofiJr]rcru (crnoponnurcu rcopona) Royalists ['rcrahsts] - RaBaJrepbr Cavaliers [,keve'haz]

QUESTIONS 1. Why did some people in Britain criticizet Church of England? How did they want to c it? What were these people called? Why werg'f called Puritans? 2. Why did Charles I dislike Puritans? ,'i:: . 3. What happened in Ireland in 1641? quarrel aH 4. What did Charles and Parliament in connection with the events in Ireland? l 5. Why didn't Parliament want to give an arm'

rpyrnoroJroBrre

Charles?

,,

A Roundhead and a Cavalier

128

army were unpaid, and a result, they either away or stole from I villages and farms. In end, at the battle of N byr rn 1645, the RoYa army was finallY def ed. That was the end

I believed in the was by God him. could

James

king

of kings: the and therefore only God

Parliament, 3. More than once Charles I but had it again because he needed money. 4. There were people in Britain who disagreed with the of the Church of England. of the Church of 5. Some people said that the

the Civil War. PeoPle the country-side and the towns did not wa this war, and theY
The

6.

CivilWar

happy when

it

was over.l

8U ESTIONS 1. How did the Civil War start? , Who were Cavaliers and Roundheads? 3. What: parts of the country did the Royalists c< trol? What parts were controlled by the Parl mentarian armY? 4. What were the advantages of Parliament in Civil War? 5. When and where was the last battle of the Civll': War fought? What was the result of the battle?

9.

England had become too complicated and too rich. The wanted to make the Church of England more modest. against In 1641 Ireland exploded in the Protestant English settlers. The Royalists, known as , controlled most of the north and west. The Parliamentarian soldiers cut their hair short and got the name of

CHAPTER IO

REPUBLICAN AND RESTORATION BRITAIN

Part 1. Republic in Britain.
Oliver CromwelF. Several MPs had commanded the Parliamentarian army during the Civil War. The strongest of them was a gentleman farmer named Oliver Cromwell. He had created a new "model" army, the first regular force from which the British army of today developed. Instead of country people or gentry, Cromwell invited into his army educated men who wanted to fight for their beliefs.

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word'' combinations from the list: Caualiers, chosen, teachings, rebellion, to recall, Round.heads, to raise, iud.ge, Puritans, debt, dissolued, seruices, diuine right. a tax to 1. James I had to ask Parliament pay his

,I

lr

Naseby ['rrcrzbr]

130

Hefic6tr

I Oliver

Cromwell ['olrvo'kromwcl]

Onunep Kpovraenr
171

Cromwell and his advisers captured the king 1645, but they did not know what to do with This was an entirely new situation in English h ry. They could either bring Charles back to the t and allow him to rule, or remove him and create new political system. By this time most people both Houses of Parliament, and probably in the co try, wanted the king back. They were afraid of Parliamentarians and of the dangerous behaviour the army. But some army commanders were to get rid of the king. These men were Puritans, w believed they could build God's kingdom in England. Two-thirds of the MPs did not want to put t king on triall. They were removed from Parlia by Cromwell's army. The king was accused of trea. son2 and found guilty of3 "making war against kingdom and Parliament." On 31 January, 1649, Kint
Charles

I was executed.

The Scots were shocked by Charles's execution. ', They invited his son, whom they recognized as King Charles II, to join them and fight against the English Parliamentarian army. But they were defeated, ard,, young Charles himself had to escape to France. Scot.' Iand was brought under English republican rule. r,

I to put the king on trial npeAaBarb HopoJIfi cyAy 2 accused of treason [tri:zn] o6guHdH B rocyAapcrseHHofi IISMEHC
'r found guilty ['grltr] of 132 npr{BHaH BTTHoBHLTM
B

Cromwell took an army to Ireland "to punish the lrish" for the killing of Protestants in 1641 and for the continued Royalist rebellion there. He captured two towns. His soldiers killed the inhabitants of both towns, about 6,000 people. These killings were probably not worse than the killings of the Protestants in 1641, but they remained powerful symbols of English cruelty to the Irish. The Levellersl. There were people at that time who had new ideas. Their ideas seemed strange to most other people of the 17th century. These people spoke about equality among all men. They called themselves Levellers. By and by the ideas of the Levellers began to attract more and more people. They also spread into the army. There appeared Levellers among the officers and soldiers. In 1649 the Levellers in the army rebelled and put forward their demands. They said that Parliament must meet every two years and that aII men over the age of twenty-one must have the right to elect MPs to it. They also demanded complete religious freedom, so that all religious groups could follow their religion in the way they wished. Two hundred years later such demands were considered as basic citizens' rights. But in the middle of the 17th century they had little support among the people. The rebellion of the Levellers was suppressed. The Lord Protector. From 1653 Britain was governed by Cromwell alone. He became Lord Protector and had much more power than King Charles had had. But his efforts to govern the country through the army were extremely unpopular, and the idea of using the army to maintain law and order in the kingdom has remained

Levellers ['lcvclcz]

JleBeJrJrepbr' <ypaBulrrreru')

B3

unpopular ever since.

6. In what years was Britain a republic? Was the

republic a success? Why? 7. What was the reaction in Scotland to the execution of Charles I? What did the Scots do? Were they a success? 8. What did Cromwell do in Ireland? 9. Who were the Levellers? What idea did they speak
about? 10. When did the Levellers rebel? What demands did they put forward? Why was the rebellion of the Levellers suppressed? 11. In what year did Cromwell begin governing the country alone? What title did he take? 12. Were Cromwell's efforts to govern the country through the army popular? What did he forbid the people? 13. Who was Cromwell succeeded by after his death? In what way was his successor different from him? 14. How did the republic in Britain end?
lllil
l]il

other innovations unpopular too: peo were forbidden to brate Christmasr an

Eastef , or to play
on Sunday When Cromwell died
1658, he was succeeded by

rt
ll[t' rilit

ll
ilit

his son Richard. But

ll t;

chard Cromwell was

poor leader and could trol neither the army, Parliament. Nobody erned the country. It clear that the situation could be saved only by the ration of monarchy. In 1660 Charles II was invited return to his kingdom. The republic was over.

i[il lill
il,

1. Who was Oliver Cromwell? What new kind of army did he create? 2. When did Cromwell capture Charles? What wag the problem of the Parliamentarians in connec- & tion with the captured king? What choice did i they have? 3. Why did most people want the king back? What were they afraid of? 4. Who wanted to get rid of the king? What did the Puritans believe they could do? D. What was Charles I accused of? What was he found guilty of? When was he executed?
r$

QUESTIONS

Part 2. Restoration. With the restoration of monarchy, Parliament once more became as weak as it had been in the time of James I and Charles I. However, the new king, Charles II, did not want to make Parliament his enemy. He punished only those MPs who had been responsible for his father's execution. Many MPs were given positions of authority or responsibility in the new monarchy. But in general Parliament remained weak. Charles shared his father's belief in divine right, and he greatly admired the all-powerful, absolute ruler of France Louis XIVI.
I Louis ['lur] XIV i11ir

1 Christmas ['krrsmcs] Pox4ecteo 2 Easter ['i:ste] flacxa 134

JIyUXIV

ii

B5
itl

it

Charles hoped to make peace between the differ.

ent religious groups that existed in Britain at that time. He wanted to allow Puritans and Catholics, who disliked the Church of England, to meet freely.
whose members belonged to the Church of England, did not want to allow this. Charler himself was attracted to the Catholic Church. Par. liament knew this, and

"

But Parliament,

many MPs were worried that Charles would become The first political parties. The first political parties in Britain appeared in
Charles II's reign. One of these parties was a group of MPs who became known as Whigsl, a rude name for cattle drivers. The Whigs were afraid of an absolute monarchy and of the Catholic faith with which they connected it. They also wanted to have no regular army. The other party, which opposed the Whigs, was nicknamed Tories2, which is an Irish name for thieves. The Tories, who were natural inheritors of the Royalists of the Civil War, supported the Crown and the Church.
King Charles ll

'Ihese two parties, the Whigs and the Tories, beof Britain's two-party parliamentary system of government. The Glorious Revolutionl. The struggle over Catholicism became a crisis when James II became king after his brother's death in 1685. James II was a Catholic. He tried to revive the importance of the Catholic Church and give Catholics important positions in government and Parliament. Parliament was alarmed and angry. The Tories united with the Whigs against James. They decided that James II had lost his right to the crown.
oame the basis

James's daughter Mary

was a Protestant, and she was

a Catholic.

married to the Protestant

ruler of Holland2, William of Oranges. Parliament invited William of Orange to invade England. In 1688 William entered London. James was in danger and fled from England. The English crown was offered to William and Mary. The events of 1688 went down into history as the Glo1 The Glorious Revolution CJrasHag peBoJrroqr{ff
ev'cnnd3]

King William lll

1 Whigs [wrgz] Buru 2 Tories ['tc:rrz] - Topu

136

2 Holland ['hclend] foa.naH4ua 3 William of Orange ['wtljam -

Bznrrenrrvr Opaucxzfi

Queen Mary ll

rious Revolution. It was not really a revolution: fact it was a coup d'etatr organized by the class. Now Parliament was much more powerful the king. Its power over the monarch was wri into the Bill of Rights2 in 1689. The Bill of stated that the king could not raise taxes or keep army without the agreement of Parliament., The uriion with Scotland. Scotland was still a

5. When did the contradiction about religion grow into a crisis? Why? 6. Why did the Tories unite with the Whigs against
James
t

II

arate kingdom, although both countries had the king (James II was James VII of Scotland). The lish wanted England and Scotland to be united. land wanted to remove the limits on trade with En land from which it suffered economically. The Parliament promised to remove these limits if Scots agreed to the union with England. Finally, l7O7; the union of Scotland and England was pleted by an Act of Parliaments. The state got a name: Great Britain. The separate parliaments of countries stopped functioning. A new parliament, Parliament of Great Britain, met for the first

7. What important statement did Parliament make about James II ? Why did they invite William of Orange to invade England? How was WiIIiam connected with the English throne? 8. When did William of Orange invade England? Why did James II flee from the country? Whom did Parliament offer the English crown? 9. Was the Glorious Revolution really a revolution? 10. How was the king's power limited as a result of the Glorious Revolution? 11. Why did Scotland agree to the union with EngIand? In what year was the union officially completed? What was the new official name of the united state?

Part 3. Foreign Relations.

During the 17th century Britain's main rivals were Spain, Holland and France. There was a competition in trade between England and Holland. After three wars Britain achieved the trade position it wanted. At the end of the century Britain went to war against France. Partly it was because William of Orange had struggled with France before he came to the English throne. But Britain also wanted to limit French power, which had been growing under Louis XIV. The British army won several important victories over the French. By the treaty of Utrechll in

1. How did the position of Parliament change the restoration of monarchy? 2. What did Charles II do because he did not w to make Parliament his enemy?
3. What were the contradictions between Charles and Parliament about Catholics and Puritans? 4. When did the first political parties appear in ain? What were they called? What were the principles of each of the two parties?

QUESTIONS

['ku:der'to] - Op. 2 the Bill of Rights Br.r.n.nr o upaBax 3 an Act of Parliament arcr flapaauenta

coup d'etat

fiepeBopor

138

Utrecht I ju:trekt]

Vrpexr

B9

tarl, so now it controlled the entrance to the

terranean2 from the Atlantic Ocean. Colonizing foreign lands was important for rope's economic development. In the 17th c Britain did not have so many colonies abroad as ther Spain or Holland, but it had greater variety. had twelve colonies on the east coast of North A ica. In the West Indiess it had new colonies w sugar was grown. Besides, by this time Britain's India Company had established its first trading tlements in India, on both the west and east

I7I3 Britain got possession of the rock of

among 3. The Levellers spoke about all men. 4. The idea of using the army to maintain law and to order in the country has remained this day.
5.

6.
t.

In 1653 Cromwell With the

became Lord

of monarchy Parliament

8.

became weak again. were afraid of an absolute monThe Catholic faith. archy and of the supported the Crown and the The

Church.

1.What countries were Britain's main rivals in

17th century?

QUESTIONS

9. The Whigs and the Tories became the basis of parliamentary system of Britain's
government. 10. Parliament invited William of Orange England. 11. The events of 1688 went down into history as the

2.What were the reasons of the wars with and France? What did Britain achieve as a of these wars? 3.What was colonizing foreign lands important What colonies did Britain have in North in the West Indies and in India?
CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and combinations from the list: to inoade, Glorious Reuolution, Whigs, acc unpopular, two-party, equality, Tories, executed, of Rights, restoration, Protector. 1. The king was of treason. 2. On January 31, 1649, King Charles ! was
[d3r'bro:lto] ' 2 the Mediterranean [,mcdrtc'rernjon] CpegzaeMHoe 3 the West Indies ['wcst'rndrz] Becr-I,Ingua -

stated that the king could not 12. The raise taxes or keep an army without the agreement of Parliament.

CHAPTER

II

THE 17TH CENTURY SOCIETY

Part 1. Reconsidering religious dogmas.
The influence of Puritanism increased greatly during the 17th century, especially among the classes of merchants and the lesser gentry. The new official transIation of the Bible encouraged Bible reading among all those who could read. Some people understood the Bible in a new way. As a result, by the middle of the 17ih

Gibraltar

fu6parrap

Mope

140

l4l

period, John Bunyans, who wrote "The Pilgrim'e Progress"a, and John Miltons, who wrote "Paradiee Lost"6, were both Puritans.
SUESTTONS

century Puritanism had led to the formation of a large number of small new religious groups or sects. Most of these Non. conformistL sects lasted only a few years, but one is important, that is the sect of people who called themselves Quakers2, or Friends. The Quakerl became particularly famous for their reform. ing social work in the A Quaker meeting 18tr'century. The Church of England, unlike the Nonconformiet churches, was strong politically, but it became weaker intellectually. The great religious writers of the

;1. What was the disadvantage of the Church of England in comparison with the Nonconformist move-

ment?

L Who were the two great religious writers of the

century? What books did they write?

Part 2. Revolution in Scientific Thinking.

The revolution in religious thinking coincided with the revolution in scientific thinking. A new approach to science was established at the very beginning of the century by Francis Baconl, who was known for his work on scientific method. He said that every scientific idea must be tested by ex-

lreriment, and with idea and experiment following one another, the whole natural world would be unrlerstood. The British scientists put Francis Bacon's

'

Francis Bacon ['tr-aensrs'berkon]

(Dpancuc Barou

1. What fact encouraged Bible reading among tho people? How did some people understand the Bible? What did it lead to? 2. Which of the Nonconformist sects that appeared in the 17il' century became particularly famous? I Nonconforrnist
2 :]

| "The Pilgrirn's Progress" <flvrs naJroMHI{Ka> :' John Milton ['d3rn'nrrltn] - .{xoH Mpr.nrron 6 "Paradise Lost" ['plcradars'bst] <llorepannrrft pafi> 142

pacKonbHrrqecrcufi Quakers ['ku,crkcz] - FiBaFiepbr John Bunyan ['d3rrr'b,rnjcn] - Axon EantRn

['nrnkcrr't:l:rnrst]

nonnontpopwrncrcxufi,

The Royal Observatory in Greenwich founded by Charles ll

of the greatest books in the history of science. Newton's work remained the basis of physics until Einstein'sr discoveries in the 20th century.
one

topher 'Wrenz, was also professor of astronomy at Oxford. He is famous for rebuilding London after the Great Fire of 1666. who establisheo ^tf#;t?I"ln," science? what was the essenee of his new approach? , Did the Stuart Monarchs encourage scientific studies? What important institution was founded in their reign? 3' What discovery did William Harvey make in
7.

The greatest British architect of the time, Sir Chris-

London rebuilt after the Great Fire in 1666

ideas into practice, attaching much importance to experiment and research. The scientific studies were encouraged by the Stup arts. The Royal Societyl, founded by the Stuart mon. archy, became an important centre where thinkerl could meet, argue and share information. In 1628 William Harvey2 discovered the circuh. tion of blood, and this led to great advances in med. icine and in the study of the human body. In 1666 the Cambridge professor of mathematlol Sir Isaac Newtons began to study gravity. He pub. lished his important discovery in 1684. In 1687 hf published "Principia"4, or "The Mathematical Prln, ciples of Natural Philosoph7"u, which is considered
1

7628?
4. b.

What is Christopher Wren famous for? What did Isaac Newton study? What is the title of his famous book?

Part 3. Life in the Stuart Age.

The situation for the poor improved in the second half of the 17th century. Prices fell compared with wages, and fewer people had to ask for help from the parish. The middle groups continued to do well. Many who started life as yeoman farmers or traders became minor gentry or merchants. Trade in Britain greatly developed in the 17il' century. Different regions of the country became less economically separated from each other. No place in Britain was more than 75 miles from the sea, and

3 4 5

The Royal Society - Koporencftoe Hayrrgoe o6rqecrno William Harvey ['wlljam'ho:vl] - Vn.nravr fapnefi Isaac Newton ['arzrk'nju:ten] Vcaax Hrroron
m

"Principia" [pnn'slpre] - <Haqa.na> Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" "The

,

[0c

e0 e\netrkal'punsrplz av'nrtJ eral fi'

csafi]
>

HaqaJra HarypaJrbHofi (rr.uocoQun

<,

Matennerl{qecrctf

I Einstein ['arnstarn] Efinurreiis 2 Christopher Wren -['krrstcfc'rcn]

144

Kpucrotlrep Pen
145

very few places were more than 20 miles from a ri or canal. These waterways became important of transport. Before the 17th century most towns did not h shops. They had market days on which farmers manufacturers sold their produce in the town squ or marketplace. By 1690, however, most towns had proper shops. Shopkeepers travelled around thr country to buy for their shops new goods, which drew i people from the countryside to see and buy them, g The towns u'hich had shops grew larger. * London. London remained much larger than anyf other town. By 1650 more than 500,000 people lived ! in it. The next largest cities, Norwichl, Newcastlel ! and Bristol3 had only 25,000 each.
u

A coffeehouse

1 Norwich ['nrrrd3] Hopragrx 2 Newcastle ['nju:ko:sl] Hrroxac,r

'' Bristol

['hrrst:rll

Epucro.us

In London there was a new class of aristocrats. These people were rich, and most of them were representatives of old nobility. Some of the aristocrats, however, were "new no' bility" who had bought themselves titles for much money. Some of the older Tudor nobility did not want to accept the "new nobles" as equals. They called themselves squires (which means the ruling class of the countryside) and looked down uponl the upstarts2. After 1650 the rich began to meet in the new coffee-houses, which quickly became the meeting places for conversation and discussing politics. These coffee-houses later developed into present-day clubs, which are so popular in England today.
t looked down rrpon cMorpeJlu :' upstarts BbrcKoirKrr cBF,IcoRa Ha

A house of a wealthy family

146

147

u7
QUESTIONS. 1. How did the life of people improve in the 17ch century? I Trade in the 17th century greatly developed, didn't it? Why did different regions of the country become less separated from each other? 3. How many people lived in London in 1650? 4. What was the new class in London? Who was this new class represented by? Who were "new

nobility"?
later into? develop 6. Who was considered the person of authority in the l7th-century family? What was the father of the family responsible for? What \Mere his religious duties in the family? 7. What was expected on the part of the wife and children? How was disobedience regarded? 8. What was the negative result of the enormous growth of the father's authority in the family?
5. What were the coffee-houses? What did they

A typical farmhouse

Family life. In the 17tr' century the authority oll the father in the family continued to grow. It wae the result of the increasing authority of the Church. The Protestants believed that teaching religion in the family was important, and put the responsibil. ity on the head of the family. The father always led daily family prayers and Bible reading. In some wayg he had taken the place of the priest. Absolute obedience on the part ofl his wife and children was expected. Disobedience was considered an act against God as well as the head of the house. One result of this growth of the father's authority was that children were frequently beaten to break their "sinful" will. A child who was not beaten was
unusual.

on the part of

co cropoHbr

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words or word combinations from the list: Royal Society, aristocrats, grauity, disobedience, Quahers, coincided, Puritanism, circulation, discussing, scientific, intellectually, Francis Bacon. 1. The influence of increased greatly during the 17th century. 2. The became particularly famous for their reforming social work. 3. The Church of England was strong politically, but it became weaker
149

148

,J*

4. The revolution in religious

with the revolution

in

thinking thinking.
UNIT FIVE

established a new approach to 5. 6. In 1628 William Harvey discovered the of blood. 7. The became an important cen where thinkers could meet, argue and sharg

BRITAIN IN THE 18TH CENTURY Well before the end of the 78th century Britain had becofir,e a uerA powerful country. It became wealthy th.rough trade. The wealJh mad,e possible both an agricultural and an industrial reaolution, whieh, rnad,e Britain the most economically a.d,vanced country in the world. Howeuer, there was a reuerse sid,e to jt: while a few people became richer, rn&nV others lost their land,, their hornes and their way of life. Famities were d.riuen off the land, in another period of encloEures. They becanne the working proletariat of the
cities. The inuention of rnachinery destroyed, the old, "cottage ind.ustries" artd, created, factories. At the san'Le time it caused. the glrowth of unernployntent. This splitting of society into very rich and very poor w&s a great d.anger to the established. order. In France the misery of the poor and. the power of the trading classes led to reuolution in 1789. Britain wal saved from reaolution partly by the high leuel

formation. 8. In 1666 Sir Isaac Newton began to study o In London there was a new class of 10. The coffee-houses quickly became the politics, places for conversation and 11. to the father was considered an against God.

UNIT REVIEW Who were these people?'What did they do? W few words about each of them. William of Orange Charles I Francis Bacon Oliver Cromwell John Milton Isaac Newton Christopher Wren

of local control of the ruling blass in the eountry.sid,e and, partly by Methodisnt,, a new religious trlouetnent which offered, hope and. self-respect to the new proletariat.

150

t51

r
CHAPTER
12

E
CHANGES IN POLITICAL LIFE
Part 1. Politics and Money.
The new dynasty. King James I had a granddaugh' ter, Sophial, who was a Protestant. She married tho Elector of Hanover2, also a Protestant. The British Parliament declared their son, George Hanover3, the heir to the English throne after Queen Anne, who had no surviving children. When Queen Anne died itt 17L4, George Hanover ascended the English throne{ as George I, thus starting a new dynasty.

English throne. In 1715 he started a rebellion against George I. But the rebellion was put down: George's army defeated the English and Scottish Jacobitesl, as Stuart supporters were
called. The Bank of England. At the end of the 17th century the government had to borrow money in order to pay for the war with France. In King George I L694, a group of financiers who lent money to the government decided to establish a bank, and the government agreed to borrow only from this bank. The new bank was called the Bank of England. It was given the right to print bank notes, u'hich could be used instead of coins. The paper money which is used today developed from these bank notes. Robert Walpole2. The power of the government during the reign of George I was increased because ihe new king did not seem very interested in his king-

Georgelwasastrange
king. He was a true German and did not try to follow English customs. He could not speak English and spoko to his ministers in French. But Parliament supported him because he was a Prot.
estant.

Oueen Anne

who wanted the deposed James II's sotr to return to Britain as James III. James did not want to change his religion, but he wanted the

There were some Tories

1 Sophia ['soufa] Co$lra 2 the Elector [r'lekte] of Hanover ['heeneva] xyp{rropcr fauuoaepa 3 George Hanover ['d3c:d3'hanave] Ieopr lannoaep - throne a ascended Ie'sendrd] the English Ha - BcrynuJl anrrnfr,cxufi upecroa
152

dorn. The greatest political leader of the time was Robert Walpole. He is considered Britain's first Prime Mi.nister. In the other countries of Europe kings and queens had absolute power. Britain was unusual, and Walpole was determined to keep the Crown under the firm control of Parliament. Walpole developed the

I Jacobites ['d3rkebarts] sxo6rarrr 2 Robert Waipole ['rcbat'wc:lpoul] - Po6epr

Vonuon
153

-ET
political results of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, He insisted that the power of the king should alwayr be limited by the constitution. The limits to royal power were these: the king could not be a Catholic; the king could not remove or change Iaws; the king depended on Parliament for his money and for his army. Lord Chathaml. Walpole wanted to avoid war be. cause it took a lot of money. The most important political enemy of Walpole was 'William pitt the Elder2, later Lord Chatham. Chatham was sure that in order to be economically strong in the world, Brit. ain should develop international trade. Trade involved competition. France was the main rival of Britain because it had many colonies. Chatham was certain that Britain must beat France in the competition for overseas markets. When Chatham was in the govern. ment, he decided to make the British navy stronger than that of France or any other nation. He also decid. ed to seize a number of France's trading ports abroad. The war with France. The war with France broke

An East lndia Company official with his escort

out in L756 and went on all over the world. In Canada the British took Quebecs in 1759 and Mon"
treala the following year. This gave the British con.

trol of the important fish, fur and wood trades. In India the army of the British East India Company defeated French armies both in Bengals and in the south near Madras6. Soon Britain controlled most
['tJrtcm] - Jlopa r{arevr 'z William Pitt the Elder - Vr.r;rr,sm llurr Crapnrzfi n Quebed [kwr'bck] Kee6er I Montreal [.mrntrr'J:l] Monpea.rrr 5 Bengal ['be4gc:l] Beura.rrus 6 Madras [u-re'dro;s]- Ma4pac
154

I Lord Chatham

make their fortunel. Growth of international trade. During the rest of the century Britain's international trade increased rapidly. By the end of the century the West Indies were the most profitable part of Britain's new empire. They formed one corner of a profitable trade triangle. Knives, swords and cloth made in British factories were taken to West Africa and exchanged for slaves. The slaves were taken to the West Indies where they worked on large plantabions growing sugar. From the West Indies the ships returned to Britain carrying great loads of sugar which had been grown by the slaves. Voting. Parliament represented only a very small number of people: in the 18th century voting was not universal. Only house owners with a certain income

of India. Many Britons started to go to India

to

I to make their fortune

COCTOffHUe'>

['fo:tJcn]

paa6orarerb, ((cxororrrrb
155

had the right to vote. As a result, while the populo. tion of Britain was almost eight million, there fewer than 250,000 voters. Besides, the voters controlled by a small number of very rich
owners, who sometimes acted together as a town

7. What were the limits to royal power? 8. Who was the most important political enemy of

Walpole?
9. What was Lord Chatham sure of? 10. Why was France the main rival of Britain in international trade? What was Lord Chatham determined to do in this connection? 11. When did the war with France break out? Was it waged only in Europe? What advantages did Britain achieve as a result of the war? 12. What colony was the most profitable part of Britain's new empire? 13. What was the "profitable trade triangle"? How

to control those who sat in Parliament and make suro that the MPs did what they wanted. No one could say that Parliament in those days was democratic.

ordinary farmers did not own land: they rented lt' from greater landowners. I not done in secret, and no the wishes of his landlord Other voters voted for the "right man,, for a gift of money: in other words, their votes were ,,bought." In i this way the great land-owning aristocrats were ablo
4'
"!

guES?IONS

1. How did the Hanover dynasty come to reign over Britain? 2. What kind of king was George I? Why did par.
liament support him?

did it function? 14. Was voting universal in the 18th century? Who had the right to vote? 15. Who were the voters controlled by? 16. How many representatives were sent to Parliament from each town and each county? 17. How did ordinary farmers depend on greater lando\vners in their voting? Explain. 18. How did the great land-owning aristocrats make sure that MPs did what they wanted? Explain.

3. What did some Tories want? When did the Jaco. 4. When
bite rebellion start? How did

Part 2. Developing Public Opinion.

Between l75O and 1770 the number of newspapers published in the country increased. Newspapers were read by many people who could never hope to vote because they were not rich enough, but who were interested in the important matters of the times. These people were clerks, skilled workers and tradesmen. Newspapers sent their own reporters to listen to Parliament discussions and write about them. Politics
157

it

finish?

innovation did the Bank of England introduce? What did the present-day paper money develop
from?

was the Bank of England established? What

5. Who was Robert Walpole? 6. How did Walpole develop the political results of
the Glorious Revolution?
156

&

were no longer a monopoly of the land-owning gentry. The age of public opinion had arrived. The loss of the American colonies. In L764 there was a serious quarrel over taxation between the British government and the colonies in America. The population of the British colonies in America was rapidly growing. In 1700 there had been only 200,000 colonists, but by I77O there were already 2,5 million. Some American colonists decided that it was not lawful for the British government to tax them without their agreement. They said that if they paid taxes to the British government, they

not want to pay a tax on it which the British government demanded. The event became known as the Boston tea-party. The British government answered by closing the port. The colonists rebelled. The AmericanWar of Independence began. The war in America lasted from 1775 until 1783. The result was a complete defeat of the British forces. Britain lost all its colonies in America, except
Canadal.

must have their own representatives in British Parliament. In1773 a group of colonists at the port of Bostonr threw a shipload of teaz into the sea because they did
Boston ['brstcn] - Boctonrrafl rpya a shipload of tea

Radicals. Many British politicians openly supported the colonists. They were called radicals. For the first time British politicians supported the rights of the king's subjects abroad to govern themselves and to fight for their rights against the king. The war in America brought new ideas of democracy.
1. How 2. ri.

4"

b.

6.

QUESTIONS did the increased number of newspapers influence public opinion? What did the British government and the American colonies quarrel over in L764? Why did the American colonists decide that it was not lawful for the British government to tax them? What did they say? What happened in Boston tn 1773? What is the event called? Why did the colonists throw the load of tea overboard? When did the American War of Independence begin? How long did it last? What was the result of the war? What new ideas did the War of Independence in America bring? Who were the radicals?
Kana4a
159

The Boston Tea-party

158

I Canada ['kienadc]

t
Part 3. lreland

not become members of the Dublin Parliament and could not vote in parliamentary elections. No Catho. lic could become a lawyer, go to university, or joln
the navy. The Catholics were second-class citizens ln their own land. It was only natural that hatred bc. tween the ruling Protestant settlers and the ruled Catholic Irish was growing. In order to increase British control, Ireland wal united with Britain in 1801 and the Dublin Parliq. ment was closed. The United Kingdom of Great Brlt, ain and Ireland lasted f.or I20 years, until 192L, when the independent Irish Republic was formed.

The battle at Culloden

1. What made the position of the Irish Catholiot miserable? What rights were they deprived of? 2. What was done in order to increase British coni

QUESTIONS

It

trol over Ireland? When was it

done?

3. How long did the United Kingdom of Great Brit.

ain and Ireland last? When was the independent Irish Republic formed?
The rebellion was finished'

Part 4. Scotland. The Stuarts made more than one attempt to win back the English throne. The first Jacobite revolt to win the crown for James II's son, in 1715, had been unsuccessful. In 1745 the Stuarts tried again. James
I
Drrblin ['dnblrn]
160

1 Bonnie Prince Charlie

['bcru'prIns'tJo:h]

Kpacunrrfi trpunq

TJIAHA'1I{
Culloden [ka'lcdn] Inverness [,rnva'nes]
Ka;rno4en

<xafi.nerrAepbrt'

o6uratelu

Bbrco-

94un6YPr

,{y6auH

Llnaepxec
161

1. When
.)

QUESTIONS did the Jacobites make the second at to seize the English throne for the Stuarts? Who was Bonnie Prince Charlie? What did

11. There was a serious

in

1745?

L2.

3. Who was Bonnie Prince Charlie supported

Why was his army defeated?
CHAPTER REVId,W Fill in the blanks with the correct words or combinations from the list: uoters, profitable, increased, taxation, report a scended, b ank notes, f ortune, law f ul, limit ed, de racA, democratic, income, Parliament, county. 1. The Bank of England was given the right to

13.

quarrel over between thq British government and the colonies in America. Some American colonists said that it was not for the British government to tax them without their agreement. The war in America brought new ideas of

L4. When Queen Anne died in 1714, George Hanover the English throne.

2. Walpole insisted that the power of the king s

by the constitution. Many Britons went to India to make their By the end of the century the West Indies the most part of Britain's new pire. 5. Only house owners with a certain had the right to vote.
be

'

LIFE IN TOWNAND IN THE COUNTRYSIDE

Part 1. Life in Towns.

CHAPTER T3

6.

The

were controlled by a small n

of very rich property owners. 7. Each and each town sent two sentatives to 8. No one could say that Parliament in those
was

In 1700 England was still a land of small villages. In the northern areas of England the large cities of the future, such as Liverpooll, Manchester2, Birminghams, Sheffielda and Leedss were only just beginning to grow. All the towns smelled bad. There were no drains6. The streets were dirty. The towns were centres of disease. As a result, only one child in four in London lived to become an adult. During the 18th century efforts were made to make the towns healthier. The streets were built wider; so that carriages drawn by horses could pass each oth' Liverpool ['lrvspul].- Jlunepnyar '3 Mancirester 1'mentJrste] - Manvecrep Birmingham ['bc:mrqcm] - Bupuunrevr I Sheffield ['Jcflld] IIIetDOu"'I.q 5 Leeds [i:dz] Izgc 6 drains crorrrrbre rpy6rr, KaHaJrLLBaqIdfi -

9. Between 1750 and 1770 the number of pers published in the country L0. Newspapers sent their own ten to Parliament discussions.
162

'16?

r
er. From L734 London had a street lighting system. After 1760 many towns organized street cleaning. There were four main classes of people in the eighteenth-century towns: wealthy merchants, ordinary merchants and traders, skilled craftsmen, and a large number of workers who had no skills and who could not be sure of finding work.
,r

1. Why were the towns of the early 18th eentury centres of disease? 2. What changes were introduced during the 18th
century to make the towns healthier? 3. Which were the main classes of people in the century towns?
18th-

QUESTIONS

Part 2. Lite in the Countryside.

The countryside changed greatly during the 18th century. At the beginning of the century farming was still done as it had been for centuries. Each village was surrounded by large fields, which were not in individual possession. It was common land, and each villager farmed part of it. Beginning with the middle of the 17th century farming had become much more profitable. A.number of improvements had been introduced in farming methods. Farmers had begun to understand how to improve soil. The improvements made it possible to produce greater crops. But it was difficult to introduce these improvements when land was divided into small parts farmed by individual farmers. Small farmers could not afford the necessary machinery. People with money and influence, such as the village squire, persuaded their MPs to pass a law through
164

Parliament allowing them to take over common land and to enclose it. With one large area for each farm; the new machinery and methods worked very well. The enclosures and the farming improvements made agriculture in Britain more efficient than in almost any other country in Europe. At the same time, the enclosures were damaging for a lot of people. When common land was enclosed, the villagers had nowhere to grow their crops, so they could not feed their families. Some of them had built their houses on commbn land. When the common land was enclosed, their houses were destroyed, and they became homeless. To help homeless and unemployed people, parish worhhousesl were built, where the poor lived and were fed. Sometimes a local businessman who wanted cheap workers hired a workhouse. The poor people who were kept in this workhouse worked for the businessman, and he provided food in return for work. This quickly led to a system which was little better than slavery. In the workhouses children, as well as adults, worked long hours and got so little food that they were always hungry. Other people left their village and went to the towns to find work. They provided the cheap working force that made possible an industrial revolution which was to change2 the face of Britain.

1. How was farming done at the beginning of the 18th century? What was common land? 2. Why had farming become more profitable?
I parish workhouses [prrxoAcxue pa6otnbre AoMa 2 which waS to change roropofi upeAcroflJro rrsMeu?rrb -

QUESTIONS

165

3. Why was it difficult to introduce improvements' and use machinery in farming when land was di-'t vided into small parts? 4. During the 18ih century most of common land
was enclosed, wasn't it? What does the term "en-' closures" rnean?

6. A number of farming methods. 7. Small farmers could not

sary machinery.

urere introduced in the neces-

5. Who enclosed common land? How did they geti the suppqrt of Parliament for enclosures? 6. The enclosures, together with the farming improvements, made agriculture in Britain very efficient, didn't they? What was the negative side of the enclosures? 7. What attempts were made to help the poor? What is a workhouse? What were the conditions of life in the workhouses?
CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word combinations from the list: Iighting, cotnmon land, worhhouses, healthier, unemployed, wealthy, enclosed, improuements, disease, damaging, afford, shilled, enclosures, influence,
crops. 1. The towns were centres of 2. During the 18th century efforts were made to make the towns 3. From 1734 London had a street system. 4. There were four main classes of people in the 18th-century towns: merchants, ordinary merchants and traders, craftsmen, and workers who had no skills. 5. People with money and took over common land and it.
166

The and the farming improvements made agriculture more efficient. 9. The enclosures were for a lot of people. 10. When was enclosed, the villagers had nowhere to grow their 11. Parish were built to help homeless people. and

8.

CHAPTER

14

THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION

Part 1. lndustrial Revolution.
By the early 18th century simple machines had already been invented. With the help of the machines, large quantities of simple goods could be made quickly and cheaply. By the middle of the 18th century industry began to use coal for, changing iron ore into good quality iron or steel. This made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe. Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture ne\ry machinery for other industries. One invention led to another, and increased production in one area led to increased production in others. In the middle of the century other countries were buying British uniforms, equipment and weapons for their armies. To meet this increased demand, better methods of production were found, and new machinery was invented which replaced handwork. In 1764 a spin167

'4

ning machiner was invent. ed which could do the work of several hand spinners. The weauing machinez in. vented in 1785 revutionized clothmakings. It allowed Britain to make cheap cloth, and Lancawii 4 shire clothsa were sold in every continent. Factories supplied with machinery did not need so many workers as before, and that created a serious lndustrial revolution problem: a lot of workerg became unemployed. Workers tried to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who had been replaced at the factories by machines. In 17gg some of these rioters, known as Ludditess, began breaking up the machinery which had put them out of work. The situation in the country was very tense. people were afraid of a revolution like the one in France.

Rich and poor

3. What did increased iron production make it

sible to do?
4.
5.

pos-

What did other countries buy from Britain in the middle of the 1Sth century? What advantage did the spinning machine give
the industry? Why were Lancashire cloths sold in every continent? Why were they cheap? Why did unemployment increase? How did the workers try to protect themselves against the employers? Who were the Luddites?

6.
7.

QUESTIONS 1. What was it possible to do even with the simple machines that existed in the early 18th century? 2. When did industry begin to use coal for changing iron ore into good quality iron and steel?
crauox 2 weaving machine - upaAr4JrEHaff Marur{Ha 3 revutionized clothmaking peBoJrroquonrrBlrpoBaJra -

8. 9.

t spinning machine
IIpoIltBBoACTBO

Part 2. Society and Religion. Britain avoided revolution partly because of a new religious movement. This movement did not come from the Church of England, which was slow to recognize change. Many new industrial towns in fact had no
church or priests or any kind of organized religion.
169

rrcaqxlrfi

a Lancashire ['le4keJra] cloths 5 Luddites ['l,rdarts] rryAAr{rbr 168

cynoHuoe

rranKaruzpcrrre cyKna

r
The new movement which met the needs of thc growing industrial working class was led by the found. er of the Methodist Churchr John 'Wesley2. He trav. elled around the country preaching and teaching. He visited the new villages and industrial towns which had no parish church. Soon others joined in his work. John Wesley's Methodism was above all a person. al and emotional form of religion. It was organized in small groups, or chapels, all over the country. At a time when the Church of England itself showed little interest in the social and spiritual needs of the growing population, Methodism was able to give or. dinary people a sense of purpose and dignity. By the end of the century there were over 360 Methodist chapels, most of them in industrial areas. These chapels were more democratic than the Church of England.
the Methodist Church
IIepKOBL

John Wesley was no friend of the ruling classes, but he was deeply conservative and "had no time for radicalism." He disapproved of the French Revolution and taught people to be hard-working and honest. The Methodists were not alone. Other Christians also joined them in the movement against social injustice. One of the best known was Elizabeth Fryl, a Quaker, who spoke about the terrible conditions in the prisons and called for reform. It was also a small group of Christians who were the first to act against the evils of the slave trade. Others tried to limit the cruelty of employers who forced children to work long hours. The influence of these 18th-century religious movements continued. A century later, when workers started to organize themselves more effectively, many of them were members of Methodist or other Nonconformist sects.

['mcOaclst'tJe:tJ]

Mero4rrctcnan

John Wesley ['d3rn'wcslr]

- Ilrxon

Vac.nu

What helped Britain to avoid revolution? What facts show that the Church of England was slow to recognize change? 3. Who was John Wesley? What did he do? 4. What kind of religion was John Wesley's Methodism? How was it organized? What did Methodism give ordinary people? 5. Did John Wesley approve of the French Revolution? What did he teach people? 6. Were the Methodists alone in the movement against social injustice? Who supported them? 7. Who was Elizabeth Fry? What did she attract public attention to?
1. 2.

QUESTIONS

8. What other social evils did Christians speak about?

A Methodist meeting
170

I Elizabeth Fry [r'lrzcbcO'tiar] -

3.nuaa6er tDpafi
171

r
Part 3. Revolution in France.
The French Revolution in 1789 alarmed all Euro' pean countries. The ruling classes in Britain were frightened by the danger of the working class "awak' ening". They saw the danger of revolution in the British countryside, where the enclosures were tak' ing place, and in the towns, to which many of the landless were going in search of work. Several radicals sympathized with the eause of the French revolutionaries, and called for reforms in Britain. Both the gentry and the bourgeoisie accused the radicals of putting Britain in danger. Tory crowds attacked the homes of radicals in Birmingham and several other cities. The Whig Party was split. Those who feared revolution joined'Wil. liam Pitt the Younger (the son of Lord Chatham), a leader of the Tories, while those who wanted reform joined the radical Whig leader Charles Jameg Foxr. Fox's party was small, but later it formed the link between the Whigs of the 18th century and the Liberals of the 19th century. The British government was so afraid that revolution would spread to Britain that it imprisoned radical leaders. It also formed the so-called yeomanrA forces from among the yeomen and gentry who supported the ruling establishment, and trained them as soldiers in order to use them to prevent revolution.

llf
2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

'Were there people in Britain who sympathized with the cause of the French Revolution? Who were they? What did they call for? Who accused the radicals of putting Britain in danger? What did Tory crowds do in Birmingham and several other cities? Who was William Pitt the Younger? Who was Charles James Fox? What link did Fox's party form? What measures did the British government take because it was afraid of revolution?

Part 4. The War with Napoleon.

One by one the European countries were defeated

by Napoleon, until at last most of Europe fell under his control. In 1793, after Napoleon's army invaded Belgium and Holland, Britain went to war. Britain decided to fight France at sea because it had a stronger navy and because its own survival depended on control of its trade routes. The commander of the British fleet, Admiral Horatio Nelsonl, won brilliant victories over the French navy, near the coast of Egypt2, at Copenha9etr3, and finally near Spain, at Traf algal in 1805, where
Horatio [ro'rcrJrou] Nelson Inclsn] - fopaqno Henrcon Egypt ['i:dgrpt] Ernuet

1.

QUESTIONS
The French Revolution alarmed all European countries, didn't it? Where did the ruling classes of Britain see the danger of revolution?

Charles James Fox ['tJo:lz'd3ermz'fcks]

172

rlap;rra lrxemc (Dorc

Copenhagen [,koupn'hergorr l Kouenraren Trafalgar [trc'tclgc] - Tpa$aarrap

Napoleon Bonaparte

The battle of Trafalgar

he destroyed'the French-Spanish fleet. Nelson was himself killed at Trafalgar, but became one of Britain's greatest national heroes. In the same year as Trafalgar, in 1805, a British army landed in Portugall to fight the French. This army, with its Portuguese2 and Spanish allies, was commanded by Arthur Wellington3.

Like Nelson, Wellington quickly proved to be a great commander. After several victories over the French in Spain, he invaded France. Napoleon, weakened by his disastrous invasion of Russia, surrendered in 1814. But the following year he escaped and quickly assembled an army in France. Wellington, with the help of the Prussian armyr finally defeated Napoleon atWaterlooz in Belgium in June 1815. 1. When did Britain go to war against Napoleon? 2. Why did Britain decide to fight France at sea? 3. Who was Horatio Nelson? Where did he win victories over the French navy? Which was the decisive victory? When was it won? 4. When did the British army land in Portugal? Who 5. In what battle was Napoleon finally defeated
was the army commanded by?

QUESTIONS

t Portugal ['pr:tjugct] Ilopryrallra 2 Portuguese [.pc:tju'gi:z] noptyra.nrcrcraft 3 Arthur ['o:0e] Wellington ['welrrlten] Apryp Belnrznrron -

in

1815?

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words or word combinations from the list: Methodism, auoided, Luddites, weapons, ore, defeate

d, Lib erqls, W at erloo, une mploy e d, replac e d, qua nt it ie s, brilliant, ruling classes, equipment, cheaply, steel, sense.

of 1. With the help of the machines large goods could be made quickly and simple
century industry began into good to use coal for changing iron quality iron and
18th

2. By the middle of the

The battle of Waterloo

upyccKafl apMllfl Prussian [pr'rJn] army Barepnoo Waterloo [.wrts'lu:'l -

workers became began breaking up the machinery which had put them out of work. 7. Britain revolution partly because of a new religious movement. 8. John Wesley's was a personal and emotional form of religion. 9. Methodism was able to give ordinary people a of purpose and dignity.
6.

Other countries were buying British uniforms, and for their armies. 4. In the factories machinery handwork. b. As a result of introducing machinery, a lot of
3.

UNIT SIX

THE AGE OF POWER AND PROSPERITY

In the 79th century Britain was nlore powerful and, self-confident than euer. As a result of the in-

dustrial reuolution, 79th-century Britain was the

<worhshop of the world,>. British factories were prod,ucing rlore than any other country in the world. Hauing rnanA colonies, Britain controlled large &re&s of the world,. The British had a strong feeling of their importance. The rapid. growth of the mid.d'le class caused a change in the political balance. The role played, by the mid.dl.e class in politics and gpuernrnent was in-

I
I

12. One

by Napoleon. 13. Admiral Horatio Nelson won tories over the French navy. 14. Wellington defeated Napoleon in June 1815.

by one the European countries were

vic-

creasingl! glrowing. BA 1914 th'e aristocracy the Crown had little power left.
CHAPTER 1'

and'

at

BRITAIN IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

Part 1. Britain's lnternational Policy. After the defeat of Napoleon Britain enjoyed a strong place in Europe. Its strength was in industry
er than any other country's. To defend its interests it kept ships of its navy in almost every ocean of the world. It had its ports on some islands in the Medi177

UNIT REVIEW Who were these people? What did they do? Write a few words about each of them. Robert Walpole John Wesley Horatio Nelson Lord Chatham Elizabeth Fry Arthur Wellington Bonnie Prince Charlie
'176

and trade, and in the navy which protected this trade. Britain's trading position in the world was strong-

terranean Sea, in the Indian Oceanr, in south and west Africa, in Ceylon2 and Singapore3. In Europe Britain did not want any nation to become too strong. Therefore it was glad that Russia's influence in Europe was limited by Prussiaa and the empires of Austrias and Turkey6. It did not want Russia to expand southwards by taking over the Slavicz parts of Turkey's possessions in the BalkansE and reach the Mediterranean. So Britain supported Turkey against Russian expansion.

1. What was the position of Britain in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon? 2. What measures did Britain take to defend its interests in the world? Where did it have its ports? 3. What were Britain's interests in Europe? What countries limited Russia's influence in Europe? Why was Britain glad of it? 4. Why did Britain support Turkey against Russia's expansion? What was it afraid of on the part of
Russia?

QUESTIONS

produced clothes, guns and other necessary war supplies to sell to its allies' armies. It had given jobs to many workers. All this changed when peace was declared in 1815. Suddenly there was no longer such a need for factory-made goods, and many workers lost their jobs. Besides, 300,000 men from Britain's army and navy had returned home and were looking for jobs, which made the number of the unemployed still greater. The situation in the countryside was as bad as in the towns. New methods of farming which were being introduced reduced the number of workers needed, and many of them lost their jobs. The starving farmworkers tried to catch wild birds and animals for food. But almost aII the woods had been enclosed by the local landlords, and new laws forbade hunting in enclosed areas. The poor people did not receive enough help from the government. Only those who lived in the workhouses were given any help at all. The workhouses

Part 2. The Situation at Home. At home the contradictions between the rich and
the poor were growing and becoming dangerous. During the wars with Napoleon Britain's factories had

' the Indian Ocean ['rndran'ouJn] - I4uguircxLafi I Ceylon Isr'lcn] I-{efiaoa 3 Singapore ['sr4gcpr:] Cunranyp { Prussia ['prnJc] flpyccraa 5 Austria ['o:strre]- Arctplra tt Turkey ['tc:kr] -Typqua ? Slavic ['slaevrk] --- cJraBrHcKue 8 the Balkans ['bclkanz] Ba.nranrr 178

oxean

The growth of cities. Sheffield in the

19th century

r-

were feared and hated. They were crowded and dirty. The inhabitants had to work from early morning till late at night and got very little food. Many poor people moved to the towns hoping for a better life there. Between 1815 and 1835 Britain changed from a nation of country people'to a nation mainly of townspeople. In the first thirty years. of the 19th century such cities as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Glasgowr and Leeds doubled in size. Several towns situated close together grew into huge cities with no countryside left in between. London remained the largest city. In 1820 it had a population of 1,25 million.

Part 3. Reforming the Parliamentary System.

The Whigs understood better than the Tories the need to reform the law in order to improve social conditions. Both the Tories and the Whigs were afraid of revolution. The Whigs believed that the country could avoid revolution by introducing reforms. The idea of reforming the parliamentary system had appeared in the 18th century. Early radicals had started speaking about reforms under the influence of the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. There were serious contradictions between the conservative Tories and the radicals as to what classes of society should be mostly represented in Parliament and determine the government's policy. The Tories believed that Parliament should represent "property" and the property owners (this idea is still associated by some people with today's Tory Party). The radicals believed that Parliament should represent the people. The Whigs, or Liberals as they later became known, were in the middle: they wanted to introduce some changes in order to avoid revolution, but were not ready for any radical reforms. The Tories hoped that the House of Lords would protect the interests of the property owners. When the House of Commons passed a billr on reform, it was turned down by the House of Lords in 1830. Lord Grey2 formed a Whig government, and the Reform Bill was passed again. In 1832 the Lords accepted it. Of course they accepted it not because they now accepted the idea of refoim. They were frightened by
t abill-BaKoHoIrpoeKT 2 Lord Grey [grer] Jlop.q fpefi 181

What had given jobs to many people during the wars with Napoleon? 2. Why did the declaration of peace in 1815 cause an increase of unemployment? Give two reasons. 3. What was the situation in the countryside? Why did many farmworkers lose their jobs? 4. Did the poor people receive enough help from the government? Why were the workhouses feared
1.

QUESTIONS

and hated?
5.

Why did Britain chhnge from a nation of country people to a nation of townspeople between

1815 and 1835? 6. Name some cities which doubled in size during the first thirty years of the 19th century. London remained the largest city, didn't it? What was its population in l82O?

Glasgow ['glo:sgou]

l.rraaro

180

the riots in the streets and feared that the collapse of political and civil order might lead to revolution. The Reform BilI was a progressive step. It gave the right to vote to many people who had previously been deprived of this right. As a result of. the Reform Bill many people in Scotland, as well as many people in the towns and cities of England, got the right to vote for the first time.'Scotland's voters increased from 5,000 to 65,000. Forty-one English towns, iacluding the large cities of Manchester, Birmingham and Bradfordr, were represented in Parliament for the very first lime. The 1832 Reform Bill was a political recognition that Britain had become an urban society.
1.

8. Why is it right to call the Reform Bill a democratic step? How did it tell on the number of
voters in Scotland? How many towns received the right to vote for the first time?

2. 3.

4.
b.

6.

7.

QUESTIONS What was it necessary to do in order to improve the social conditions in the country? Who understood it better: the Tories or the Whigs? What were both the Tories and the Whigs afraid of? When had the idea of reforming the parliamentary system first appeared? What world events had influenced its appearance? What were the contradictions between the Tories and the radicals about? Who did the Tories think the Parliament should represent? What did the radicals believe? What was the position of the Whigs? What hopes did the Tories lay on the House of Lords? How did the House of Lords try to protect the interests of the property owners in 1830? When did the Lords accept the Reform Bill? Why did they accept it?
['br.edfcd]

Part 4. Workers' Revolts. Since 1824 workers began joining together in unions to struggle against employers for their rights and better wages. The first worhers' unions were small and weak. The introduction of a cheap postage sgstem greatly helped the unions to organize themselves across the country: for one penny a letter could be sent to anyone, anywhere in Britain. In 1838 the workers' unions
worked outr a document called a People's Charter2. The Charter demanded rights that are now accepted by everyone: the vote for ali adults, the right for a man without property to be an MP, secret votings, and payment for MPs. The House of Commons refused to meet these demandsa. As

A postage stamp

a result, there was a wave of riots and political meetings. In 1839 fourteen men
were killed by soldiers in a riot in Newports, Wales. Many others were sent to Britain's colonies as prisoners. The governrnent's severe actions showed how
worked out - paapa6ota.ru Hapo4nafl xapr]rg People's Charter ['tJo:tc] roJrocoBaHrae rafinoe secret voting refused to meet these demands - orrcagaJracb BbrrroJrHrrrb r{x rpe6oeauua Newport ['nju:pc:t] - Hrronopr

' Bradford
182

Bpe4{rop4

187

much it feared that the poor might take power and establish a republic.

1. When did workers begin joining together in unions? What did they organize unions for? 2. What innovation greatly helped the workers' unions to organize themselves across the country? 3. When was the People's Charter worked out? What rights did the Charter demand? 4. Did the House of Commons meet the demands stated in the Charter? What was the reaction of
the workers' unions? What did the government's severe actions show?

SUESTIONS

Peel also turned his attention to the crime problem. He established a regular police force in London in 1829. At first people laughed at the men in blue uniform and top hats1. But

years almost every other town and county started their own police forces.

during the next thirty

Part 3. Robert Peel's Reforms. The government was saved by the skill of Robert Peel, the Prime Minister of the time. In 1846 he abolished the unpopular Corn Law of 1815 which had kept the price of corn higher than necessary. As a result, the price of corn, as well as other food-stuffs, dropped down, and life became better. Peel used the improved economic situation to weaken the Char-

crime was pushed out of the larger cities, then out of towns, and then out of the countryside, and life

The new police forces were successful: with time much

Queen Victoria

tist movementl, which

gradually died.

the Chartist ['tJo:trst] move9aprncrcrcoe ABI4ment

A street robbery
ficeHve

became safer. The aristocracy in Europe admired Britain's success in avoiding the storm of revolution in 1848. European monarchs wished they were as safe on their thrones as the British queen was on hers. And European liberals wished they could act as freely as radicals in Britain did. During almost the whole of the 19th century Britain was the envy of the world. It was a model of industrial success and of free constitutional government. QUESTIONS 1. Who was Robert Peel? 2. What law did Robert Peel abolish in 1846? What was the result of this act? How did Robert Peel use the improved economic situation?

t top hats

qlrrrrrHApbr 185

T
3. How did Robert Peel deal with the crime situation in the country? When was the regular police force established in London? 4. What was the result of establishing a regular police force in the countrY? D. What did the aristocracy in Europe admire about

8. It was necessary to reform the law in order to

lmprove
10. There were serious

conditions.

9. The Whigs believed that the country could avoid

Britain? Why did European monarchs envy the British queen? Why did European liberals envy British radicals? 6. What was Britain a model of during almost the whole of the 19th centurY?

revolution only by introducing contradictions between the Tories and the radicals. 11. The Tories believed that Parliament should rep-

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word combinations from the list: influence, represent, reforms, townspeople, auoiding, contradictions, recognition, force, conseruatiue, enclosed, social, feared, property, to expand, ocean,
People's Charter. 1. Britain was glad that Russia's rope was limited by Prussia, key.

resent owners. 12. The radicals believed that Parliament should the people. 13. The 1832 Reform Bill was a political that Britain had become an urban society. 14. The workers' unions worked our a document called
a

15. Robert Peel established a regular police in London. 16. The aristocracy in Europe admired Britain's success In the storm of revolution in
1848.

in Euand TurAustria

CHAPTER

16

2. Britain kept ships of its navy in almost every of the world. south3. Britain did not want Russia
wards. between the rich and the poor 4. The were growlng. by the lo5. Almost all the woods were cal landlords. and hated. 6. The workhouses were 7. Between 1815 and 1835 Britain changed from a nation of country people to a nation mainly of

THE YEARS OF SELF-CONFIDENCE

Part 1. lndustrial Power.
tion of the Industries of All Nations in the Crystal Palace in London. The aim of the Exhibition was to show the world the greatness of Britain's industry. No other nation could produce as much at that time. By 1850 Britain was producing more iron than the rest of the world together. Britain had become powerful because it had enough coal, iron and steel for its own industry and could
187

In

1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibi-

186

r
even made it possible to deliver fresh fish and raspberries from Scotland to London in one night. In 1851 the railway companies provided passenger train seruice. Passenger trains stopped at all stations. Now people could move from place to place much more quickly and easily. With the introduction of the railway system many people began to live in suburbs, from which they travelled into the city every day by train. The suburb was a copy of a country village with all the advantages of a town.

The Great Exhibition

even export them to Europe. Having coai, iron and steel, it could produce new heavy indust,r'ial goods like ships and steam engines. It could also make machinery which produced English traditional goods woollen and cotton cloth in the factories of Lancashire. Britain's cloth was cheap and was exported to India, to other colonies and to the Middle East. Britain had the largest fleet in the world. The railway. The pride of Britain and a great example of its industrial power was its railway system. The first trains were goods trains, which quickly became very popular because they made transporting goods faster and cheaper. The network of railway tracks was quickly growing and by 1840 their total length was 2,4OO miles. Railways connected not only the industrial towns with London, but also economically unimportant towns. The canals were soon empty, because everything went by railway. The speed of the railway
188

SUESTTONS 1.What exhibition was opened in the Crystal Palace in 1851? What was the aim of the exhibition? 2.Why had Britain become powerful? 3.What goods did Britain produce? 4.What parts of the world was Britain's cloth exported to? 5.What was the pride of Britain and a great example of its industrial power? What was the total length of the railway tracks by 1840? 6.Why did the first goods trains become popular very quickly? 7.When was passenger train service provided? How did the Iife of many people change with the introduction of passenger train service? S.What do you think: why did many people find it better to live in suburbs?

Part 2. The Rise of the Middle Glass.

Before the 19tr'century the middle class was small and was represented by merchants, traders and small farmers, as well as by industrialists and factory own189

century. In the 19th century the number of people belonging to the middle class greatly increased. Now the middle class was made up of people of different wealth, social position and kinds of work. It included those who worked in the Church, the Law, medicine, the civil service, the diplomatic service, banks, and also in the army and navy. Typical of the middle class in the 19th century were self-made men, who came from poor families. They believed in hard work, a regular style of life, and were careful with money. The middle class included both successful and rich industrialists and small shopkeepers and office workers. guESTroNS 1. Who was the middle class represented by before the 19th century? 2. How did the composition of the middle class change in the 19th century? What new people joined it? 3. What was typical of many representatives of the middle class? What principles did self-made men
believe in?

ers who had joined

it in the second half of the 18th

emod

ls pnineve nA

quickly reduced the level of disease, particularly cholera. In some towns parks were laid outl in newly built areas, public baths were opened where people could wash. There appeared Iibraries and concert halls.

Part 3. Life in Towns.

had water supply and sewerage systems. Dirty water caused epidemics. In 1832 an outbreak of cholera killed 31,000 people. In the middle of the century the administration of many towns began to appoint health officersl and to provide sewerage and clean water. These measures t health officers
190

Representatives of the middle class usualIy lived in houses with a small garden in front
of each, and a larger one at the back. The houses of workers usually had

The towns were still unhealthy. Very few houses

only four small rooms, two upstairs and two

downstairs, and a small back yard. Still there ' parks were laid out -pas1urbr
6uwr
[apKr4

caHvIrapHble Bpaqu

Slums

I'
remained many slunx areas inhabited by the poorest people, where tiny houses were built very close

together.
1. 2.

QUESTIONS

Why were the towns unhealthy? What measures were taken by the administration of nlany towns to improve the condition"b of life? What did they achieve by taking these meas- 'i. ures? How did the town administration take care of the cultural life? 3. Did the people living in towns have gardens? 4. What areas did the poorest people live in?
d

Part 4. Population and

Politics.

Both Tories and Whigs understood the economic need for free trade, as well as the need for social and political reform which would allow the middle class to grow richer and to expand. That's why they

supported the liberal movement in the countries with which Britain hoped to trade. Britain welcomed the liberation movement led by Simon Bolivarl in South American Spanish colonies, and helped the Greeks in their struggle for independence from the Turkish Empire. There was yet another reason for Britain to help the Greeks. Russia was also helping the Greeks in their struggle against Turkey. Both Russia and Greece were orthodox2 Christian countries, and Britain was afraid that Russia would take control over Greece and expand south to the Mediterranean Sea.
2 orthodox
192

Simon Bolivar ['sanncn bo'li:vo:]

['r:0cdoks]

[paBocJrasurrrt

Clruon Bo.nrzrap

Palmerston. From 1846 until 1865 the most important political figure was Lord Palmerston, a minister, and from 1855 Prime Minister. He had been a Tory as a young man, but later joined the Whigs. Palmerston was known for liberalism in his foreign policy. He firmly believed that despotic states were trad for free trade, and he openly supported European liberal and independence movements. In 1859-60 he successfully supported the Italian independence movement against Austrian and French interests. The growth of democracy. After Palmerston's death in 1865, a much stricter "two-party" system developed in Britain. The two parties, Tory (or Conservative as it became officially known) and Liberal, developed greater party organizations and demanded greater loyalty from their members. The British political system of today was mostly built in the 1860s and 1870s. Between 1867 and 1884 the number of voters increased from 20 per cent to 60 per cent of men in towns and to 70 per cent in the country, including some representatives of the working class" In 1872 voting was carried out in secret for the first time. The growth of the newspaper industry strengthened the importance of public opinion. Democracy grew quickly. The House of Commons grew in size and now had over 650 members. The House of Lords lost the powerful position which it had held in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Now it could no longer play an important part in forming the state policy. Trade unions. After 1850 a number of trade unions appeared. In 1868 the first congress of trade unions, which represented 118,000 members, met in Manchester. The following year the new Trade Union Congress established a parliamentary committee,
193

tl
tl

the purpose of which was to represent workers in Parliament. This wish of trade unions to work within Parliament, not outside it, brought trade unionists into close co-operation with radicals and reformist Liberals. Even the Conservative Party tried to attract worker support. 1. What economic need was understood by both To-

Part 5. The British Empire.

QUESTIONS

2. 3. 4.
5.

6.
7.

8.

first time? 9. How did the growth of the newspaper industry tell on the development of democracy?
10. What changes occurred in the House of Commons and the House of Lords? 11. When did the first congress of trade unibns meet? How many members did it represent? t2. What policy of the trade unions brought them into close co-operation with radicals and reformist Liberals?
194

ries and Whigs? What liberal movements did Britain welcome and support in other countries? What was the reason for Britain to be afraid that Russia might take control over Greece? Who was Lord Palmerston? What was he known for in his foreign policy? Why did Palmerston openly sqpport liberal and independent movements in Europe? How did both the Tory and the"Liberal Parties strengthen discipline among their members? How did the number of voters increase in the period between L867 and 1874? When was voting carried out in secret for the

In the 19th century Britain was engaged in many "colonial tqars" , the purpose of which was to establish its influence in different parts of the world and to ensure the safety of its trade routes. In 1840-1842 and in 1856-1860 it waged two so-called Opium Wars against Chinal, as a result of whi.ch China had to give away some of its territories and to allow Britain to carry on profitable trade in opium. Historiaris consider the Opium Wars to be shameful events in British colonial history. Fear that Russia would expand southwards towards India resulted in disastrous wars in Afghanistan2 (1839-1842), in Sindhs part of modern Paki- a stana (1843) and in India (1845-1846 and 1848-1849). Britain also feared that in the Middle East Russia would destroy the weak Ottoman Empires, which controlled Turkey and the Arab6 countries. It might be dangerous for Britain's sea and land routes to India. So, when Russia and Ottoman Turkey went to war in the CrimeaT in 1853, Britain joined the Turks against Russia. Britain's first colonies in Africa were on the west coast. Then it took over the Cape of Good Hope8 at the southern point, because it needed a port there on its sea route to India.
I China ['darno] Kurailr ' Afghanistan [efgaenrsten] - A{rranucr,an " Sindh [srnd] - Cungx '1 Pakistan [.pa:kr'sto:n] - flasucran t' Ottoman Empire ['ctsmen'cnrpara] Orrouancxafl r{Muepr{fl tt Arab ['eereb] apa6crcue t the Crimea [krar'mre] Kpuvr 8 the Cape of Good Hope MErc .[o6pofi Ha4enc4rr -

195

Reports sent by European travellers and explorers of Africa increased Britain's interest in this continent. The most famous of the explorers was David Livingstonel, who was a Scottish doctor and a Christian rnissionary. He made several journeys from the east coast to the central parts of Africa. Livingstone discovered areas of Africa unknown to EuropeanF and "opened" these areas to Christianity, to European ideas and to European trade. Unfortunately, Christianity became a tool for building a commercial and political empire in Africa. The governments of Europe rushed to the " Blach Continent" in order to seize lands. They did it under the pretext of bringin g " civilization" to the people. By 1890 Africa was divided by European countries into " areas of interest" . By the end of the century several European eountries had taken over large areas of Africa. Sometimes the interests of different European countries clashed. In South Africa there were disagreements between Britain and the Dutch settlers (the Boers2), which led to a war at the end of the century (the Boer'War, 1899-1902). In 1882 Britain invaded Egypt "to protect international shipping", as it was officially stated. In fact, Britain protected its own trading interests, its route to India through the newly dug Suez Canals. Britain told the world that its occupation of Egypt would only last for a short time, but it did not leave the country until it was forced to do so in 1954,
David Livingstone ['dervrd'lrvrqstcn] -,(asuA JlzsuHrcroH 6ypu the Boers ['bouez] Cyeqnzft xana.rr Suez Canal ['su:rz ka'nzcl]

Britain had one more reason for creating colonies. From the 1830s the population of Britain was rapidly growing, and soon the small territory of the British Isies would not hold all the population. A solu_ tion to.the problem v/as found in the development of colonies for British settlers in different parts of the world. Encouraged by the government, lots of people moved to Canada, Australiar and New Zealandz, set_ tled on free land and farmed it. In all these countries
there rffere native populations. In Canada most of them were pushed westwards. In Australia British setilers killed most of the native inhabitants; only a few were left in the central desert areas. In New Zealand the

A battle in an African colony

' '

Australia [c:s'trerlje]

-. Ancrpa;rua New Zealand ['nju:'zi:lanclJ "- Hosax BelanArns

197

196

MaoriL inhabitants suffered less than in Canada or Australia: not so many of them were killed, but they lost most of their land. Soon the white colonies were allowed to govern themselves. Officially they no longer depended on Britain. But still, they accepted the British monarch as their head of state. By the end of the 19th century Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land areas of the world. Most British strongly believed in their right to an empire, and were very proud of it. But even at this moment of greatest power Britain was already beginning to spend more on its empire than it took from it. The empire l.ras becoming a heavy load, And by the time when
Maori
['rr-raurr]

the colonies began to demand their freedom in the 20th century, this load had become impossibly heavy.
QUESTIONS

1. What was the purpose of the numerous "colonial wars" Britain was engaged in? 2. What are "Opium Wars"? When did Britain wage
them? What did

it gain as a result of these wars?

3. Why did Britain wage wars in Afghanistan,

kistan and India?

Pa-

4. Why did Britain join Turkey in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 against Russia? In what part of Africa were Britain's first colonies? Why did Britain take over the Cape of Good
Hope? 6. Who was David Livingstone? What did he do? 7. What excuse did European governments use to

Maopu

justify their policy of seizing lands in Africa?

What areas was Africa divided into by European

countries? Where and when was the Boer War waged? What was the reason of ii? Under what pretext did Britain invade Egypt in L882? What was the real reason of this action? When did Britain promise it would leave Egypt? When did it really leave this country? 10. Why did Britain's government encourage British people to move to different parts of the world and start colonies there? 11. How did the existence of the white colonies in Canada, Australia and New Zealand tell on the native population of these lands?
L2.
The British Empire at the end of the 19th century
198

How did many British feel about the British

Empire?
199

Part 6. lreland.
In Ireland the struggle between Catholics and Prot- estants became a struggle for Irish freedom from English rule. The native Irish population, most of which were Catholics,.was cruelly oppressed by Protestants, who were supported by the British government. In 1845, 1846 and 1847 lreLand suffered t worst disaster in"its entire history: for three years the potato crop failedl. Potatoes were the main food of the poor. At the same time Ireland had enough wheat to feed the entire population, but it was grown by the Protestant landowners for export to England, so the Irish population did not get it. The situation was tragic. One and a half million people (about 20 per cent of the total Irish population) died from hunger in these three years. Many Irish emigrated. At least a million people left-during these years, and the emigration continued during the rest of the century because of the great poverty in Ireland. Most emigrants went to the United States of America. Between 1841 and 1920 almost five million Irish settled there. The Irish who went to the United States did not forget their old country and did not forgive Britain. By 1880 many Irish Americans were rich and powerful and were able to support the Irish freedom movement. Today they still have an influence on British policy in Ireland.
QUESTIONS l.What was the position of the native population of Ireland in the 19th century?

2.What terrible disaster did Ireland suffer in 1845, 1846 and 1847? How many people died from, hunger in these three years? 8.What country did many Irish emigrate to? How many Irish settled in the United States between t84L and 1920 CHAPTER REVIEW

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word

combinations from the list: opinion, pretext, waged, self-made, cloth, suburbs, liberalism, health officers, exported, goods, sewerage, independence, hard, orthodox, middle, power, regular, libe ration, pride, outbreah,

1. Britain's was cheap and was to other countries. 2. The of Britain and a great example of its industrial was its railway system. trains. 3. The first trains were 4. With the introduction of the railway system many people began to live in 5. In the 19th century the number of people belongclass greatly increased. ing to the 6. Typical of the middle class in the 19th century men who believed in

work and a 7. In 1832 an

people.

style of life. of cholera kitled 31,000

8. In the middle of the century the administration

and of many towns began appointing and clean water. to provide movement the 9. Britain welcomed led by Simon Bolivar.
201

the potato crop failed raproSeaa) 200

raprocpenb.Ire ypoArraca (neypoxau

10.

Britain helped the Greeks in their struggle for

from the Turkish Empire.
Christian
countries. in his Palmerston was known for foreign policy. The growth of the newspaper industry strengthened the importance of public Britain two so-called Opium Wars against China. The governments of Europe rushed to Africa under the of bringing civilization to the people.

11. Russia and Greece were

lrrrilt universities of Oxlbrd and Carnbridge. UnCamlrridge, these nery r niversities taught more science and technology l,o meet the demands of
r

like Oxford and

12. 13. 14. 15.

CHAPTER

17

l]ritain's industry. There \ryere social Pupils at an elementary school r:hanges as well. Power in the countryside gradually moved from the country squire to new county councilsL which were made up of elected men and women. Each county council had a staff of ad.ministratorsz who carried out the decisions of the council. This system still operates today'
QUESTIONS conditions of the poor improve be1. Why did the tween L875 and 1914? 2. How did the system of public education improve? What was provided by the Education Acts of 1870 and 1891? 3. What steps were taken to provide higher education on a wider scale? Explain the term " redbrich uniuersities". How did the curriculum of the new universities differ from that of Oxford and Cambridge? Why did the new universities teach more science and technologY? 4. What changes took place in the administration in.the countryside? Who were the members of the new countY councils?
1

THE END OF AN AGE

Part 1. Social and Economic lmprovements.
Between 1875 and 1914 the conditions of the poor in Britain greatly improved because prices fell by 40 per cent and real wages doubled. As a result, poor families could eat better food, including meat, fresh milk (brought from the countryside by train) and vegetables. Life at home was made more comfortable. Most homes now had gas for heating and lighting. Public education was given attention to. In 1870 and 1891 two Education Acts were passed. As a result of these Acts, all children up to the age of 13 had to go to school, where they were taught reading, writing and arithmetic. In the new industrial cities they started building redbrick universities. The term redbrich came from the tradition of building the new universities of red brick. It distinguished them from the older, stone202

county councils ['kauntl'kaunsrlz] - coBerbl rpatlrctaa a staff of administrators - rurar aAMItHIIcrparIIBHbIx cJIy-

)Kaulux

203

3. When were the proper rules of playing football organized? How was the popularity of football
growing?

Cricket

Part 2. Sport.
By the end of the 19th century two sports, cricket and football, had become very popular with the British public. Cricket had started in the 18th century, but only a century later its rules were organized. From 1873 a country championship took place each year. With time, cricket was spread to different parts of the British Empire: to the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Australia and New Zealand. The proper rules of Britain's other main game, football, were also organized in the 19th century. As an organized game, it was at first a middle-class, or gentlemen's, sport, but it quickly became popular among all classes. Soon it drew huge crowds of people, who came to watch the professional footballers play the game. By the end of the 19th century almost every town of Britain had its own football team. Soon football was also exported abroad.
QUESTIONS
1. Which are the two most popular sports in tsritain? 2. When did people begin playing cricket? When

Part 3. Ghanges in Thinking. In t776 the Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smitht published a book called Enquiry into lhe Wealth of Nationsz.ln the book he expressed the idea that everyone had the right to personal freedom' 'lhis idea became very popular in the 19th century' Influenced by Adam Smith several capitalist econorrrists declared that government should not interfere

in trade and industry at all. The growing middle class readily accepted these ideas. However, it soon became very clear that the freedom of factory owners to do as they Iiked led to slavc'ry and misery for the poor. More and more people were beginning to understand that government must interfere to protect the poor and the weak' The result was a number of laws to improve working conditions. One of them, in 1833, limited the number of hours that women and children were allowed to work' Another law in the same year abolished slavery in the colonies of the British Empire. Robert Owens. There were many factory owners who tried to avoid obeying the new laws. There were others, who believed that a factory owner should take care of his workers if he wanted them to work well' One of such men was Robert Owen, a factory owner in ScotAdam Smith ['adcm'smt0]

were the rules of playing cricket organized? Is cricket played only in Britain or has it also spread to other parts of the world?
204

- AAaru Cmul into the WeaIth of Nations Enquiry Itn'kwatort] I4 nputluHax 6oratctsa HapoAoBD
<,I,Icc.neAosaHrle o IIpIIpoAe Robert Owen ['robet'ouon] -Po6ept Oysn

205

unfortunate in society. By the end of the century most people understood that it was right for the government to interfere in factory conditions, problems of health in towns and education for children. William Booths and the Salvation Armya. In lgZB William Booth started a new religious movement, called the Saluation Army, the aim of which waS to "m.ahe war" on poverty. Members of the Salvation Army organized help for the poorest people. Charles Darvin's theory. In lgb7 Charles Darvins published The Origin of Specdes6. His theory of evo_
Apryp - rlap.ura lta46epra flzrrcenc Vumau Eyrc
Aprvrza - 9ap.rra cnaceur{fl .flaPnuu <flpozcxo]KAeHr{e ['spi:Ji:z]

land. He built his factory in the countryside, away from the fog and dirt of the cities. Near the factory ne Uuitt good houses for the workers and a school for their children. His workers had shorter working hours. Owen proved that his workers produced more in less time than the workers of other factories who were foreed to work longer hours. Owen also encouraged traderunions. Owen's ideas and example began to spread. There ap_ peared other reformers, who took care to improve the working and living conditions of their *o"k".". One of them was the,euaker Arthur Cadburyr, fa_ mous for his Birmingham chocolate factory, who built first-class houses for the workers of his factory. Still improvements \Mere slow, and B0 per cent of the nation were extremely poor. The great writer of the 19th century Charles Dickens2 attacked the rich and powerful for their cruelty towards the weak and,

2ffoo"'

lution was based on scientific observation. Many peo. ;rle saw in Darvin's theory a proof of mankind's ability to find a scientific explanation for everything. llut for churchgoing people it was a shock. Most of the churchgoing population believed every word of the Bible. They found it difficult to accept Darvin's theory that the world had developed over millions of years and had not been created in si4 days by God nnd that man had developed from the ape and not had been created by God in one day. Darvin's theory caused a battle between faith and reason which lasted for the rest of the century. QUESTIONS Who was Adam Smith? What book did he pub1. lish? What was the idea expressed in the book? 2. What did some of the l9th-century economists declare under the influence of Adam Smith's idea of personal freedom? 3. What prgved to be wrong about the idea of personal freedom? What did the freedom of factory owners lead to? 4. What did people begin to understand about the idea of personal freedom? What was the result of this understanding? How did the new laws protect the workers? 5. What was the attitude of the factory owners to the laws protecting the workers? 6. Who was Robert Owen? Why did he build his factory in the countryside? What did he build near his factory? How long was the workday of his workers? What did Robert Owen prove? 7. How did Robert Owen's ideas and example affect other factory owners? Were there other reforiners? Who was Arthur Cadbury?
247

8. What

was the contribution of Charles Dickens in the struggle against the social evils of the time?, 9; What is the Salvation Army? Who was it started by,

and when? What was the aim of the Salvation Army? 10. What did most people understand by the end of the century? 11. Who was Charles Darvin? What book didrhe pub-, lish? What was Charles Darvin's theory of evo-

lution based on? 12. Why was Darvin's theory a shock for.many churchgoing people? What statements of the theory was it difficult for them to accept? Did the battle between faith and reason last long? Part 4. The Storm Clouds of War. , By the end of the 19th century Britain was no longer as powerful as it had been. In Europe Germany
producing more steel than Britain, and it strong industry and a strong navy. The danger of war with Germany had been clear from the beginningof the 20th centu.ry, and it brought France and Britain together. By 1914 the political situation in Europe was extremely dangerous. Germany and Austria-Hungaryr had made a military alliance. Russia and France had made another- alliance. In June LgL4 the Austrian Archduke2 Francis Ferdinand3 was killed in Serbiaa. Austria-Hungary de[':r:strre'hnqgorr] 2 Austrian ['o:strran] Archduke ['o:tJdju:k] - aacrpuft,cnuft apqrepqor 3 Francis Ferdinand ['frensls'fo:drnend] (Dep4uHaHA -(Dpanq a Serbia ['so:bra] Cep6ua

clared war on Serbia. Russia, which was an ally of Serbia, declared war on Austria-Hungary. Automati: cally, it meant a war with Germany. France was Russia's ally, so it was now also at war with Germany. In August l9l'4 Germany's troops invaded France through Belgiuml. Britain, which had been Belgium's ally since 1838, immediately declared war on Germany. Thus, practically the whole of Europe was fighting. The First World War had started.

1. What was the political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century? 2. What military allianies were formed by 1914? 3. When and how did the First World War start? 4. When did Britain enter the war? What caused Britain to declare war on Germany?
,

QUESTIONS

was now united and very strong. Like the USA

it was had built

CHAPTER REVIEW

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word

combinations from the list: county councils, fog, alliance, Saluation, interfere, football, irnproued, technology, rniserg, dirt, obserua' tion, to spread, personal, crichet, redbriek, slauery,
science, abolished. 1. Between 1875 and 1914 the conditions of the poor

in Britain greatly 2. In the new industrial cities they started building

universities. 3. Unlike Oxford and Cambridge, the new universiand ties taught more 4. Power in the countryside gradually moved from the country squire to new

Austria-Hungary

Aacnpo-Benrpraa

208

I Belgium ['beld3om] -

Be.nrrus

209

5. By the end of the

and

19th

century two sports,

THE

, had become very popular with the British public. 6. Adam Smith expressed the idea that everyone had the right to freedom.

UNIT SEVEN
2OTH

CENTURY

Several economists declared that government should not in trade and industry at all. 8. The freedom of factory owners to do as they liked led to and for the poor. 9. In 1833 slavery was ln the colonies of the British Empire. 10. Robert Owen built his factory in the countryside, away from the and of the cities.
7.

At the beginning of the 20th century Britairl w&s atill one of th.e greatest world. powers. In th.e mid,ille of the century, although it was still one of the "llig Three", it was consid,erably weaker than the Iln,ited, States or the Soviet Union. By the end of lhe I97Os Britain was just an ordinary country, un.d econornically poorer than a nuntber of other
lluropean countries. One of the reasons for Britain's d,ecline in the Z0th centurq was the cost of two world wars. Anttlher reason was that Britain could. not spend, as nt.uch rnoneU on d,euelopittg its industry as other in,dustrial natiorus did: at first it needed a lot of nloneV for keeping up the empire, and uthen the etnpire fell apart, a.s much noneA was needed, to nolue nurrlerotls econorlic problems connected with nt.aintaining friendly relations within the British Cornrnonwealth of N ations.
CHAPTER
18

11. Owen's ideas began L2. William Booth started a new religious movement 13.

called the Army. Darvin's theory of evolution was based on scien-

tific

L4. By 1914 Germany and Austria-Hungary had made

a military

UNIT REVIEW
\Mho were these people? What did they do? few words about each of them. Robert Peel Robert Owen

Write

THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS AFTER-EFFECTS

Part 1. The first World War.
Germany had better trained soldiers and better cquipment, and in the first few weeks of war in 1914 it nearly defeated the Allies, Britain and France. The German troops crossed the border and penetrated into the territory of France. The French army and the small British force managed to stop the German army

David Livingstone Adam Smith

William Booth Charles Darvin

210

211

only at the Riuer Marner deep inside France. Then followed four years of bitter fighting, during which both armies lived in trenches. The war was going on not only in Europe. In the" Middle East the British fought against Turkish troops
in lraq2, tn Palestines, and in the Dardanellesa . There, ' too, the fighting went on for a long time. Only in tgLT the'British were able to drive back the Turks. The war at sea was more important than the war on land, because defeat at sea would have caused' Britain's surrender. Being an island state, Britain had always depended on imported goods. Beginning with 1915, German submarines started sinking merchant ships which carried supplies to Brifrain. 40 per cent of Britain's merchant fleet was sunk during the' war. There was one period in the course of the war when for six weeks the British population was on the'' point of starvation. When Russia, after the Bolshe-' vik Revolution of 1917 made peace with Germany, the German generals hoped for victory against the Allies. But German submarine attacks on neutral ships drew America into the war against Germany. The arrival of American troops in France ended Germany's hopes, and it surrendered in November 1918.

3. In what other parts of the world, besides Europe, was the war going on? 4. Why was the war at sea more important for Brit-

ain than the war on land? What had Britain always depended on, because it was an island state? 5. What damage did German subrnarines cause the
6.

British merchant fleet? How did it tell on the British population? What did the German generals hope for when Russia made peace with Germany after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917?
Why did the United States enter the war? First World War over?

7.

8. When was the

Part 2. The Rise of the Labour Party.

The Labour Partyr rapidly grew during the war. It had begun in the 19th century as part of the trade runion movement, and was formally established in 1900. The trade unions themselves grew enormously in the 20th century, and by 1918 numbered eight million members. In that year, for the first time, all men aged lwenty-one and some women over thirty were allowed to vote. In the following years the number of voters doubled from eight to sixteen million people, most of whom belonged to the working class. As a result of these changes, the Labour Party, which had won twenty-nine seats in Parliament in the 1906 election, won fifty-seven seats in 1918, one hundred and forty-two seats in 1922, and one hundred and ninety-one seats in 1925. In 1924 the first Labour government was created.

1. Why did Germany nearly defeat the Allies in the very first weeks of war in 1914? 2. Where did the French army and the small British force manage to stop the German army?
[mo:n] 2 Iraq [r'ro:k] llpax 3 Palestine ['peelrstarn] fla.necrlrna a the Dardanelles [.do:de'nels] .{apgaxe.nnsr
212

QUESTIONS

I the River

Marne

p. Mapna

The Labour Party

- Jlefi6opuircras

naprl4fl

21)

The Labour Party was not "socialist". Its leaders were members of the middle class. Instead of a. social revolution, they wanted to develop a kind of socialism that would fit the situation in Britainl. The British working class was not interested in socialist ideas. In fact Karl Manr2, who spent most of his life in Britain studying and writing, w4s almost unknown exdept to a few friends. Both he and his close friend Friedrich Engels3, who owned a factory in Manchester, had little hope that the British working class would become truly socialist. The working class people wanted to improve their financial situation and to enjoy the advantages of the middle class without becoming involved in socialist beliefs. The trade unions and the Labour Party did not want to bring downa the existing form of government; they wanted to change things by aciepted constitutional means, in Parliament. So, the effect on B/itain of the tgIT Bolshevik Revolution in Russia was not great. Some people were interested in Marxism and they established a Communist Party, but the Labour Party firmly refused to be connected with it. As a result of the Labour Party's success in t924, the Liberal Party almost completely disappeared. Liberals with traditional capitalist ideas joined the Consenrative Party, and Liberal "reformers" joined the Labour Party. QUESTIONS 1. What did the Labour Party develop from? When
was

2. lnwhat

year were all men aged twenty-one given the right to vote? How was the number of voters growing during the following years? g. ihe number of seats in Parliament won by the Labour Party was constantly growing during the

How was it growing between 1906 and 1923? 4. Was the Labour Party "socialist"? Did they want a socialist revolution in the country? What did they want? 5. What did the British working class people want? What didn't they want to be involved in? 6. What was the effect of the Russian Bolshevik Revolution on Britain? 7. How did the success of the Labour Party in L924 tell on the Liberal PartY?

first two

decades

of the

20th

century, wasn't it?

Part 3. lreland.
Before the beginning of the First World War Britain had agreed to give Ireland self-gouerwnent. There was a sroup of Irishmen who were not satisfied with the idea of self-government. They formed a republican party and demanded a full independence from Britain. in the 1918 elections to the British Parliament the republicans won in almost every area of Ireland except Ulster. Instead of joining the British parliament, they met tog'ether in DublinL and started their own new parliament. They announced that Ireland was now a republic. Many Irishmen joined the republic's army and began a guerilla fighting against thl gritish. As a result, the British government de-

it formally

established?

' that would fit the sitrration in Britain - xoroprrfi 6rr nogoruii.n K crrryaquu n Bpuranuz 2 Karl Marx ['ko:l'mo:ks] Kap.n Maprcc \ 3 Friedrich Engels Qpugpux Enre.nsc a to bring down ['fri:drrk'engolz.f cBepruyrb 214

Dublin['dnbLn]

Ay6nus
215

cided to make peace. In 1g21 i.t agreed to the independence of southern lrelarid. But it also insisted that Ulster, or Northern Ireland as it became-known, should remain united with Britain. The Anglo-Irish Treatyl, which was concluded in 192L, did not bring peace to Ireland. A civil war started between the Irish themselves, because th epublicans insisted that all lreland, including Northern Ireland, should be an independent republic. A group of republicans formed a new party, Fianna Failz, which won the elections of 1932, and in lgBT the new prime Minister, Eamon de Valeras, declared southern Ireland a republic. The British Crown was .no longer sovereign in lreland. Today Ireland and Britain find themselves in a very strange position: officially they are entirely separate states, but by agreement their citizens are not considered foreigners in one another's country. In the Republic of Ireland the majority of population believe that one day hll Ireland should be united, but without the use of force. There are some people, however, who are ready to use violent means to achieve a united Ireland.

Did the Anglo.Irish Treaty of. l92L bring peace to Ireland? What did the republicans insist on? 6. When was southern Ireland declared a republic? 7. Why does today's position of Britain and Ireland
5.

seem somewhat strange?

Part 4. Disappointment and Depression.

The cost of the war caused a great increase of tuxes, from 6 per cent of income in 1914 to 25 per cent in 1918. Greater taxes led to increasing disagreement between workers and the government. There were serious strikes, and at times the government had to use soldiers to break these strikes and force men back to work. The discontent of workers was growing and in 1926 led to a general strike by all workers. The general strike lasted nine days. The government widely used the police force. Many strikers were arrested and the strike was finally broken, but the understanding between the government and the workers was seriously damaged as a result of the cruel measures taken by the government in its -efforts to put down the strike. Many workers were shocked to see that the police, whose job, as thby had believed, was to keep the law, was actually fighting against them: For half a century after that many people remembered the general strike with great bitterness. These memories influenced their opinion of employers, government and the police. The Depression. A serious economic crisis known as the Depression shook Europe and America in L929. The Depression affected Britain most severely between 1930 and 1933, when over three million workers,were
217

1. What status had Britain agreed to give Ireland? 2. Why did a group of Irishmen form a republican party in Ireland? What did they demand? 3. When did the republicans start their own parliament in Dublin? What did they announce? 4. When did Britain agree to the independence of
southern Ireland?
Anuo-I,Ip;ran4crcufi AoroBop 2 Fianna Fail ['fi:ons'f-crl] - Ozaxra @oft-rr 3 Eamon de Valera ['i:mcn- de va'leero] I4uos Ba.nepa

QUESTIONS

The Anglo-Irish Treaty

4e

216

unemployed. The areas most affected by the Depression were Clydesidel, Belfast2, the industrial north of England and south-east Wales. The working class in these areas still lived in poor conditions. Men and \ryomen in working families did not live as long as people in richer areas, and more babies died in the first year of life. There was little hope for improving the conditions of life because nobody wanted to invest large amounts of money into industry in the period of economic crisis. Economic recovery. In the middle of the 1930s the British economy began gradually recovering. The process of economic recovery \ryas especially noticeable in the Midlands and the south, where a great number of small houses rryere being built along the main roads leading from big cities into the countryside. A great role in the recovery of economy was

rrrbs grew especially quickly around London, where t,lre underground railway system, the Tube, had spread orrt far into the country. Another reason of economic recovery was the danger of a new war. By 1935 it was clear that Germany, rrnder its new leader Adolf Hitlerl was preparing to ntrengthen its position in Europe, if necessary by I'orce. Seeing this, the British government began rebuilding its armed forces. It invested a large amount of money in heavy industry, which gave jobs to many grcople. By 193? British industry was producing weapons, aircraft and equipment for war.

ily moved into quiet new suburbs. Unplanned sub-

played by Britain's

growing motor industry, which was based in the Midlands. With the appearance of a great number of privately
owned cars, the country around the towns changed: many new houses were built along the roads which were suitable for rriotoring. Middle-class people read['klardsard] 2 Belfast ['bel'fo:st] Berfiiacr -

QUESTIONS t. Why did taxes increase between 1914 and 1918? What did greater taxes lead to? 2. When did the general strike take place? How long did it last? What measures did the government take to break the strike? 3. Why were many workers shocked at the fact that the government used the police to put down the strike? What was the Depression? When did it occur? 4. How did the Depression affect Britain? 5. What areas of Britain were most affected by the Depression? Why was there little hope for improving the conditions of life in these areas? 6. When did the British economy begin gradually recovering? In what parts of the country was the recovering process especially noticeable? t'f a. What industries played a great role in the recovering of economy?

Clydeside

Krafi4cafi4

I Adolf Hitler

['rcdolfhrtle]

218

A4o.rrrQ

fr'Iuep
219

quickly around London? 9. Who was the leader of Germany in the 1 What was he preparing to do? 10. How did the danger of a new war help the recov: ery of British economy? l
l

8. Why were unplanned suburbs growing especialli

CHAPTER 19

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Part 1. The First Period of the War. After the First World War Adolf Hitler founded llrc Nazir Party in Germany. Together with his followers he began to spread his beliefs. Hitler called
the German people a superior race, which must rule the world. Soon Hitl,er made himself dictator of Germany and began preparing for war. The Nazis oppressed anyone whose race, religion or politics they did not like. They built huge coneentration camps. Jews2, Cathollcs, Poles8 and others whom Hitler considered enemies were sent to these camps. In the concentration camps people who were strong enough were forced to work as slaves. Those who were too weak to work, children and old people, were killed soon after they arrived at the camps. Germany was not the only country in Europe ruled by a dictator. Benito Mgssolinia, who had come to power in Italy, was making plans to revive the glory of the Roman Empire. In Asia5, a military group came to power in Japan6. They also believed in the "glory" of ruling over other nations. They wanted to take control of other countries in Asia and islands in the Pacific OceanT. 2 Jews ['no:tsr] [d3u:z] 'r Poles [poulz] -1

combinations from the list: guerilla, socialist, depended, self-gouernrnent, s uation, submarines, su,rrender, aircraft, d.iseontent" arrned forces. 1. Being an island state, Britain had always on imported goods. 2. Defeat at sea would have caused Britain,s

FilI in the blanks with the correct ivords or

CHAPTER REVIEW

3. In 1915 German

'4.

point of

started sinking merchant ships. For six weeks the British population was on the

ideas. 6. Before the beginning of the First World War Brit_

7.

5. The British working class was not interested in

Ireland the republican army and hting against the British. of workers led to a general

8. The

strike in 1926. 9. The British government began rebuilding its

10. By 1937 British industry was pro4ucing weap_ ons, and equipment f6r war.
220

Nazi

Haq,rrcrclcaff

euperr

'r

' '

rroJrarrl Benito [be'ni:tou] Mussolini [,muse'li:nr] - Eexuro Myccorunz Asia ['erJa] Aaua Japan [d3e'pan] - ,flnonvs pacific-Ocean [pe'slfik'ouJn] th; Taxutrr oKearr

221

In the 1930s Germany, ttaly and Japan formed alliance called the Axisl. Britain and France led alliance of European countries called the Allies. Allies opposed the Axis. Japan was the first nation to use military might.
1931 the Japanese2 army invaded a part of Chinas

Manchuriaa.

ln 1935 Italy invaded parts af Africa

Germany seized Austria and part of Uzechoslouahias. On September 1, 1339, the German army in Poland6. The Polish government asked Britain France for help. On September 3, 1939, Britain France declared war on Germany. That was the beginning of the Second World War. The Poles fought bravely, but the German army; conquered the country in less than three weeks. The Germans used a new tactics called ablitzkrie,g? (light-. ning war). The attack was so swift that Poland's al-. lies, Britain and France, had no time to come and help Poland. In the spring of 1940 Germany turned its attention to western Europe. The Germans invaded Denrnark, Norways, the Netherlands, Belgium and, Lurernbourgls.,The French army was thought to be very strong. But, with the help of Italy, Germany defeated the French in a few weeks. The British who were fighting in France were driven into the sea losing

a small French almost all their weapons' At Dunkirkl' port, the British armY prlvate boats which cros rying the soldiers over rlans said, Dunkirk was prime Minister, sir *ititurv disaster2. Britain,s new Wtrrrtot Churchills, played a great role in keeping people' He perup the fighting spirita of the British victory of coureuaded the nation that Dunkirk was a

iS"
1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

determination at Britain's darkest hour' QUESTIONS party did Adolf Hitler found in Germany? What What aia ft" say about the German people? Who was oppressed in Nazi Germany? What were concentration camPs? What was the Axis? When was it formed? What alliance opposed the Axis? What lands werelnvaded by Germany' Italy and Japan in the 1930s? Wiren and how did the Second World War start? Wftut tactics did Hitler use in Poland? Why did

""a

8. What countries did Germany invade in 1940? the 9. How long did it take Germany to defeat

BritainandFrancehavenotimetohelpPoland?

French? Wttut happened to the British forces

I the Axis ['aksrs] 2

3

Ocr flnoncxzft Manvrxypua {exocaoBarclrfl

softHa

4 5 6 Poland ['poulsnd]
0 Luxembourg
222

- florsrua MoJrHrrenocsas ? blitzkrieg ['blrtskri:g] - Hein. E Norway ['nc:wer] Hopnerua

['l,rksembe:g]

le'vrekre]

people after Dunkirk?

I

poM

Jhoxcevr6ypr

4 fighting sPirit -

l-cgpVuncronrleP'uuurr
6oeaofi

lYx

22)

Paft 2. Alone against the Nazis.

By June 1940 Britain stood alone against the N zis. German planes made bombing raids against Bri ish cities, railways and factories. All night long bombs dropped.'The pilots of the British air f tried to fight off the German planes. Hitler's plan was to break the spirit of t e Briti and destroy Britain's ability to defend itself. T the Germans would cross the English Channel France. They would invade and take control of Bri ain. But the British Royal Air Forcer shot down German planes, and Germany was not able to ful its plan of invading the country. The battte of Bri ain was the Allies' first victory.

By 1943 the Soviet army was pushing the

rnans out of the USSR, and Britain man and Italian troops out of North Africa. In July 1943 the Allied troops landed in Italy. D-Day. Meanwhile a huge invasion of France was being prepared. A large army and thousands of ships

Gerhad driven Ger-

1. How did Germany fight Britain in the air? 2. What was the purpose of German bombing raid against Britain? What did Hitler hope for?
did his plan fail?

QUESTIONS

Part 3. The Mistakes of Germany and Japan. The End of the War.
1941 Germany and Japan made two fatal mis_ takes: Germany attacked the Soviet Union and Japan attacked the United States of America. Thus the Axis of Germany, Italy and Japan forced onto the batilefield two of the most powerful nations in the world. Germany now had to fight on two fronts: in the east and in the west.

In

nnd boats were gathered on the southern shore of Great Britain. The day of the invasion went down lnto history as D-Day. On the night of June 5, L944, the Allied Army boarded ships in Great Britain. A giant fleet of 600 warships and 4,000 smaller boats earried 176,000 Allied soldiers towards France. The soldiers were from the United States, Britain, Canada, France, Poland and many other nations. In the sky 11,000 Allied planes bombed the German positions in France. Early in the morning of June 6, the Allies landed on the French beaches. By nightfall, the Allied army was in France. The invasion of France by Allied forces was the beginning of the end for Germany. Four months later France and Belgium were freed. Then the battle for Germany began. In May. L945 Germany surrendered. Japan continued to fight until Britain and the USA dropped two atom bombs on the cities of Hiroshimal and Nagasakiz in August 1945. 110,000 people perished immediately, and nlany thousands more died later from the after-effects. It was a terrible end to the war, and bitter memories are still living in the hearts of people all over the world.
1 Hiroshima [,hrra'ji:me] Xupocrnra 2 Nagasaki [,nega'so:kr] - Haracaxz

I the British Royal Air

BOerrHo-

Force

BosAyrrrrrbre cr4Jrbr

- Bpurancnl{e KopoJIeBcKr4e

224

225

1.

2. 3. 4, 5.

6.

Which were the two fatal mistakes of Ger and Japan in 1941? Why can wd call their mistakes? What did Germany have to do now? What was the situation on the Soviet-Germa front in 1943? What were Britain's successes North Africa? When did the Allied troops land in Ital ? What is D Day? How was the invasion of Fra carried out? What followed the invasion of France by Al forces? When did Germany surrender? Did Japan surrehder together with Germany? did Britain and the USA make Japan surrender

QUESTIONS

9. German planeb made bombing cities, railways and factories. 10. The pilots of the British British.

B. Winston Churchill played a great role in keeping of the British people. up the fighting
on British

tried

the German planes. the spirit of the 11. Hitler's plan was

12.

atom bombs on the Japanese cities was a really terrible end to the war, and memories are still living in the hearts of people.

CHAPTER 20

THE AGE OF UNCERTAINTY

Part 1. The United Nations. At the end of the war the victorious Allies created
the United Nations Organizationl in order to protect peace and democracy in the world and prevent new wars. The idea was to settle local and global problems by discussion within the Organization and not by fighting in battlefields. But from the very start this new world organization faced great difficulties. The idea of the four AIlies (Soviet Union, United States, France and Britain) workihg together for the recovery of central Europe did not work. Europe became divided into two, the eastern part under communist Soviet control, and the western part under the control of Britain, France and the United States.

CHAPTER REVIEW Fill in the blanks with the correct words or combinations from the list: rescu,e, to breah, alliance, Nazi, dropping, raids, bitter, declared, threat, to fight off, inuaded, dictator, air force, spirit. 1. After the First World War Adolf Hitler founded party in Germany. 2. The actions of Germany, Italy and Japan brought the of another war. 3. Hitler made himself of Germany. 4. In the 1930s Germany, Italy and Japan formed an called the Axis.

5. On September

Poland. 6. On September 3, 1939, Great Britain and France war on Germany. T.Dunkirk was a miraculous from military disaster.
226

1, 1939, the German

army

the United Nations Organization

nrrx naqraft

Opranzaaqr{.n o6re4unt!u-

227

In 1948- 49 the Soviet Union tried to capture West Berlin and blocked all road and rail traffic to it, and it was only saved by constant supplies from the west brought by air. As a result of the strugglp for West Berlin, two opposite alliances were formed: the North Atlantic Tleaty Organizationr of the western nations, and the 'Warsaw Pact2 of the eastern bloc.
1.

weaker countries in Asia and Africa, particularly the Arab countries, began to challenge Britain's author-

Ity more openly.

1. How was Britain's international position changing after the Second World War? 2. What happened in Egypt in 1956? Why did Britain attack Egypt? What was the reaction of the world to Britain's attack? What was Britain forced to do? 3. What did the events in Suez show? How did these events affect many weaker countries in Asia and Africa?. .'
QUESTIONS

What important international organization was formed at the end of the Second World War? With what purpose was this organization formed?

QUESTIONS

2. Did the idea work? Which two parts was Europe divided into? Do you understand why it happened? 3. Which two alliances were formed in Europe as a

result of the struggle for West Berlin?

Part 3. The Welfare State.

Part 2. A Change of Britain's Role on the lnternational Arena. Britain still considered itself to be a world power, but it was clear that its internatio,nal position was weakening. It was most obvious in Egypt. Until 1956 Britain had controlled the Suez Canal, but in that year Egypt decided to take it over. Britain, together with France and IsraelE, attacked Egypt. But the rest of the world, in particular the United States,.loudly disapproved of Britain's action and forced Britain to remove its troops from Egypt. The events in Suez showed the world that Britain was no longer a Great Power, and after Suez many

In one of his speeches during the Second World War Winston Churchill had said, "'We are not fightlng to restore the past. We must plan and create a
future." After the war the government concentrated on working out reforms aimed at doing away with social wrongsr in British life. The reforms which were introduced by both the Conservative and Labour governtroble ments gave importance to people's happiness and wellbeing. In t944 the government introduced free2 secondary education for all. In 1946 everyone was given the right to free medical treatment. Two years later, in 1948, the National Assistance Act provided financial help for the old, the unemployed and those unable to work through sickness. Mothers and children also
aimed at doing away with social wrongs - HanpaBJrerrrrhre Ha ro, uto6rt [oKoHqI{Tb c coqrlaJrbnblM oJroM free ad. 6ecularnoe

t
2 3

the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

228

Ceaepo-Ar.naHruqecKoro AoroBopa Bapuraacxuft ,4ororop the Warsaw ['wc:sc:] Pact Israel ['rzrerel] I4apanar -

Oprarrraaqr{fl

229

received help. Both the Conservative and Labour Parties agreed on the need to keep up the welfare statel, in particular to avoid unemployment. Britain bePrimary school childred in an art class

came a country in
which both main parties

shared the idea that providing the basic human rights to the population was the matter
of the first importance. Like much of posthad become economical-

Going on a holidaY

rrtirtliunis.

In the eve-

war Europe, Britain

ly dependent on the United States. Thanks to the US Marshall Aid Programme2, Britain Secondary school students was able to recover working on a woodwork project quickly from the war. Working people now had a better standard of living than ever before. There was enough work for everyone. Wages were about 30 per cent higher than in 1939, and prices had hardly risen at all. People had free time to enjoy themselves. At weekends many watched football matches in large new
I welfare state['welfee.stctt] rocyAapcrBo, aa6orauleeca o 6.narococrogHl{r{ cBor{x rpa)r(AaH 2 the MarshalI ['mo:Jal] Aid Programme - flporparvrvra Maprua.n;ra lto oKaoar{I{n rroMolrg4 crpauaM, rrocrpaAaBrur4M
Bo BpeMfi

rrings tireY could go to tlre cinema. TheY began l,o go away for holidaYs

Lo Iow-cost holidaY
(:ilmps. In 1950 car Pro<luction was twice what

1939' nnd by 1960 cars were owned not onIY bY richcr people but many with a lower income. It seemed as if the sun shone on Britain. As

it had been in

Holidaymakers on a beach

one Prime Minister

it

saidr "YoLl'ue neuer had

so good", a remark that became famous. It was also the age

Btopofi vrr,rpoaofi sofiHrr

of youth. Wages for

At a country Pub

230

those who had just started work had risen, so young people had more money in their pockets than ever before. As a result, the young began to influence fashion, particularly in clothes and music. The youthful pop culture of the sixties was best expressed by the Beatles, a group of working-class boys from Liverpool, whose music quickly became i.nternationally known..

Part 4. A Popular Monarchy.

l)uring the 20th century the monarchy became still nr()re popular than in the times of. Queen Victoria in l.lrc 19th century. George V, the grandson of Victoria, lrrrtl started a tradition of attending the annual footlnll Cup Final match atWembley Stadiuml. On Christlrrrrs Day, t932, he spoke to the people of Britain and llre Commonwealth on the radio. Since then the Christ' ,t,os speech of the monav'ch has also become a tradil,irrrr. During the Second World War George VI and lris wife won great admiration of the British people l'or refusing to leave Buckingharn Palace2 even after ''
Wembley Stadium ['wcmbh'stcrdjem]

1. What had Winston Churchill said in one of his speeches during the Second World War? 2. What task did the British government concentrate on after the war? o. What did both the Conservative and Labour Parties agree on? What idea was shared by both parties?
4. What international programme helped
D.

QUESTIONS

.i

llrrckingham Palace ['blkr4ern'prclrs]

craArron Vau6.nr
Eyrcunremcrer'rft ABopeq

Britain to quickly recover from the war? Why did working people have a better standard of living than before the war? How had the wages and prices changed in comparison with the last
pre-war year?

6. How did people enjoy themselves in their free

7.

think so? 8. What remark of one Prime Minister became fa-

time? How did car production change in post-war time? Did the cars become cheaper? What makes you

mous? 9. Why is it right to say that the post-war tirne was also the age of youth? Why did young people have more money now? What fashions did young peo-

ple begin to influence? 10. Who are the Beatles?

232

The Royalfamily in the 1980s

it had been bombed.. Since t952, when Elizabeth became queen, he popularity of the monarchy been steadily growing.
1. Is the monarchy still popular in Britain? 2. Which two new traditions were started
.

QUESTIONS

4 George V? great 3. What step of George VI brought him ration of the British people during the World War? 4. Who is the present monarch of Britain? Is popularity of the monarchy still growing?
Part 5. The Loss of Empire.
I

lg47 the British finally left India, which divided lnto a Hind.ur state and a smaller Muslitn2 state clled Pakistan. Ceylon became independent the following year. In the 1950s, after Suez, Britain began to give upg Itc other possessions. Between 1945 and 1955 500 Frlllion people in former British colonies became completely self-governing. Britain tried to keep international ties with its former colonies through a new organization called tho British Commonwealth of Nationsa. AII the former cslonies were invited to join the Commonwealth as free and equal members. This system of co-operation hrts proved to be successful, because it is based on the kind of friendship that allows all members to follow their own policies without interference.

the Empire was bigger than ever befoie and covered e quarter of the entire land surface of the world. How ever, there were signs that the empire was coming to an end. Public opinion was changing, and more a more people were beginning to realize that colonialism was wrong and that all nations had the right for self.government. The independence movement in col-, onies was rapidly growing. The United Nations Charter in 1945 also called forl progress towards self-government. In India there was a powerful nationalist movement skilfully led by Mahatma Gandhiz. By 1945 it was clear that British rule in India could not continue. It became impossible for Britain to rule 300 million people without their co-operation. In

At the end of the First World War

1. How large was the British Empire at the erid of the First World War? 2. How wr{s public opinion changing about the idea of colonialism in the 20th centurY? 3. What movement was growing in the colonies? 4. What did the United Nations Charter o,f' L945 call for? 5. Who was the leader of the nationalist movement in India? What was impossible for Britain? When did India get independence? Which two states were formed on its teiritorY? I Hindu ['hrndu:] r{HAyrrcrcxoe 2 lVluslim fmushm] : MycyrrbMancxoe 'r to give up - orAaBarb I the British Commonwealth ['kcmanwel0] of Nations Bpraran.cnoe coApyr(ecrBo narlr,rrt

QUESTIONS

I called for nprroLrBaJra 2 Mahatma Gandhi [me'hrctme'grendr]

274

- Maxarlra lar4rz

n5

6. When did Ceylon become independent? 7. How many people in former British colonies 8.

be-

came independent between 1945 and 1965? What new organization was formed to help Britain keep international ties with its former colonies? Why has this system proved to be successful? What principle is it based on?

Part 6. The Situation in Northern lreland. When Ireland was divided in t92I, the majority of the population in Northern Ireland (Ulster) was Protestant. Northern Ireland was a self-governing province, and most of the population were satisfied with this system. There were other people, however, mostly Catholics, who considered that their sys-

lr,rn of government was unfair. These people supported the party of republicans who wanted to unite llrt: whole of Ireland. Suddenly, in 1969, some people in Ulster, both (irrtholics and Protestants, began to gather in the sl,r'eets and demand full independence from Britain. 'l'lris movement was very strong and soon turned into n rrationalist rebellion against British rule. '[o keep law and order, the British government sent r:oldiers to help the police, but many Catholics saw llrem as a foreign army with no right to be there. In ngrite of the attempts of the British government and llre local administration of Ulster, fighting in Northtrn Ireland is still continuing. Young people in Northr,r'n Ireland cannot remember a time when there was lx)ace in the province. QUESTIONS When was Ireland divided into the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland (Ulster)? 2. What is the political status of Ulster? lJ. What movement began in Ulster in 1969? What did this movement grow into?

l.

4. How did the British government try to keep Iaw and order in Ulster? Were the attempts
successful?

5. What is the situation in Northern Ireland now? Part 7. The Years of Discontent.
Beginning with the 1970s Britain was gradually ialling behindr its European neighbours economicalStruggle in Ulster

'

was gradually falling behind

nocrerenuo orcraBaJra
237

r
ly. It happened as a result of rising prices and grow ing unemployment. The government did not k how to solve the problem. In L9TB Britain joined European Communityr (Common Market2) with t hope that it would help to raise its economic wealth
rrlnl,ion of Britain was not easy. There were white pc'ople, mostly young, who blamed the immigrants fnl growing unemployment. They were wrong, berrilnr{(}, in fact, it was often the immigrants who were

But

it did not happen.

wllling to do dirty or unpopular work in factories,

immigrants started to arrive from the West Indies i the 1950s. They were looking for work. By 1960 the were 250,000 col

Britain also faced new social problems after arrival. of immigrants in the country. The first blac

oured immigran in Britain, and t first signs of trou ble with youn
whites appeared. Later, Asian immigrants started to

ltnrrpitals and other workplaces. I lnemployment increased rapidly at the end of the I l)70s, and by 1985 the number of unemployed peolrlr. r'eached 3,5 million. In many towns 15 per cent or nrr)r'e of the working population was out of work. 'l'lrirrgs became worse as steel millsr and coal mines2 wlre closed. In 1984 the miners went on strike pro-

arrive from India and Pakistan, and black immigrants from East Africa. Most immigrants lived together in
poor areas of large cities. The relationship between the colUnemployment

oured immigrants and the white popErponeficroe

lesling against the closing of mines. Only after a wlrole year of violent fighting with the police the cl,r'ike was put down3. I nflation made the situation more difficult. WithItr a short period of only thirty years, between 1954 nrr<l 1984, prices multipliedo by six. In these condilions it was almost impossible to make sure that all workers received fair wages. QUESTIONS t. When did Britain begin falling behind other European countries economically? Why did it happen? .) Why did Britain join the Common Market in L973? Why was it disappointed? 3. What new social problem did Britain face? When did the first immigrants begin to arrive in Britain? Where did they come from? What were they looking for?
steel mills craJre[poKarnbre BaBoAbr coal mines - yroJrbnbre ruaxrbr the strike was put down aa6acrosKa 6rua no4an.nena yBeJrr{ru4Jrrrcb B lrrecrb pag multiplied ['mnltrplard] by -six

' 2

coo6ulecrao

the European Community fiuero'prcn ke'mju:nrtr]

Common Market

O6qzft pbrnor{

238

B9

r4. How many coloured immigrants were there Britain by 1960? 5. What other countries did immigrants come fro 6. Where did most immigrants live? 7. What did some white people blame the immigran for? Why were they wrong? 8. What was the number of the unemployed by 1985 9. Why did the miners go on strike in 1984? W did they protest against? 10. How did inflation affect the situation in country? How did the prices change betw
1954 and 1984?
rl,r'orrg movement to

parmoved further Uee Awlry from the "cenI,r'r." of British polillr:s than they had rlolre before. ln 1981 four senlor right-wing memlrr.r's left the Labour

Ilrr.

left. Both

l'rrrty and formed I,lrcir own Sociall)crnocratic Party, lrr alliance with the rurrrall but surviving

Part 8. Margaret Thatcher.

Britain's first woman Prime Minister Marg

Thatcherl the leader of the Conservative Party, w elected in 1979 because she promised a new begin ning for Britain. Margaret Thatcher called on the nation for2 ha work, patriotism and self-help. She attached great importance to free trade at home and abroad and in dividual enterprises, and insisted that government interference in economy should be minimal. As a result, the old Conservative-Labour agreement on the guiding principles of the weifare state was gradually breaking down. In the Conservative Party there had been a strong movement to the right, and in the Labour Party there had been a similarly

l,iberal Party. By

Margaret Thatcher

Mrrrch L982 the new prrrty was gaining ground both from the Conservat,ive and Labour Partiesr. Thatcher succeeded in returning a number of nationalized industries to the private sector. By 1987 I tlccornmunications, gas, British Airways, British Acrospace and British Shipbuilders had all been put into private ownership. In the 1983 elections Thatcher was returned to power. However, there were many people in Britain who were dissatisfied with the Thatcher government. 'fhatcher had promised to stop Britain's decline, but by 1983 she had not succeeded. Industrial productionz since 1979 had fallen by 10 per cent, and man-

I Margaret Thatcher Mapraper Tervep 2 called on the nation['mo:9orrt'OrctJ"] - Haqr4ro K for [pr4BbIBaJIa 3 individual enterprise [, rndr'v rdjuel'cntaprarz] u*AvrBvr4yaJrbuoe IIp eAIIp rr Hr,rM aT e,rr b cT o
B

240

I Industrial production -

was gaining ground both from the Conservative and Labour Parties - recHr{Jra rcarc KoncepBarlrBuyro, rar n Jleft6opr{crcKylo [apTI,III
npoMbrrrrJreHrroe [por4oBoAcrBo

241

ufacturing productiont by 17 per cent. U had risen to over three million. But the most accusation against the Thatcher government was it had created a more unequal society, a society "two nations", one wealthy and the other poor. number of very poor, who received only a very amount of government help, increased from million in 1979 to over sixteen million by 1983. The black community also felt separated from ri Britain. Most blacks lived in the poor city areas, unemployment among blacks by 1986 was twide high as among the white population. In spite of these problems, Thatcher's tive Party was still more popular than any other ty in 1987. In the national elections that year Conservative Party was returned to power with majority of IO2 seats. Thatcher's victory caused concern for both o tion parties. The Labour Party did better than man had expected2, and won the majority in the 1997 elec. tions. Tony Blairs became Prime Minister.

B.

How did Margaret Thatcher's policy affect the old Conservative-Labour agreement on the guiding principles of the welfare state? 4. How was the new Social-Democratic Party formed
6.

in 1981? What industries did Margaret Thatcher return

to the private sector? 6. Were the British satisfied with Margaret Thatcher's policy? What was the most serious accusation against the Thatcher government? ?. Why aia tne black community feel separated from richer Britain? tl. Why was the Conservative Party returned to power during the 1987 elections in spite of many people's dissatisfaction? g. What party won the majority in the 1997 elections? Who beca-me Prime Minister?

1. When did Margaref, Thatcher become Prim Minister of Britain? What did she promise
nation? 2. What did Margaret Thatcher call on the nati for? What did she attach great importance to What did she insist on?

QUESTIONS

Part 9. Britain TodaY. Ties with the Past and Thoughts of the Future. Britain has more living symbols of its past than tnany countries. It still has a royal family and a nmall nobility. Its capital,. other cities and coun-

I manufacturing production rpe6.nenua

3 Tony Blair ['tounr'blee]
242

[por{BBogcrBo rrpeAMeroB rro-

'z did better than many had expected

peSyJrbTaToB, rreM MHorr{e oxtlrAaJr*r

4o6u.nacr ryqIuux

Toxra Bnap

I the Knights
flo4naaxn

[narts]

of the Garter ['go:te] - Prrqapu

oPAeHa

247

George's Day. These symbols are a true represen tion of the glorious past. As to the country's present and future, there is difference of opinion among the British people as to what home policies Britain should pursue. people are sure that most important for national emphasis on material wealth encourages selfi and a retreat from an ideal of community to a for personal gain. They are worried by the

newal is material wealth. Others believe that

the reduction of government aid in the educationr health services.

ing of the "welfare-state" principle, particularly

QUESTIONS

1. What are the living symbols of the past that Bri ain has preserved? 2. What do the opinions of the British people differ
about?

CHAPTER REVIEW Flll in the blanks with the correct words and word @mbinations from the list: eecondary, Christrnas, immigrants, well-being, to pntlect, to challenge,Aid, Cotnmon, economically, prege n l, C o rn rno nw e alt h, s elf he lp, une tnploy me nt, e nc our Eferu. dissatisfied, strike, majority, called on, to recouQr, material, falling behind. 1. The United Nations Organization was created in peace and democracy in the order world and new wars. 2. After Suez many weaker countries in Asia and Africa began Britain's authority. 8, In 1944 the British government introduced free education for all. 4. The reforms introduced by the government gave
-

3. Do all the people agree that material wealth most important for national renewal? What dan ger do some people see in the emphasis on ma rial wealth? What are these people worried about What do you think? Would you put emphasis material wealth? What in your opinion is m important for national renewal?

importance to people's happiness and de6. Much of post-war Europe became pendent on the United States. 6. Thanks to the US Marshall Programme, quickly from the war. Britain was able 7. The speech of the monarch has become a tradition. 8. All the former colonies were invited to join the as free and equal members. 9. Beginning with the 1970s Britain was gradually its European neighbours economically. joined the 10. Britain Market in 1973. 11. Britain faced new social problems after the ar-

rival of
12.
13.
244

increased

in the country. rapidly at the end of

' Pfo-

the 1970s. In 1984 the miners went on testing against the closing of mines.

..

245

16. The Labour

14. Margaret Thateher the nation f hard work, patriotism and 15. There were many people in Britain who with the Thatcher government;

SECTTON THREE

PRESENT-DAY BRITAIN
CHAPTER I

Party won

1997 elections. 17. Some people are sure that most important national renewal is wealth. 18. Some Britons think that the emphasis on rial wealth selfishness.

the

in tl

f
rrch names

BRITISH OR ENGLISHI Some people find it difficult to distinguish between

as British and English, between Britain England; and the names the British Isles and the nnd Ilnited Kingdorn add to the difficulty. What exactly rlocs each of these names mean?

UNIT REVIEW Who are these people? What have they done? W a few words about each of them. Winston Churchill Margaret Thatcher

Part 1. The British lslesl.

This is the geographical name that refers to all the lllands situated off the north-west coast of the Eurolrcan continent: Great Britainz, the whole of lrelandg ( Northern and Southern), and all the smaller islands nituated between and around them: the Isle of Wighta, llrc Orkneyss, the Hebridest, the ShetlandsT, the Isles ol Scillys, the Channel Islandse and the Isle of ManLo.

I The British Isles ['brrtlJ'aizl Bplrrancxne ocrpoBa t Great Britain ['grert'brrtn] - Benraro6prrraul4fl Llp.nan4ua Ireland ['aralend] ' I the Isle of Wight- ['arl ev'watt] ocrpon Vafir '' the Orkneys ['o:knrz] - OpxneficrcI{e ocrpoBa " the Hebrides ['hebndi:zf - le6pu4u TTTslrsH,qcKr,Ie ocrpoBa the Shetlands ['Jetlend] " the Isles of SciIIy ['arlz.av'stll] - ocrpoBa Cqunnrr " the Channel Islands ['tJeenal'allandzl - Hopuan4cxue i" the Isle of Man ['atl ev'men] octpoa Man 246

ocrpoBa

247

QUESTIONS What is Great Britain? What three parts is rl t l,ionally divided into?

it tra-

Part 3. The United Kingdom.

'l'he United Kingdom (or UK) is an abbreviation nl' the United Kingdom of Great Britain and North' rt'tt Irelandl, which is the political name of the counIrv consisting of England, Scotland, Wales and Northnrrr Ireland (sometimes called Ulster2\. Southern trcland is a completely independent state: the Republir of Ireland (also rrr lled Eire?). The United Kingdom Lt took centu-

The lsles of ScillY

1. What does the name British Isles refer to? 2. What smaller islands are situated between a around Great Britain and Ireland? Can you s them on the map?

QUESTIONS

rics and a lot of

I'orm the United Kingdom, In-the
|

rrrnred struggle to

Part 2. Great Britain.

This is the name of the largest island of the Bri ish Isles. It is historically divided into three which were once independent states: England, Scotland andWales. The people who live in England English, the people who live in Scotland are Scofs, the people who live in Wales are Welshl. At the same time all these people are British because they live in Britain. As to the word Great in the name of the island, it was first introduced by the French to distinguish the island from the area in the north of France called Britanngz (the French language has the same word for Britain and Britanny)" I Welsh [rvelJ] yaJrbcqbr 2 Britanny ['brrtonr] Bperaur 248

5th century

Welsh prince Henrv Tudor, became

King Henry VII of ldngland. Then his the United Kingdom of Great tsrit-

arn and Northern ['nc:6an] Ireland

O6re4unrinuoe KopoJreBcrBo Be;ruxo6puraulrn u Ceeepuofr LTpnannuw Ulster [',rlsto] O.nrcrep

Eire ['cera]

3fipe

VIII united England and Wales under Parliament in 1536. In Scotland a similar thing pened. The king of Scotland inherited the crown o England and Wales in 1603, so he became King Jame I of England and Wales and King James VI of Scot land. The Parliaments of England and Wales wen i: united a century later, in t7O7.
son, Henry

Part 4. Forming the Nation.

About 2,000 years ago the British Isles were inhabited by the CeltsL, who had originally come from eontinental Europe. During the next 1,000 years tltere were many invasions. The Romans came from Italy in AD 43. The Angles and, Saxons came from Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands in the 5th eentury and gave the country the name England (Angle-land). The Vihings2 kept coming from Denflark and Norway throughout the 9th century. In 1066 (the date in history which every British school ehild knows) the Normans invaded from France. All these invasions drove the Celts into Wales and Bcotland, and of course they also remained in Ireland. The present-day English are the descendants of all the invaders, although they are more AngloSaxon than anything else. These various origins explain many of the differences which exist between England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland differences in education, religion, the legal systemss and ln language.
QUESTIONS 1. What people were the British Isles inhabited by about 2,000 years ago?. 2. When did the Romans settle in Great Britain? 3. When did the Anglo-Saxons come? 4. When did the Normans invade Britain? 5. In what spheres of life do differences still exist between England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland?
Celts [kelts] - KeJrbrbr Vikings ['varkrqz] - Br4xrrHrrrr legal systems cyAorrpor4oBoAcrBo

The"Scottish and Welsh are proud and indepe ent people. In recent years there have been a at devolutionr in the two countries, particularly Scotland where the Scottish Nationalist Party wa very strong for a while. However, in a referendum i 1978 the majority of the Welsh people rejected lution, and in 1979 the Scirts did the same. N theless, most Welsh and Scots sometimes comp that they are dominated by England, and of co they don't like to be referred to as English2. The whole of Ireland was united with Great Britr ain from 1801 till 1921. In L921 it was divided in two parts. The larger southern part formed the pendent Republic of Ireland (Eire), while Northe Ireland (Ulster) became part of the United Kingdon of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Which is the full name of the county situated the British Isles? Which four parts does the Uni Kingdom consist of?

QUESTIONS

t devolution orAeJrenrne (ot 4pyroft crpanrr) 'z they don't like to be referred to as English - orr{ ne .nto6fft, KOIAa rrx HaSbrBaroT aHrJllrararraMr4
250

251

Part 5. Language.
The Celts spoke CeIticL, which survives today i the form of Welsh, Scottish Gaelicz and Irish ic. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic are sti spoken by some people, although they have suf fered from the spread of English. However,, all th languages are now officially encouraged and taugh at schools. English developed from Anglo-Saxon and it is language of the Gerrnanic groups. All the invadi peoples, particularly the Norman-French, infl the English language, and we can find many wo in English which are French in origin. Nowadays Welsh, Scottish and Irish people speak English (e if they speak their own language as well), but have their own special accents and dialects, so can tell what part of Britain a person is from as soo as they begin to speak. Sometimes the differences i accents are so great that people from different of the UK have difficulty in understanding one another. The southern accent is generally accepted as standard English. QUESTIONS 1. Has the Celtic language survived? In what form? 2. What did present-day English develop from? Why are there many words of French origin in presentday English? What accent is generally accepted as standard English? 2 3
t

Part 6. lmmigrants in Britain.

Itt'cently there have been many waves of immigraBritain. Many Jews, Russians, Gerrnans and. Ittilt's have come to Britain during political changes 1l l,lrc rest of Europe. There are also many immi;r rrrrls from different countries of the Commonwealth. thl'ore the Second World War these immigrants were tlrrrnlly white people from Canada, Australia, New Et'ulund and South Africa. In the 1950s the British Ir)vornment encouragedr people from the West Inillt'x, India, Pahistan, Bangladesh2 and Hong Kong! l,o rrome and work in Britain. Today two million Britlxlr people are of West Indian or Asian origin and nvr.r' 50 per cent of them were born in Britain. The government encourages the immigrant communities
lrrrr into to r:ontinue speaking their rrwn languages as well as

liirrglish. The children of

lrrrrnigrants are often

l,rrrrght
t'H

their own languag-

nt school, and there are

agxrcial newspapers, mag-

nzines and radio and telr,vision programmes for l,he immigrants. The latest wave of imrrrigration has caused se-

I encouraged
IIooulpfJro

Irn'knrrd3d]

t Celtic ['kcltrk] sarrx raeJlbcxlrfi Gaelic ['gelhk] -KeJrbrcKLIfi sarrx a language of the Germanic [d3a'manrk]
cxofi rpyuurr

'
group

Banglldesh [,beqgglo'.1.1]
BanraaAeru

flsbrr repMax-

' Hong Kong ['hor1'koq] fonrconr

252

rious problems. There is a certain racial tension racial prejudice in Britain today. In spite of la passed to protect them, there is still discrimina against Asian and black people, many of whom unemployed or have low-paid jobs. Settling the crimination problem is an important task which Bri ish society faces today.
QUESTIONS immigrants eome to Britain from? 1. Where did 2. How many British people today are of West dian or Asian origin? 3. How does the British government encourage immigrant communities to continue speakin their own languages? 4. What problem has the latest wave of immig

QUESTIONS What is the state flag of the UK sometimes called? Wlrnt do the crosses on the flag stand for?

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the

llrl.:
uccepted, off , discrirnination, Wales, Ulster, Contntonwealth, inherited, historically, Eire, Germ.anic, gatgraphical.

CHAPTER REVIEW

l. Northern Ireland is sometimes

it.
4.
5.

called

Great Britain is three parts. The British Isles is the

2.

divided into
name that

tion caused?

Part 7. The Union Jack.

The flag of the United Kingdom, known as f Union Jack, is made up of three crosses. The uprig red cross is the cross of St George, the patron sai of England. The white diagonal cross (with the going into the corners) is the cross o St Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland./The red diagcross of Sf Patrich,

6.
7. 8.

9.
10.

onal cross is the

the patron saint of Ireland.

refers to all the islands situated the north-west coast of Europe. is the name of the Republic of Southern Ireland. In 1536 Henry VIII united England and under one Parliament. After the death of Elizabeth tr King James VI of Scotland the crown of England. English is a language of the group. The southern accent is generally AS standard English. Many immigrants came to Britain from different countries of the Today British society faces an important task of settling the problem.

2i4

255

CHAPTER 2

HOW THEY LIVE

Part 1. The Way of Life.

750,000 cannot live entirely independenily. The gover ment gives them financial help in the form ofu p" sion. More than half of alr ord people are looked after home. Old people who have no families live in OId p, ple's Homes, which may be state-owned or private. The individual and the family. The rllations tween the members of a family have become mo
256

er less than before, because people often move aw from their home town to work, and so the famj becomes scattered. Christmas is the traditional son for reunions, and relatives often travel many m in order to spend the holiday together. Taking care of the older generation. There are ten million old-age people in Britain, of whom a

their second family. Members of a family - grandparents, aunts, u cles, cousins keep in touch, but they see each ot

vorces has considerably increased: one marriage every three now ends in divorce. As a result, th ar9 a lot of one-parent families. Society is now mr tolerant of unmarried couples and single parents. The increased number of divorces, however, d not mean that marriage and the family are not po lar: the majority of divorced people marry again, r they usually take responsibility for the children

In recent years there have been many changes family life. A typical British family ,r""d to of mother, father and two children. Since the "Irr. made it easier to get a divorce, the number of

thnrocratic than they used to be. Many parents treat llrrrir children more as equals, and ihildren have more flr.cdom to make their own decisions. The father gives trr)re time to bringing up children, often because the nro[her goes to work. Although the family holiday is clill an important part of family life, many children epcnd their holidays away from their parents, often wiLh a school party or another organized group.

l. What is the result of the increased number of

divorces in recent years? 2. Does the increased number of divorces mean that marriage and the family are no longer popular? Explain. ii. Do all members of a family usually live together or apart? What is the traditional time for a family reunion? 4. What is the number of old-age people in Britain? How does the government help the old people who have no families? 5. What facts show that the relations between the members of a family have become more democratic?

QUESTIONS

Part 2. Education.

In most schools boys and girls learn together. In the first stage, which is called primary education, all children are educated according to the same programme. As they grow older, differences in ability and attainment become very marked, so it is considered necessary to offer different programmes. There are three stages of education: prima.rA, or elementary, education, secondary education and htgher education.
257

schools. Children were sent to one of these three t of school according to their abilities. These three of school still exist, but their number is decreasin They are being replaced by the so-called compreh siue schools. The comprehensiue schools are the m modern development in secondary schools. The mai advantages of the comprehensive schools are that schools are open to children of all types of abili from the age of 11; they are large schools which gi a much wider range of subjects than smaller schoo so that teenagers can choose a course of studies cording to their individual inclinations and abilit

Primary education is given to children and 11 years of age. A primary school is subdiv into an infant schoal for children aged b to T a junior school for children aged 7 to 11. In s country places both the infant department and junior department may be combined under the of one school. 1 Secondary education embraces the children 11 years of age to 16 years of age. Until recen there were three main types of secondary gran?mar schools, technical schools and m.ode

Part 3. Culture, Leisure, Entertainment.

Are all children educated according to the programme or different progiammes? 1. Which is the first stage of education?
1.

QUESTIONS

sa

4. Which is the most modern development in secondary schools? What are the main advantages of this type of schools?
258

3. Which is the second stage of education? Which .the three main types of secondary schools until recently? Do these three types of schools still exist?

Annual drama are very,popgtar in Br e famous not only in Britain, b Burns' night. January 25 id the birthday of Scotland's greatest poet Robert Burnsr. There are hundreds of Burns clubs not only in Britain, but also througho,ut the world, and on the 25th of January they ell hold Burns Night celebrationS. In banquet halls.of Edinburgh, in workers' clubs of Glasgow, in cottages Of Scottish villages, thousands of people drink a toast to the immortal memory of Robert Burns. To the sounds of bagpipes there appear on the tables the traditional dishes of the festival dinner: chicken broth, boiled aalt herring, and haggis - a typical Scottish dish made from the heart and other organs of a sheep. It is eaten with boiled turnip and potatoes. The dinner is followed by dancing, pipe music, and reciting selections from Burns'lyrics. The celebration concludes with singing the poet's famous Auld Lang Synez. Shakespeare's Birthday. Every year the anniversary of the birth of William Shakespeares is celebrated in Stratford-upon-Auona, where be was born on April 23, 1564. Flags are hung in the main street, people \Mear sprigs of rosemarys (for remembrance) in their buttonholes. A long procession goes along the streets to the church where everyone in the procession puts a wreath
Robert Burns ['rcbct'be:nz] - Po6ept Bepnc AuId Lang Syne ['c:ld lae4'sarn] <Ba6rrrr Jrr{ crapyrc nro6osb) ( mpa0u4uoHHa,fl womJtanl c rca,a J dc moilbH &a nec na ) William Shakespeare ['wrljcm'Jcrkspre] - Vu.nrsm Illexcnnp Stratford-upon-Avon ['straetfed opcn'ervsn] Crpa,qQopA-rraEfisorre

sprigs of rosemary ['rouzmon]

aerourc[ pooMapvua 259

or a bouquet, or just one flower at the poet's graveq the evening there is a perfot'mance of the chosen Bir day Play in the Rayal Shakespeare Theatrer. In London, the Aldwych Theatrez which has ties with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in St fbrd-upon-Avon, holds interiational Shake speare tiva;ls, during which famous companies fr abr including the Corn&ie Francaises from paris, Moscow Art Theatre, the Schilter Theatre of Ber the Abbey Theatre from Dublin, and others, perfor 't Shakespeare's plays. The Edinburgh International Festival. The International Festival6 is held annually during weeks in late August and early September. The val is quite international in its character, as it givesi varied representation of artistic production from man countries. Leading musicians of the world and famous theatre companies always take part in it. The idea of the Festival originated in the first war year. All over Euroile rationing and restricti were the order of the day, and hundreds of towns in ruins, and it seemed a good idea to shift people'i attention from everyday needs to eternal values. ; The first Festival was held in 1942. And since t time the Edinburgh International Festival has firml established its reputation as one of the im events of its kind in the world.
I the Royal shakespeare Theatre
e^44 crcnfi rearp r'EdlP
2
3

the Aldwych : OJrgyr.r the Comddie (DPanceo Kouegra 4 the schiller 'lm] - Eep;ruucxraft IlLnntepoacrcufi rearp 5 The.Edinburgh ['edrnbera] International Festival _ g4uu6ypr_ cxnri uexgynapo4nuft $ecrnna;rr 260

rcopoaeacxllft IllercmrpoB-

The weekend. People in Britain work five days a k, from Monday to Friday. From Friday evening Monday morning they are usually free. Leaving on Friday, people usually say to each other, Haue a nice weehend", and on Monday morning they $k, "Did Aou haDe a nice weehend?" Saturday morning is a very busy time for shopplng, as this is the only day when people who are at tork can shop without hurrying. On Saturday afteriloon the most important sporting events of the week take place z football, rugby (in summer - cricket and lennis), horse-racing, car and rnotor-cycle racing and' Other sports. A lot of people go and watch the sports vents, others stay at home and watch the sports prolrammes on TV. In the late afternoon the sports relults are announced on TV. Saturday evening is the best time for parties, danccs, going to the cinema or theatre. Having gone to bed late the night before, many people don't hurry to get up on Sunday morning, so they usually have a late breakfast. Some people like to have breakfast in bed. While having breakfast, people start reading the Sunday papers. It is quite usual for a family to have two or three Sunday papers, and some families have more. These people have little time for anything else on Sunday morning. Sunday dinner (some people call it Sunday lunch), which is at 1 o'clock or at 1,30, is traditionally the most important family meal of the week. Most people have a joint (a piece of meat roasted in the oven) which is served with roast or boiled potatoes, some other vegetables, and gravy. Then comes the pudding and finally tea or eoffee. This heavy meal makes most people feel sleepy and passive, and they sit talk26t

Part 4. Sport.

British people are fond of sports, perhaps more than any other nation in the world. Almost rybody is actively engaged in this or that kind
sports. Among the most popular sports are footll, of course, then crichet, boat racing and horaeracing. Football. Football is a very popular sport in Britlltr, played between August and May (the football lason). Many people support a particular team and often watch the games that their team plays. Profestlonal football is controlled by the Football Associatbn (the FA). Teams play regularly against other toums according to a fixed programme. A very important competition.is the FA Cup. The FA Cup is elso open to amateur teams that belong to the Football Association. The two teams which are the winners of the FA Cup competition, play in the FA Cup tr'inal at Wembley Stqdiunz in London. This is a very lmportant national sporting event, and it is always watched by mi-llions of pbople on TV. Cricket. Cricket is another very popular sport in Britain, played mainly in summer (May Septem= ber). Many people consider cricket to be-England's national game and to be typical of the English style of behaviour, which includes above all a sense of honour and fairness. The Boat Race. The Boat Race is a rowing race on the River Thames held every year at the end of March or the beginning of April between teams from Oxford University and Cambridge University. It is a popular national event and is shown on TV.
263

QUESTIONS

3. How is Shakespeare's birthday cele\"uted in Stra

ford-upon-Avon? How is his birth6ay marked the Aldwych Theatre in London?

5.

6.

To* is Sunday morning usually families?

spent

in

most

What does it consist of? 8.How do mo'st people spend their Su\day evening?
262

7. What is the most important familn meal of the week?

r
The Henley Regatta. The Henley Regatta is a ing for races between rowing boats at HenleyL, a on the Thames. It is an important social event upper-class and fashionable people. The Derby. The Derbyz is a very important ann horse race held at Epsoms in England in May or J on a day which is known as Derby DaA. 1 The Royal Ascot. It is a four-day horse-ricing e held at Ascota, a suburb of London, every June, is one of the most important race meetings in ain. It is especially popular with upper-class Members of the royal family always attend it. Onel the days is called Ladies' DoA, and some of the en like to wear very big and unusually looking ha

Part 5. Young Peoplds Groups.

When the new trend in music, Rnck-n-Roll, appeared the 1950s, it immediately became very popular h the young people. Qver the last forty years or so hns had an enormous effect on people's lives, and

Which are the most popular sports in Britain 2. When is the football,season? What organiza is professional football controlled by? What play at Wembley Stadium? 3. When is cricket played? What does the Eng style of behaviour include, according to
1.

QUESTIONS

people? 4. What is the Boat Race? Wh6n is it held? teams take part in it? D. What is the Henley Regatta? 6. What is the Derby? Where is it held?
7.

What event is held at Ascot? Why is it Royal Ascot? What kind of hats do women to wear at Ascot?

pecially on the kind of clothes they wear The first group, which appeared in the late 1950s, the Teddy Boys. Their elothes were an imitation ll the clothes which were worn in Edwardian Eng- the time of the reign of Edward VII; lhe bening of the 20th century (Ted and Teddy are abbreUlations of Edward): long jackets with velvet collars, rdrainpipe" trousers (so tight that they looked like rainpipes) and brightly coloured socks. Their shoes had very thick rubber soles and their long hair was ifwept upwards and backwards. This was like a revolutlon in fashion: before the Teddy Boys came, young pcople had usually worn the same kind of clothes as their parents. Now they wore what they liked. In the mid-60s the Mods (so called because of their modern style of dressing) becam6" the new leaders of teenage fashion. Short hair and smart suits were popular again. The Mods rode bcoofers, which they usually decorated with a lot of lights and mirrors. They o:ften wore long green coats.with hoods, called parhas. The Mods'greatest enemies were the Rockers, who despised the Mods' scooters and smart clothes. Like the Teddy Boys, Rockers listened mainly to roch-nroll. They rode powerful rnotor-bihes, had long untidy hair, wore thick leather jackets, and drank alcohol. Throughout the 1960s, on public holidays during summer, groups of Mods and Rockers used to travel to the sea-side resorts of south-eastern England,

265

r
where they got into tles with the police a with each other. Towards the end the 1960s a new appeared, whose id started in Californial the USA. This new was the Hippies. T preached a philosophy peace and love, wo pecklaces of colou beads, and gave fl to surprised strangers the streets. The na Hippies comes from fact that drug-takers Asia and in the Far used to lie on one h while smoking opium Hippies did not use opi um, but they smo marijuana and took erful drugs called ,LSD
ttr,rrrr,lv short or even shaved it all off. They wore rnr v short trousers, enormous boots and braces. The Hftlrrhcads blamed the immigrants for the unemployHtlrrl, in the country. They attacked Asian and black

Mods

Hippies wore simpl

clothes, blue jeans Hippies open sandals, and their hair very long. They often lived together in lar communities, sharing their possessions. It was the protest against the materialism of the 1960s. The 1970s saw the appearance of the Skinheads, who got their name because they cut their hair ex-

irlrrrigrants in the streets and in their homes. Many Hhlrrlreads joined the National Front, a political partv wlrose slogan is "Britain for white people only", 'l'owards the end of !lrr, l{)70s another style ruf rrrrrsic and dressing E;r;rcirred - the Punks, arrrl it is still very popirlrrr'. The word Punk rtr)nros from American liirrr{lish and is used to rlr,r;cribe someone who is Irrrrrroral or worthless. 'l'lrr. Punks sing songs ulrorrt anarchy and de ul,r'rrction and use bad lrrrrguage. Their music is lorrcl, fast and tuneless. ln recent years many new bands have emerged; and eorrre old ones have reappeared. A new trend is New Wavel music, which totally rejects the ideas of the Skinlroads. Many of the bands contain both black and white
rrrrrsicians, and anti-racism concerfs have been organized (l,lrey are known as Rack against Racism\. West Indian rrrrrsic has also played a large part in forming people's rrrrrsical tastes. Many new British bands combine tradili<rnal rock music with West Indian reggae beat2.

' California
266

[.k.rlr'f-c:njc]

Ka,rz(ropnrza

''

reggae beat -['reger'bi:t] us Bec:r-I{nAralr

New Wave

Hosaa

BoJrHa

[ouyJrflpHafl prrrMr{qecnafl MysbrKa

267

Many of the new bands make use of the c technology to develop their music. Computerized machines, synthesizers and other electronic 'rqents are now just as popular as the electric

Part 6. HolidaYs.
Year. New Year is not such an important holtn nngland as Christmas. Some people don't celit at all. any people have New Year parties' A party usuL"gi"t at about eight o'clock aTd g9.e: on, until y ii tft" morning. At *idttight they listen to the n". of Big Ben, Jrink a toast to the New Year and lS Auld Lang SYneusually gather round !|e s-tltue i-n l,ottaott ""o*dt New Year' bros in Piccadilly Circus and welcome the gt. Vtt"rrtine's Day. St. Vatentine is considered a Valenoa arra patron of lovers. For centuries St' day for *"o:; 'B Day, February 14th, has been-a Al sweet"hearts and exchanging Valentine cards'
rw

t have on people? 2. When did the Teddy Boys first appear? Why they called Teddy Boys? 3. What group became the new leaders of fashion in the 1960s? How did they cut their h How did they dress? What did-they ride on? 'What 4. Who were the enemies of the Mods? the difference between the Mods and the Roc in the way they wore their hair or dressed?
5. Where and when

1. When did Rock-n-Roll appear? What effect

QUESTIONS

did'the Hippies first a What philosophy did the Hippies preach? did they dress? 6. What new group appeared in the 1970s? details of their clothing distinguished them f other people? Why were they called Skin What'was characteristic of their behaviour? was the slogan of the political party which
Shinheads joined? 7. When did, the Punks appear? What does the punk mean? Will it be right to say that the Pun live up to their namel? Why? 8. What is the new trend in music called? Ho does Nep Waue music promote friendship amon people?

LaValentinecardwashand-made'withlittle tings of hearts and flowers, and a short verse by the sender. In the 19th century Valen-Jne-oorld cards appeared in shops, complete with verses

lrd

deeorations. briEhtly coloured and gilded' The

everY Doeted and received =

t live up to their
268

name

oupaBAbrBaror csoii uilr,fi

Easter. Easter is a Chr Christ fp.if , *fr"t, Christians remernber the death of golna ftit return to life. The holiday is marked-by dinner' ing t. church and then having a celebration with spring' Eoster is cgnnected in people's minds The *itf, tfr" coming to life o1 Uh" earth after winter' mo"t popular emblem of Easter ts the Easter :gg',: Easter hurd-boiled egg painted in different colours' traJitional Easter presents for children' n-gg, "t" Easter eggs ateusually made of chocolate' N"owadays
269

Children get chocolate Easter eggs, and also c Iate Easter rabbits. They are either hollow or ha filling, and are usually covered with brightly oured silver paper.
Each year, on Easter Sunday, London greets

g*t npring f estiual. Nowadays it is celebrated mostly by rlrildren and young people in many schools in diffcrerrt parts of Britain. It is celebrated with garlands
Ef I'lowers, dancing and games on the village green, lrlrprc they erec1." a maypole - a tall pole decorated rillr flowers and ribbons. The girls put on their best Eurnner dresses, put flowers in their hair and round

with a traditional spectacular Easter Parade tn

tersea Park. The Parade is a great procession of

forms on wheels, on which actors and amateurs form shows. The most beautifully decorated moves at the back of the procession and carries f Easter Princess and her attendants. May Spring Festival. The May Spring Festi which is celebrated on the 1't of May, has to extent retained its old significance that of a

richly decorated floats, that is large moving

{.i

\-.

ttreir waists, and wait for the crowning of the May Qurt'n. The most beautiful girl is crowned with a gollrrnd of flowers. After this great event there is durrcing, and the dancers wear fancy costumes reprecetrt,ing characters from the Robin Hood legends. Slrring Bank Holiday. Spring Banh Holiday is celeblrrted on the last Monday in May. It is an official liulirlay, when all the offices are closed and people rlrrr't go to work. Many people go to the country on tlils day and have picnics. l,ate Summer Bank Holiday. It is another official ;rtrlrlic holiday, and it is celebrated on the last Mondnv in August. During the August Banh Holiday lownsfolk usually go to the country and to the seaFonst. If the weather is fine, many families take a picnic lunch or tea with them and enjoy their meal in tlrc open. Seaside towns near London are invaded by llrousands of Londoners, who come in cars and trains, orr motor-cycles and bicycles. 'lhe August Bank Holiday is also a time for big cports meetings at large stadiums, mainly all kinds ol' athletics. There are also horse raies all over the lountry, and, most traditional, there are large fairs with swings, roundabouts, Punch and Judy showsr
Punch ancl Judy shows ['p,tntJ end'd3u:dr'Jouz]
(

.ffi-E -.-v.-.-

F-i::

.,.

i4--t'

The Maypole

rcyrc,nat, 0eitcnt.ayrcut,ue Jluula flpJvtapouHoao 6anazaua

flanv u ,{xy4rz )
271

270

and every kind of other entertainments. Tradit; on this day is the farnous Henley regatta. Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawhes Night is the most popular festivals in Britain. It com rates the discovery of the so-called, Gunpowder and is widely celebrated all over the country. The story goes that there was a plot Houses of Parliament and kill King James I d the ceremony of opening Parliament on Novem 1605. The plot was organized by a group of Catholics. In 1604 the conspirators rented a near the House of Lords. From this house they tunnel to a vault below the House of Lords and into the vault 36 barrels of gunpowder. The plot discovered because one of the conspirators w letter to his relative, a member of the House of war4ing him to stay away from the House of on the 5th of November. On November 4, a search made of the parliament vaults, and the gun was found, together with Guy Fawhes, who set off the explosionl. Guy Fawkes was hanged. The historical meaning of the event is no lo
:

important, but this day is traditionally celebra wilh fireworks and a bonfire, on which the figu a man called Guy is burnt.
November 5 is a day on which children are al under proper supervision, to let off fireworks2, to mr a bonfire and to burn on it a guy made of old clot straw and - if possible - one of father's old hats. the days before November 5, one may see groups

lldren going about the streets with their faces blacked and wearing some fancy clothes. Sometimes they have a little cart with a guy in it. They ask the pasto give them a pennA for the guy. With this they buy fireworks for the festival. Christmas. Christmas is the main public holiday ln Britain, when people spend time at home with ir families, eat special food and drink a lot. Christilas is a Christian festival to remember the birth of Josus Christ. Long before Christmas time shops become very busy, because a lot of people buy Christmas presents. .A lot of money is spent on the presents, but many people enjoy it. Every day television andnewspapers lay how many days are left before Christmas. People 'also buy Christmas cards to send to their friends and relatives. The cards have the words Merry Christmas and pictures of the birth of Christ, Santa Clausr, a Christmas tree, a robin, or scenes of old-fashioned Christmases. In churches people sing Christmas carols - spegroups of people walk cial religious songs. Sometimes about the streets and sing carols at the doors of houses. One of the well-known carols is "Silent Night". Houses are usually decorated with lights and branches of needle.leaf trbes2. Many people have a decorated Christmas tree in their houses. Young children are told that Santa Claus will bring them presents if they are good. Before going to bed on Christmas Evea the children hang stockings at the

2 to let off fireworks

272

I who was to set off the explosion [lks'plougn] AoJr)rceH 6rr.n npouaaecrrlr BBpbIB
['farewa:ks]

aauycrcarr Qeftepaeprc

I Santa Claus ['sento'klc:z] Canta Klayc 'r needle-leaf trees - xsoftHbre AepeBbfi Eve ['krtsmes'i:v] 'r Christmas - KaHyH Poncgecraa

273

back of their beds, for Santa Claus to put the in when he comes in the middle of the night th the chimney. Ot Christrnas Eue (the 24rh of December) some

When and how is the May Spring Festival cel-

ple go to a special church service called M Massr which starts at t2 o'clock at night. Christmas is the day when people stay at h ofen their presents and eat and drink to ether. most'important meal is Christmas dinner. The cal meal consists of turkey with potatoes and vegetables, followed by a Christmas pudding. traditional foods include a special Christmas cake cakes filled with a mix mince pies - small round of apples, raisins and spices. The day after Christmas, the 26th of December also a public holiday. It is called Boxing DaA. name goes back to the old tradition: some time fore Christmas, boxes were placed in churches the people to put some money or presents for poor. On the day after Christmas, the 26th of ber, the priest opened the box and gave the conten away to poor people.

When is the Spring Bank Holiday celebrated? What is the traditional wayof celebrating it? , When is the August Bank Holiday celdbrated? What events are organized on this day? , What does the holiday of Guy Fawkes Night commemorate? When is it marked? Why do children feel especially happy on Guy Fawkes Night? 6. Christmas is {he main holiday of the Var' isn't it? - Why are the shops busy long before Christmas? Wtrat are Christmas carols? Where do people sing
0. How do people usually decorate their houses for Christmas? on theback
istmas? consist of? them?

ebrated?

lf.

12.
Part 7. Traditions'

1. How do people celebrat the New Year? What people do in Piccadilly Circus? 2. What is St. Valentine's Day? When is ebrated? What is a Valentine card? 3. Who celebrates Easter? What do people ce ebrate on this day? How is Easter celebra What is Easter connected with in people minds? What are Easter eggs? How is London'
Easter Parade held?

QUESTIONS

I Midnight
274

Mass [mes]

flo.rrynouHaf, Mecca

Clubs. One of English traditions is clubs' A club is together to an association of people who like to meet usually retu* and discu"" tn1ttg.. These people are governwith the upper-class men or men connected ment or other powerful organizations which control f socip"Uif" hfe and suPPort t nnect[tv. no*"ver, there'are clubs' eiwith the ruling circles, critwhose members are actors, painters, writers and ics and their friends. In a word, clubs are organizations which join people of the same interests' A club r.""ffv .*n" u Urrhaing where members can eat' drink' and sometimes sleeP.
275

I
I

regularly observed. Changing of the Guard. The royal pqlace is tionally guarded by special troops who wear uniforms: scarlet tunics, blue trousers and

'Gardening. Gardening is very popular with people in Britain. Most British people love ga and this is one reason why so many people live in houses rather than flats. In suburban you can see many small houses, each one with own little garden of flowers and shrubs. For people.gardening is the foundation of friendly r tions'with neighbours. Flower-shows and vegeta shows, with prizes for the best exhibiis, are popular. Traditional ceremonies. Many traditional nies have been preserved since old times and are

when King Charles II, during his exile in Hollan recruited a small body-guardl. Later this small guard grew into a regirnent of guards2. Changing the guards is one of the most popular ceremonies. takes place at Buckingham Palace every day at 11.8! The ceremony always at.tracts a lot of spectators Londoners as well as visitors - to the British caoir Mounting the Guards. Mounting the Guard is a other colourful ceremony. It takes place at the H Guardsa, in Whitehalls, at 11 a.m. every and at 10 a.m. on Sundays. It always attracts sig
a regiment of guards 3 Changing of the guard Cuena KapayJra a the Horse, Guards ['hc:s'go:dz] KoEHorBa

caps. The history of the Foot Guards goes back to

, The Guard is a detachmentr of Caualry troops2 consists of. the Royal Horse Guards and the Life rds. The Royal Horse Guards wear deep-blue tur and white netal helmets with red horsehair mesa, and have blach sheep-skin saddles. The Life rds wear scarlet uniforms and white metal hela with'white horsehair plurnes, and have white shin saddles. Both the Royal Horse Guards and Life Guards wear steel cAirassesa - body armour t reaches down to the waists and consists of a plate and a backplate fastened together. The mony begins with the trumpeters soulding the t'. The new guard arrives and the old guard is . The two officers, also on horseback, salute h other and then stand side by side while the guard changed. The ceremony lasts fifteen mirfutes and s with the old guard returning to its barracks. The Ceremony of the Keys. The Ceremony of the leys dates back 700 years and has taken place every ltght since that time. It was never interrupted even during the air-raids by the Germans in the last war. Fvery night, at 9.53 p.m. the Chi.ef Ward.erT of the Yeornen Warders (Beefeaters,)E of the Tower of London lights a candle lantern and goes, accompanied by
a detachment [dr'tatJment] - orp,ng Cavalry troops ['kavalrr'tru;ps] - rcaaaneprfiorue soficxa ue cyJlranbr (nlrouaxcu) horsehair plumes ['ho:shee'plu:mzl
KOHCKOTO AOJIOCA

I 2

a small body-guard [go:d]

cuirasses [kwr'rastz]
xe6o.rrnroft -noJrx oxpauLr orpfiA reJrox

reaches down
TeJIa AO IIOfiCa

to the waist -

JIarbI

gaKpbr-BarcT Bepxxlorc tlacrb

5 Whitehall
276

noJIKa

-IIIra6

The ceremony begins with the trumpeters sounding the call IJ,epeuonus Haqunae3cs c roro, uro ropxficrrr rpy6nr crIrHaJI

['warthc:l]

Vaftrxonn

the Chief Warder ['di:fwc:de] - Irassbrft crpa*c Crpaxcn Tayepa the Yeomen Warders (Beefeaters)

277

I lrr

ving received per-

Illuriirrn to go on, the Chief

ll'ttrtler and his Escort wn lli through the Archtrf the Bloody Tower errrl I'ace the Main Guard ul llte Touser, who gives
tYrrv

to hold a wrnl)on upright in front

wlrich means

tlrr rrrder to present armsL,

nf the body as a ceremotrlrrl greeting to an officer' <rf high rank2. The l'ltir'IWarder takes off his
The Tower of London

his Escorl, towards the Bloody Towerr.In his the Chief Warder carries the keys, with which locks the West Gate2 and then the Middle Towe Then the Chief Wa.rder and his Escort return to I
Bloody Tower, where they are stopped by the sezt Then comes the following dialogue. SENTRY. HaIt!5 Who goes there? CHIEF WARDER. The keys. S. Whose keys? CR. W. Queen Elizabeth's keys. S. Advance, Queen Elizabeth's keys; all's well.

'l'rrrlor-style cap and cries, "( ltxL preserue Queen Elizuln'l lt.!" "Amen7", answer thr Main Guard and the Escort. 'l'he Lord Mayor's Show. The local power4 of the ('itv of London is headed by the Lord Mayof who is plr'<:ted every year from among the most prominent llt,izens. The splendid ceremony of election known as Ittt' Lord Mayor's Show dates back more than six lrrrndred years. It is alwnys watched by many llrousands of people, who
Lo present arms - B3flTr, opyllcl{e (Ha IcapaYJI')

' the Bloody Tower ['bl,ndr,taue] 2 the West Gate Sana4nrre Bopora 3 the Middle Tower Cpe4naa 6aurns 'l sentry -racosoft 5 Halt! [hc:lt] Crofi! 278

Kponanas 6aruns

irn officer of high rank txpzqep Brrcoxoro paura

I]JIACTb

Amen ['o:men] - Auunr 'fhe local power MecrHafl

the Lord Mayor ['lc:d'mee]

nopA Map

The Lord Mayor's show

crowd the streets of the of London on the second urday of November to and admire its interes procession. The cere begins at the GuildhallL, seat of the municiPal ernment2 in the CitY of don. Starting from the

al lha Royal Court of Justicel, where he takes the

before the Lord Chief Justices and Judges of ()ueen's Bencha to perform his duties faithfully. thr 'l'lrr. bells of the City ring out as the festive procesnlorrr' leaves the Court of Justice after the ceremony nrrrl heads for the Mansion Hou.se6, the official resirlt'rrce of the Lord Mayor. During the evening the tlrrrlitional BanquefT takes place at Guildhall. The l\unrluet is attended by many of the most prominent lrrople of the country, and is usually televised. The l'rime Minister delivers a political speechs, and a toast io proposedn by the Archbishop of Canterburyto.
rrrrl,lr2

The Lord Mayor in his coach

dhall at about 11.30 a. the newly-elected Lord M or travels in a gilded which dates from the eighteenth centurY.
body-guards is a comPan/ Pikemens arrd Musketee

l. What is a club in Britain? According to what

principle are people joined in clubs? What do the
members do

QUESTIONS
clubs?

The long, colourful sion, made up of live footmenT and coachme moves along the nar streets of the CitY. At noon the Lord Magor arci
Mansion House

in their

does gardening play in the life of British people? :1. Which are some of the most traditional ceremonies that have been preserved since old times?

2. What part

' the Guildhall ['grldhc:l] XOJIJI 2 the seat of the municiPal

ernment

I the Royal Court of Justice

3 body-guard ['bcdrgo:d] xpaHrrTeJrr{ a acompany-pora 5 Pikemen xouefiuluxll 6 Musketeers [,m,tskr'tloz] xeriipu 7 liveried footmen ['Lvnd'futmcn]
Guildhall

MyHr{III{[aJIbHOrO

ynpaBJle

nrnpeftnrre JIaKen

'' '' ' CKAMbLI '' the festive procession [paoAHl4rrrrafi flpoqeccr{fl " the Mansion House - Monruea Xayc (petuderuu,ua aop1'mapa) ' Banquet ['br4kwrt] -6anxer n delivers a political speech [por{sHocrrr rroJrr{rr{qecKyro peqb " and a toast is proposed_ - - upeAJlaraercfl rocr r" the Archbishop ['o:dbrJap] of Canterbury - Apxraeur,rcrou
Kenrep6epr,riicrufi
281

cxuft cyg gaiir x.natry takes the oath [ouO] the Lord Chief Justice cyAbn - JropA InaaurrfiCygr,n xopoaencrcoft Judges ['d3nd3rz] of the Queen's Bench

['rcral'kc:t av'd3,rstrs]

KopoJreB-

280

list: ability, preached, cornprehensiue, recerrt, incli

tions, anti-racist, enorrnou.s, trend,, tolerant, bla 1. In years there have been m
changes in family life. 2. Society is now more

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from

CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER

of unm couples and single parents. 3. Rock-n-Roll has had an effect people's lives. 4. The Hippies a philosophy of and love. 5. The Skinheads immigrants f the unemployment in the country. 6. New Wave is a new 7. M4ny New Wave bands have organized concerts. 8. schools are the most modern d velppment in secondary schools. 9. Comprehensive schools are open to children all types of 10. Teenagers can choose a eourse of studies accord ing to their individual and abili

fortification at a place where it possible to cross the River Thames. A+ound the town the Romans built a wall for defence. After the rman Conquest there was a long period of peace, during which pmple began building outside the walls. is building continued for a very long time, especially to the west of the city, so that in a few centuries London covered a very large territory. In 1665, during tlrc terrible plague in London, many people left the elty and escaped to the villages in the surrounding eotrntryside. In 1666 the Great Fire of London ended tlrc plague, but it also destroyed much of the city. After the plague and the Great Fire London was rebuilt atrd people returned to it, but never again were there so nany Londoners Iiving in the city centre. Today, also, not many people live in the eity centre, but London has spread further outwards into the country, including surrounding villages. Greater London now covers about 1600 square kilometres and the suburbs of London continue even beyond this area. Some people travel over 150 km every day to work in I,ondon, while living far away from the city in the country or in other towns. It is difficult to speak about the centre of London as of one definite place. As a matter of fact, it has a number of centres, each with a distinct character: the financial and business centre called the City (spelt
t's ago as a Roman

LONDON f,ondon is a very old cit1z. It began life two thousand

282

with a capital C), the shopping and entertainment centre in the West Erid, the government centre in Westminster. Some places on the outskirts of London have kept their village-like character.

2g7

QUESTIONS 1. When did London begin life? Why did the mans build a wall around the city? 2. Where did people begin building their houses ing the long period of peace which followed Norman Conquest? 3. What great disasters befell London in 166b
1.666?

atr I'ind the banks of many 5n l, io ns in the f amous

Thn'udneedle Streetl and

the rrrrrrounding area. Here, tgrr, vou will find the Banh af l')ngland. Nearby is the

Etorlt Exchange2, which is hko ,r busy market, except

4. How large is the territory of Greater London c. Why is it difficult to speak about the centre London as of one definite place? What is the nancial and business centre of London? What its entertainment centre? Where is the ment centre?

tlrnt, here not food but lllttrt'st in commercial com-

Barristers in Old Bailey

part of the capital. The City has a long and exci history, and it is proud of its independence and ditional role as a centre of trade and commerce. T City's administration is headed by the annually Lord Mayor, whose official residence is the Man House. Once a year, in November, the Lord. Mayor' Show takes place. It is a eolourful street parade i: which the newly elected Lord Mayor travels alo the streets of the City in a golden coach, which over 200 years old. In the evening a splendid meal i served in the Guildhall, to which the prime Mini and members of the government are invited. Commerce and finance. The City of London is one of the biggest banking centres of the world, and you
284

Part 1. The Gity. Tradition. The City is not the whole of cen London: it is just a small area east of the centre, site of the original Roman town, so it is the

A little further along, in Lrurlenhall Street, is Lloydsa, the most famous inEunlnce companys in the world. 'f'he Old Bailey. The Central Criminal Courto of the country is also to be found in the City, in the west,ern part of it. It is called the Old BaiIeyT, after tlrr. street in which it is situated. Some of Britain's [rost famous murder trials have taken place here. Nt,rrrby is the area known as the Temples group - a ol' lruildings where many lawyers have their offices. 'l'he press. Fleet Streete is famous as the home of the nnt,ion's newspapers but, in fact, only two of them 'l'he Daily Express and the Daily Telegraph are xlill in Fleet Street. HoweVer, people still say Fleet Hlreet when they mean the press.
parries are bought and sold.

n insurance

' 'l'hreadne ' lhe Stock ' shares I l,loyds[je flcrdz]

redni:dl,stri:t]
s'tJernd3]

- Tpe4nug.n Crprr (Don4oaac 6raprxa

- crpaxoBaff RoM[aHr{E " 'lhe Central Criminal Court - I]enrpansnrrri yroaounrrfi cy4 the Old Bailey ['berlr] OaA Befi.nu Teuulr " the Temple [templ] - " Fleet Street ['fli:t,stri:t] - @.nr,rr Crprar

- JInofip, company Irn'Juerens'klmpenr]

285

The British are a na of newspaper readers. of them even have a d

paper delivered to t

homes in time for breakf British newspapers can

divided into tWo grou

quality and popular.

E wlrlr: area, and there are many wharfs and warehurr,',," along the river banks. 'l'lrc [.]ast End is one of those areas of London where $lplc from abroad have come to find work. For centut'ir.ri foreigners have made London their home. Some hnv,' lrad to leave their country for religious or politif'rl rcasons. Others have wanted to find a better life. Eititrr,' have brought new skills and started new indus-

ty newspapers
There is a large selection

rvhile the popular n pers like shocking, pe groups of papers can be di al stories. These two guished easily because the quality newspapers twice the sizel of the popular newspapers.
at any newsagent's

of newspapers

are more rious and cover home foreign news thoughtfu

1. Which is the oldest part of London? 2. Who is the City's administration headed by?

QUESTIONS

is the official residence of the Lord Mayor? W is the Lord Mayor's Show? 3. What important buildings are located in or n the famous Threadneedle Street? 4. What is the Old Bailey? What is the Temple?

5. What is Fleet Street famous for? Which groups can British newspapers be divided into Part 2. The East End.

tr'lt,r. The immigrants have also brought their custnrrri, traditions and religion into the East End, so ynu (:an see a mosquer, a church and a synagoguez [ul very far apart. 'l'1re East End markets are famous throughout the *lllrl. Petticoat Lane markets takes place every Sundnv rnorning and has become one of the sightsa of Lunrlon. The street-salesmen here will offer you all hlrrrls of goods and promise that they are of the highset <luality and much cheaper than those you can buy Irr the West End. 'l'r:aditionally, someone born in the East End is hrrown as a cochneys, although this name is now givetr to anyone who speaks like a Londoner. Cockneys trlrrrngle certain vowel soundso so that the vowel sound lt "late" becomes more like that in "light": that is Ilrcy say [art] instead of [ert]. They pronounce "day" nn [dar] instead of [der], "may" as [mar] instead of "rain" as [rarn] instead of [rern]. Another f rrrcr], and
lr mosque [mcsk] - Merrerb rr synagogue ['srnagcg] - cr{Harora l)etticoat ['petrkout] Lane market -

The East End is the industrial part of London. grew with the spread of industry to the east of City and the growth of the port of London. It

prruor

Ha yJrrrqe

flerru-

rioyr JIeftn one of the sights

twice the size 286

B ABa paaa

6olrure

- oAHa rra Aocrorrpr4MerrareJrbr{ocreft - KoKrrr4 vowel [vaual] sounds - rJracubre sByxr4

a cockney ['kcknr]

287

peculiarity of cockney pronunciation is dropping ['etJrz] at the beginning of words, so that "he" sot like [i:], "heq,d" like [ed] and "how" Iike [au]. and other peculiarities of cockney pronunciation very well described by the great British playwri Bernard Shawr in his Pygmaltonz.
QU ESTIONS

1. What is the East End of London? 2. How do you explain the fact that in the East you can find a Christian church, a synagogue a mosque situated very near one another? 3. What is a cockney? What are the peculiarities cockney pronunciation? What famous Bri playwright described the peculiarities of
pronunciation?

Part 3. The West End.

The West End is the name given to the area central London between the Malls and Oxford St It includes Trafalgar Squarea, the main shoppi areas of Oxford Street, Regent Streetb and Bo Street, and the entertainment centres of Soho6, cadilly CircusT, Leicester Squares and Shaftesb Avenuee. The name West End is associated with g our and bright lights.
1 Bernard Shaw ['be:ned'Jc:] Bepnapg IIIoy 2 Pygmalion [prg'merljen] -<flzrMaJrrront 3 the Mall [mael] y.rrzrla Mann '1 Trafalgar Square [tra'felge,skwee] - TpaQarrbrapcKafl ' Regent Street ['ri:dgcnt.stri:t] - Pu4xeHr crprlr 6 Soho [sou'hou] Coxo 7 Piccadilly Circus - rrJrorqaAb fltrxa1utlu E Leicester Square [.prka'drlr.se:kes]uaouqa4r Jlecrep cKBep ['lesta,skwee] 0 Shaftesbury Avenue ['Jo:fisbarr.rvanju] - Illa@rc6epr,r anen
288
Trafalgar Square

a traditional meeting place

llrafalgar Square. Trafalgar Square was built at llrc beginning of the 19th century to commemorate !lte Battle of Trafalgar.Admiral Lord Nelson's statrrt: stands on top of a column in the middle of Tralrcld in Trafalgar Square. At Christrnas time carol ningers gather round a huge Christmas tree which is sent to Britain from Norway every year. Behind Nelson's Column is the building of the National Galloryr, a rich art gallery in which you can find many old masters.
I'nlgar Square. The large square is a traditional place l'or people to meet: all sorts of protest meetings are

'

the National Gallery ['neJncl'grelerr]

Haqrona.nrHafl

ra Jrep e rr

289

Shopping. Most of London's big department are situated in Oxford Street and Regent Street. T are always crowded, but especially at sale timesr, January and July, when there are so many here that it is difficult to move. Entertainment. Piccadilly Circus is the centre night life in the West End. The square is quite sma and many people are disappointed when they see for the first time because they imagined that it be much bigger. To the north of Piccadilly Circus Soho, which has been the foreign quarter of Lo since the 17th century. Now it is famous for its

taurants, which offer food from different countr Especially popular are Chinese2 and Italian foods.
2

I at sale times B rrepr{oAbl pacnpoAa?Ku Chinese [tJar'ni:z] - riurarlcrcas

l,orrdon is famous for its theatres. In the West Etrrl there are over thirty theatres within a square Irtllr.. 'lhey offer a great variety of shows to choose ff rrrrr: opera, musicals, drama, comedies, whodunnitst, lttl l;o on. SUESTTONS I , What area of London does the West End embrace? What is the name West End associated with? !f , What does Trafalgar Square commemoraie? What rnonument stands in the centre of it? il, What tree is placed in Trafalgar Square at Christuras time every year? Where is it sent from? What nrt museum is situated in Trafalgar Square? .1. Where are most of London's big department stores? When are the department stores especially crowded? Why? h. What place in the West End is the centre of

ll. What is Soho famous for?

Part 4. Westminster.
Itrvery day, when people in the UK and overseas nwitch on their radio to listen to BBC radio news, llrcy can hear one of the most famous sounds in Lonrltn: the chirnes of Big Ben on the tower of the Housr,r;

night life?

of Parliament. 'fhe Houses of Parliament occupy a magnificent lrrrilding on the left bank of the Thames in a part of l,ondon called Westminster2, that has long been conrrccted with royalty and government.
(om nezpamomwhodunnits [fru'd,tnrts] - AereKrrrBHbre ubecbr ttoeo who Ihas] done it? ) Westminster ['westmrnstc] - Bectnnr{Hcrep 291

Piccadilly Circus

Westminster

King Edward the Confessorr built a palace the River Thames in the 11th century. His suc made the palace their main residence. Gradual Westminster became the centre of government. first Parliament was organized to help the mona rule the country. The monarch called representati of different groups of people together; so the of Lords represented the Church and aristocracy, a the House of Commons represented the rich la owners who expressed the views and interests of own town or village. In the course of centuries, er gradually passed from the monarch to Parliamen According to the long:sfst4ing tradition, the still opens the new session of Parliament each a tumn by reading the Queen's Speech in the House Lords. Another tradition is that the Queen is allowed to enter the house of Commons. This tradi
Edward ['cdrvcd] the Confessor [kan'fcso] 292

The Houses of Parliament

ilon goes back to the iltrre of Charles I, more tlrun three hundred everybody that the
ycurs ago, and reminds

Inonarch must not try l,o govern the country. Westminster Abbey. Opposite the Houses of

l)rrrliament stands

Westminster Abbeyr. A r:hurch has stood here rince Saxon times, when

I Westminster Abbey
['wcstmrnste'rcbr]

Becrvrraucrepcroe a6-

Egyapg llcuoaegrur

6arcrso

it was known asWr

lrr the middle of Whitehall is the Cenotaphr, a

lllonrrment to the fallen2 in the two world wars of the 8(l'r't'entury. According to tradition, on Remembrance Dny", the Sunday nearest to November 11, the Queen lnyu a wreath of poppiesa at the Cenotaph. People of Ht'il,uin remember their dead from the two world wars by wearing a red paper poppy.

MonasterA (W minster), because

its position to t
west of London's tre. Since William

Conqueror's ti British monarc

have been crow there, and since 13th century th

l. [n what part of London is the building of the

llouses of Parliament situated? What is Big Ben? !1, Which two parts does British Parliament consist of? il, l{ow does the Queen open the new session of Parliament each autumn? 't. What is the origin of the tradition aecording to which the Queen is not allowed to enter the House
f).

QUESTIONS

have been buri there. Many ot

Central London

famous people also buried in W

minster Abbey. Whitehall. The street called Whitehall stretches f Parliament Square to Trafalgar Square. Whitehall often associated with the government of Britain. Downing Streetr, which is a small side street Whitehall, is the home of the Prime Minister who li at number ten. Next door, at number eleven, lives t Chancellor of the Exchequef, who is responsible f financial planning and the British economy. Ju around the corner, in Whitehall itself, are all the i portant ministries: the Foreign Offices, the Min of Defencea, the Home Offices and the Treasuryo.

of Cornmons? What English king built Westminster Abbey? What is Westminster Abbey famous for?

0.

What important buildings are situated in or near Whitehall? n t. What is the Cenotaph? What ceremony is held at the Cenotaph on Remembrance Day?

Part 5. Royal London.

When you are in London, you are always reminded rl' Lhe city's close connection with the Crown. There are tryll ouluces, royal parks and colourful ceremonies.

I Downing Street.['daunrr;,stri:t] .(ayuuHl crprrr 2 the Chancellor ['tJo:nsela] of the Exchequer Irks'tJckc]
:r
$r,rnancoa the Foreign Office ['frrrn'rfis]

Mprn

- MunlrcrepcrBo rruocrpaurrbrx '' the Ministry of Defence ['mrnrstrr cv dr't-ens] Munuctepcr o6oponrr 5 the Home Office MunucrepcrBo Br{yrpeHHrrx AeJr 6 the Treasury ['tre3err] focy4apcrBeuHoe Hasna.rerlcrso 294

I ' ' I

t,he Cenotaph ['seneto:fl

nronument to the fallen

ll,t-'membrance Day
ilrJ MaKa

renoracfr

.{enr rraMflTruI lrrys a wreath [ri:d]- of poppies ['pcprz]

rraMfiTHr{K rraBrrrr.rM

BosJlaraer BeHoK 295

el

gf l,orrdon Zoo, and an open-air theatre which stages

Flllr li cspeare's plays.

tll popular with horse-riders. Regent's Park, which wrr irlso originally a hunting park, is now the home guESTroNS

L ll

What places and ceremonies remind one of Lonrlon's close connection with the Crown? Name three of London's parks. What do you know
rrhrout each

of them?

Part 6. Knightsbridgel.
The Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth ll, Princess Diana, the Prince of Wales, Prince William and Prince Harry

The most important building in London, thou not the most beautiful, is Buckingham Palacer, whi is the official residence of the Queen. It stands in James's Parkz. Running through the park from front of Buckingham Palace to Trafalgar Square the Mall, a wide tree-lined avenue. St. James's Park is one of ten so-called royal par situated in or near London. These parks offic belong to the Crown, but are open to the public f of charges. These large parks are very good p for people to escape from traffic jamsa, crowded and the city noise. Each park has its own char Hyde Parks was originally a hunting forest and
['b,rkrqcm'pa;hs] 2 St. James's Park [snt'd3crmzrz'po:k] - Cenr ,{xceftMc 3 free of charge 6ecuaarno I traffic jams -rpaHcroprHrre npo6xr.r " Hyde Park ['hard.po:k] lafi4 uaprc

'l'[ris area is a part of London where you can find ilrurv foreign embassies, Iarge glarn-orous hotels, and tlrc rtepartment store that is the symbol of expensive Harrods2. nrrrl high-class living I'eople say you can-buy anything in Harrods, inthey even have a zoo which r,lrrtling wild animals seII you lion cubs as well as more common pets wrll rrr(:h as dogs, cats or parrots. Another place of interest here is the Albert Hall3, n lruge concert hall which gives festivals of popular llrrssical music concerts every summer. Museums. Three of London's most interesting muHr,rrms - the Victoria and Albert Museuma, the Sciorrce Museum5 and the Natural History Museumo nro also in this area. The Natural History Museum
Knightsbridge ['nartsbrrd3] - Hafirc6pu4xc llarrods ['heercdz] Xappo4c Lhe Albert ['relbet] -Hall - Alr6ept xor,r lhe Victoria and Albert Museum Myaefi Bnrropura

Buckingham Palace

Byrranreracxurl
rrapK

296

A,r16epra the Science Museum Myaeft HayKrr Llre Natural History Museum Myeefi ecrecrBeuHoir ucropuu 297

has exhibits of birds, anirnals and reptiles, as wr life-size reconstructions of prehisto;ic ani;;;, Victoria and Albert Museum includes exhibits almost every place and period, including c6st. from the theatre, and paintings. The Science seum covers every aspect of science and techno .4.'' its uuuecrlons and ruD collections are coirstanily beinE enlarsed constanily being enJarged. musegm is always crowded. In many of tt there are machines and computers which the " ". visii can work themselves.

of The East End grew with the lndustry to the east of the City. Traditionally someone born in the East End IS kttown as a Tlre name West End is associated with and bright lights. AdmiTrafalgar Square was built ral Nelson's victory over the French navy.
The Cenotaph is a monument to the ln the two world wars of the 20th century. , I,Iyde Park is still popular with

1. What is Harrods? 2. What festivals are held in the Albert Hall

summer?

QUESTIONS

3. Which are the three of London,s most in ing museums?

PLAcES'FBTJEI,(

r*,to,*

Part 1. Stonehenge.
The great stone monument of Stonehengel is the known and most remarkable of prehistoric rein Britain. It has stood on Salisburyz Plain for t 4,000 years. No written records exist of its gin, and it has always been surrounded by mysy. There have been many different theories, but Itill nobody knows why it was built. One theory is that it was a place from where Itars and planets could be observed. It was discovlred that the position of some stones was related torr the movements of the sun and moon, so that the stones could be used as a calendar to predict strch things as eclipses.
Stonehenge ['stounhend3]

list:

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from

CHAPTER REVIEW /Vf

our, cochneA. 1. London began as a Roman

to commemorate, residence, financial, horserid,e f ort if ic at io n, spre a d., f alle n, d e liue re d,, ir ruro r" n, gli

The and business eentre of Londoi is called the City. 3. The official of the Lord Mayor oj the City of London is Mansion House. 4. Lloyds is the most famous company in the world. 5. Many British people have a daily paper to their homes in time for breakfast.
2.
298

River Thames.

at

Salisbury ['sc:lzbarr] Conc6epra the position of some-stones was related to HeKoropblx raunefi rrueer cBflBb c

Ctoynxegxc

pacnoJro?$enlle

299

i
Stonehedge

r[. He flew forwards and backwards between Irennd Salisbury Plain carrying huge stones one by nnd setting them in place. As he worked, he laughed Irlrrrself. "That will mahe people thinh. They wiII r hnow how the stones ea,rne here!" But a friar was ng in a ditch nearby. The devil saw the friar and a stone at him which hit the friar on the heel. Thc stone which the devil threw is known as the stone, and people will show it to you lying by Hide of the road.
QUESTIONS Which is the best known prehistoric monument in Britain? What theories exist about the origin of Stonelrenge? What does the legend say about the Stonehenge?

At one time people thought that Stonehenge wab Druid temple. The Druids were a Celtic religious before the Norman Conquest. Some people believe the Druids were a group of priests who prac human sacrificel and cannibalism.
Another theory is that the great stone circle used to store terrestrial energy2 which was then erated across the country through the so-called lines, which are invisib channels for a s kind of power.
Besides the theories scientists, there are legends. One of them tel that Stonehenge was

!,
f, I,

building of

Part 2. The Lake District.

'l'he Lake Districtl is a mountainous area in the fiorth-west of England, and it has some of England's firost beautiful scenery. Some admiring visitors called It " A paradise of mountain scenery and magical light" Fk:turesque lakes lie in deep hollows dug out by the llncier which covered Britain during the Ice Age'. tlreen hills, herds of sheep, and solitary farms scattnred here and there are typical of thislremote and :lrrprisingly beautiful part of England. 'lhe Lake District is a National Parh, which means llrnt special care is taken to make sure that the beau"

by the devil in a sing

human sacri-f ice ['saknfars]
qCTOBEIICCKI4E'ICEPTBOII

to store terrestrial e gy - sarracarb seMHy SHepruIo

IIOIUCHIIfl

'l'he Lake District - Oadpnrrfi rcpaft l,he Ice Age oloxa oJreAeHeHufl

101

Ffl people who

ttglr
tr

t that industriallotr could spoil the

l,r'yside and ancient

llrlings of England
Wules. The Nation-

l't'rtst members contrl,ly keep an eye onr'

llls and watermills,

hns and

Ious gardens, whole lnges, farms, wind-

hills, abbeys, historic and Roman

A country house protected by the National Trust

il<1uities.
The Lake Didtrict

ty of the countrYs is not spoiled. The ple who are res

ble for preserving
Lake District's na beauty are the National Trust The National T

QUESTIONS Where is the Lake District situated? What organization takes care of preserving the natural beauty of the Lake District?

Part 3. Ganterbury.
Canterbury2 is a town Itr Kent3 with a populatlon of about 120,000. It ls the religious capital of tngland because its cathedral is the seat of the
keep an eye on
'rpr4BaroT 3a

is a public organi tionl which is fi by ordinary peo who pay to beco

members. The Tr was set up in 1895

I
The Lake District

[pucMa-

a public organization

o6ulectaeruraff opra
3aqr4.fl

Canterbury ['krcntabarr]
Kenrep6epz Kent [kent] - Kenr

Archbishop of Ca buryl who is head Church of England. From the 12ih to

place of pilgrim Thousands of p

came to pray at the

15th centuri.es

it

of a former Arc of Canterbury who murdered in the

Thomas Becket and Henry ll

dratr in 1170. His was Thomas Becket

During the 1ztil ry King Henry II ed that the Church too much power. In he made his friend mas Becket Archbi of Canterbury thi that he would help to weaken the positi the Church.

Henry was ama

when Becket began
defend the position of Church against the The relations between

Arclrbishop and the king became very bad, and Beckel lrrrrl to leave England because he was afraid that he trrlglrt be killed. He lived in exile for five years until Hr,rrrv asked him to come back, because the Popel Irrrrl insisted that the king should ieturn the Archtrlrr lrop of Canterbury. When Thomas Becket returned to Canterbury in 1 l7O, the serious contradictions between hirn and the hlrrg continued. Finally, one day, four of flenry's hrrights entered Canterbury Cathedral and mundered tlrr, Archbishop on the steps of the altar. 'l'hree years later, in 1173, Becket was made a saint, nrrrl his tomb became the destination of thousands of lrllgrirns for three centuries. ( lhaucer's Pilgrims. The best-known Canterbury pllgrims are probably those who are described in the hrrok by Geoffrey Chaucer2, The Canterbury Taless. I'lrc book was written in the 14th century, when the grllgrimage had become a rather pleasant holiday for tlrr. groups of people who travelled together for prolrt' [ion and companionship. 'l'he Canterbury Tales rs H r:ollection of stories told bv the members of a group ol' pilgrims. Through the el,ories we get a vivid piclrrre not only of the narralors themselves but also of
l.he Pope lpoup] - nana (ieoffrey Chaucer ['d3efrr tlocep 'rlr:sel - AxceQrbpra 'l'he Canterbury Tales < Kenrep6epuftcnne pac('Ka3bI )

the Archbishop ['o:

Canterbury
cxou Kenre
'bekrt]

2 Thomas Becket ['tc

Ap

Tovrac Eener

Pilgrims going to Canterbury

305

the religious social life of

14th century.

Part 4. Windsor Castle.

Windsor Castlel, standing on a rock overlooking the ltiver Thames, was founded by William the Conluenrt and was later fortified and enlarged by alFiost, every monarch since the Norman Conquest. fftlli,,rn and his early successors needed to secure tlrcil rnilitary position. William put the castle to guard thc river crossing at Windsor. Henry II built the every child's image of forftiannive Round Tower -Henry III added some fortifitfpru;, and his grandson elirrrrs. Still later, the famous St. George's Chapel2 ilnn ndded by the kings Edward IV, Henry VII and llur,.y VIII. Henry VIII also added a fortified gateWav. Charles II and later monarchs continued to make Allr,r'ations to suit the needs and fashions of the day, itrr:lrrding the laying out of the Great Park as their personal estate. Nowadays Windsor Castle is a comfnltable country place within an hour's drive from tlu, capital, where the Royal family can relax.
QUESTIONS Who began building Windsor Castle? With what purpose did he build it? 2. How far from London is Windsor Castle situated?

In the

16th

ry, when king

Catholic Chu
and established Church of E

ry VIII se from the Ro

Becket was no saint, and his was destroyed. The most famous modern "pilgrim" is certainly John Paul II1. His visit to Canterbury in 1982 was important historical event, because it showed the of understanding that exists now between the Ro Catholic Church and the Church of England.

Pope John Paul ll on a visit to Cantebury

he declared t

1. Why is Canterbury considered the religious ca tal of England? 2. With what purpose djd pilgrims come to Can bury in the 12th-15th centuries? 3. What famous writer gave a very vivid picture pilgrimages to Canterbury and the people w took part in them? 4. Who is the most famous "pilgrim" of modern When did he visit Canterbury? Why can his be considered an important historical event? 5. What is the story of Thomas Becket?
1
flaser II )06
Pope John PauI

QUESTIONS

l.

Part 5. Hampton Gourt Palace.

Hampton Court3 is a royal residence which is assolinted with Henry VIII. Cardinal Wolseya, Henry's I'r'iend and.adviser, was a brilliant politician and dipqacoBufl cBflroro leopra St. George's Chapel [snt'd3c:d3rz'tJrpel] Hampton Court ['hanptsn'kr:t] 4aopeq Xamnroa Kopt - KapAITHaJI Vo.ncra Cardinal Wolsey ['ko:dtnel'wulzll -

Windsor Castle ['wtnze'ko:sl]

II

Brzugeopcrcraft saMox

['poup'd3on'pc:l 6e'sekend]

- nana I,Ioa

)07

Iomat. He began building this grand palace in brick in 1514. In 1526 Wolsey presented the u ished place to his king, and Henry continued the until Hampton Court was one of the largest buildings in Europe. During tke CivilWar Oliver Cromwell used ton Court to hold King Charles I under home a After the king's execution, he lived there himself, rather un-Puritan stylel. The gardens surrounding the palace, with tennis court, the orangery, and, the famous rlaze, all relics of the pleasures and pastimes of those d which attract thousands of tourists every year. In 1689 William III commissioned Sir Christo Wren2 to rebuild and extend the palace, so that is a mixture of styles in its architecture. The G Gate built in Henry VIII's time presents a Tudor while Wren's south and east fagades are perf in classical style. Like many Englisli old castles and palaces, ton Court is haunted3. According to a legend, one the galleries is haunted by Henry's fifth wife Ca rine Howarda, who was executed on a charge of i delitys. Another legend says that Jane Seymouro, third wife, also walks here in the palace where s died giving birth to the future Edward VI. Some
in rather un-Puritan style - B AoBoJrbHo rrenyprrraucxoM cr 2 Sir Christopher Wren ['krrstefe'ren] cap I{pzcroQep Pen 3 Hampton Court is haunted [ho:ntrd] s XaMnroH

King Henry Vlll and his wives

rne of Aragon

tlivorced

Anne of Cleves divorced

Atttrc BoleYn

exocuted

King Henry Vlll

Jane Seymour rlred in childbirth

Catherine Parr lived longer than Henry

errcls tell that the ghost of Anne Boleynl, Henry's sr.cond wife, who was also executed, sometimes walks

a Catherine Howard ['kreOrrn'hauod] Kerpran loaapg 5 on a charge of infidelity [,lnfi'delrtr] -no o6suneuuro IIOCTII 6 Jane Seymour ['d3ern'si:mo:] ,{xcefin Ceftrvryp
308

BOAfi

TCff IIPITBIIAEIII4A

nlong the ramparts2 of the Bloody Tower. Henry himnr:lf , however, rests quietly: his ghost has never been ruren by anybody.

I '

Bonefts Anne Boleyn ['aen'buhn] - Anna BaJrbr ramparts ['rrcmpo:ts] -KperrocrHble

109

1.

In what years was Hampton Court Palace

, QUESTTONS

What is the palace surrounded by? Why is there a mixture of styles in the archi ture of Hampton Court Palace? 3. How is Hampton Court Palace connected with names of Henry VIII, Charles I and Oli Clomwell?
t

Part 6. Oxford.
The first written record of the town of Ox dates back to the year 912. Oxford University, t oldest and most famous university in Britain, founded in the middle of the 12th century, and 1300 there were already 1,500 students. At that ti Oxford \fras a wealthy town, but by the middle of 14th century it was poorer, because of a decline trade and because of the terrible plague, which ki many people in England. The relations between students and the townspeople were very unfriendl and there was often fighting in the streets. Nowadays there are about 12,000 students in ford and over 1-000 teachers. Outstanding scienti work in the numerous colleges of the Universi teaching and doing research work in physics, istry, mathematics, cybernetics, literature, and ancient languages, art and music, philosophy
psychology. Oxford Univefsity has a reputation of a privileg school..Many prominent political figures of the and present times got their edueation at Oxford.

Oxford

'l'he Oxford English Dictionary is well-known to rlrrrlents of English everywhere. It contains approxitrrrrlely 5,000,000 entries, and there are thirteen vollurrr:s, including a supplement. Oxford University Press, the publishing housel wlrich produces the Oxford English Dictionary has 'Word and n special department called the Oxford l,lnguage Service (OWLS for short). If you have a rlrrestion about the meaning of a word or its origin, vorr can write or telephone, and the people there will help you.

l. Why is the town of Oxford

QUESTIONS famous all over the

world? 2. How does Oxford University justify tion of a privileged school? i|. What is Oxford University Press?

its reputa-

t Oxford ['okfo:d] 310

Orccgop4

' publishing house -

rraAareJabcrBo

311

Part 7. Ca
Cambridgel is the best-known in the world, and principal reason for fame is its Uni the second oldest

trrl llrcre is always

;llrl order. HowVlr', some people illro live nearby do flrrl lil<e the FestiVtrl, 'l'hey say that tlrlr',' is too much
ho

versity of Brit

ir;c, that too

which was founded the 13th century. T

hlrrr:lr
Strrl

rubbish is

lpl'l ,rn the ground,

there are more t

twenty colleges in bridge University. The Chapel of King's College The oldest college Peterhouse, which founded in 1284, and the most recent is Robin College, which was opened in 1977. The most fam is probably King's College, because of its ma cent chapel. Its choir of boys and undergraduates also well known. The University was only for men until 1871. 1871 the first women's college was opened. was opened two years later and a third in 1954. In 1970s, most colleges opened their doors to both and women. Nowadays almost all colleges are mix The Cambridge Folk Festival. Every year, in su mer, one of the biggest festivals of folk music England is held in Cambridge. Thousands of arrive in Cambridge for the Festival. Many of fans2 put up their tents to stay overnight. The Ca bridge Folk Festival is always very well organi
ir-.:ir.ili,

il!ii:i;ti-i:"|1.ii,ir..":..:!i;-.,:.r.:i.::::i,

::.: i:.

The Cambridge dlrrgs. On the othFt' lrrrnd, local shopfnr,pers are glad, because for them the Festival means g lrig increase in the number of customers.

t lr r. f ans take

that many of
Folk Festival

QUESTIONS What is Cambridge famous for? How many colleges are there in Cambridge University? Which is the oldest college? When was the most recent college opened? Which is the most famous college? What is it famous for? ll. What festival is held in Cambridge every summer?

lhe Irish Sea. The settlement of Liverpool was first mentioned trr 1191, and in L2O7 it got the status of a town.

Part 8. Liverpool and the Beatles. Liverpooll is situated in Lancashire2, at the irrrrrrth of the Riuer Merseys, where it empties into

: Cambridge ['kermbrrd3] 2 fans rIoKJroHHr{Krl 312

Kervr6pugx

I l,iverpool ['lrvcpul] Jftaaepuy,rr ' Lancashire ['laeqkcJrc] JlaHxarulrp ' the River Mersey ['me:zr] - pexa lVlepcei"r

)13

tf his hits that brought them world fame.

tlrerrrr,'lves the Beatles.

It

was the

first of a number

The Beatles

Beatlesr, probably the most famous and s pop-group the world has ever known. On October 24, t962, the song Loue Me Doz sung by a then unknown group of four working-c lads from Liverpool, John Lennons, paul M reyo, George Harrisonb and Ringo Starro, who call
2

Since the 13th century it has been a port. In the ond half of the 17th century it began playing an portant part in the trade with the English colonies America. At present it is the second largest ( London) sea-port in Britain. For a lot of people, not just in Britain but ev where, Liverpool is first of all associated with

'i'lrc road to success was not easy. John and Paul $erl rpent many afternoons listening to American Stnrrr like Chuck Berryl and Elvis Presleyz before thov were able to write the famous Lennon and frr('nrtney songs. lf rrring the 1960s the Beatles were at the height gf llreir glory: newspaper headlines, films, and *rrrlrl-tours. Their new style of singing and their immediately Htrrrrrral haircuts - Beatles mops! bF,',,"," the latest fashion. A I'ter a decade of successful music and films, the Eentles had some disagreements, and finally decided to lrrcak up in the early seventies. Many people hoped tlint there would be a reunion, but it became impossiblc rrl'ter the tragic murder of John Lennon in New tlrrl< in 1980.

ll. When did Liverpool begin playing an important part in the sea trade? Is it still a large
ll. What is Liverpool associated with for many
people?

l,

QUESTIONS Where is Liverpool situated?

port? How large?

{. When were the Beatles at the height of their

glory? What immediately became the latest fashion? When did the group fall apart?

t 6

rr John Lennon['d3c:n'lcnon] 4 - ,{rnon Jlennon 'ko:tnr] flo.n Manxaprnn

hrcrrsn] -

the Beatles [bi:tlz] - Bur.rrrr Love Me Do <Jho6u MeHff)

)14

- .(xopglx fappracon Pranro Crapp

(lhuck Berry ['tj,tk'bcrr] - 9ax Beppu l,llvis Presley ['elr,,rs'prczlr] Dnnzc flpecnr,r

315

Fill
list:

CHAPTER REVIEW in the blanks with the comect words from

SECTION FOUR

FAMOUS BRITONS

picturesque, reputation, mountainous, second, grirns, temple, glory, haunted, Royal, glacier, sacrifice. 1. At one time people thought that Stonehenge a Druid 2. Some people believe that the Druids practiced man 3. The Lake District is the central in the north-west of England. 4. lakes lie in deep hollows dug by the which covered Britain d ing the Ice Age. capital of 5. Canterbury is the land. are best described 6. Canterbury Geoffrey Chaucer. 7. Windsor Castle is a comfortable country place

KING ALFRED THE GREAT

family. 8. Legends say that many rooms and galleries by the g Hampton Court Palace are of Henry VIII's wives. 9. Oxford University has a
leged school. 10. The oldest university of Britain Cambridge. 11. During the 1960s the Beatles were at the hei

(s4e-8ee) Atfred the Greatl, who is considered the first

of their

ol'learning. Alfred's interest in education was encouraged by by his stepmother Judith2 and his teacher, and Iater i,i. bi&rapher Asser3, a bishop from Wales' Alfred
Alfred the Great ['rlfred Oe'grett] - Anrtfrpe4 Beanxraft Judith ['d3u:drO] - ,lJ,xtY4ur
Asser ['aesc]

316

- AcceP

T7

learned to read and write Latin and English. He ied passages from the Bibler and translated the

into English.
The duties of the king constantly interrupted fred's education. His entire reign was spent in with the Danes. He became king of Wessex2 in 871. Bythat ti: the Danes had been present in the British Isles for least a hundred years, and the eastern lands of Bri ain were in their hands. They made constant raids Wessex, and people had to pay tributea to them. ing the first four years of his reign, until 875' fred bought peace for his people by paying tribute the Danes. At first the invaders seemed satisf but in 875, after collecting their tribute they did leave Wessex as they had done before. In a few yea Alfred gathered a strong army. He defeated the i vading Danes and forced them to leave Wessex. However, the Danes still inhabited Britain: Nort umbriaa, East Anglias and parts of Merciao were

willingly to King Alfred and submitted themselues ts his lordship". At this point, in thd historians'opiqlon, Alfred rightly earned the title " King of Eneland" , though in reality he governed perhaps a quarter of the land which is now known as England. When he,had brought peace to his land, Alfred began to introduce his reforms. 'He believed that t\s lnvaders represented punishment from God for the decay of education. So he actively supported education in the country. The ability to read was so important to Alfred, that he began to demand that other nobles of the land should learn to read. He openqd schools for them and brought many Latin scholars from the continent to teach at these schools. He hirngelf translated several works from Latin. He startsd the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was a record ef events in his kingdom and may be called the first history of England. He also established a code of la"wr
based on the Bible.

in their hands, and they constantly threat Wessex. Alfred built several new fortified ci

where great groups of people could gather for tection, and reorganized his army. FinaIIy, in Alfred took the initiative himself and attacked Danish-held city of London He forced the Danes of London and captured the city. In the words of biographer Asser, all the "Angles and Sarons tur
[batbl] 2 Wessex ['wcseks]- Veccexc 3 to pay tribute_[tnbjut] uaarurB AaHb a Northumbria fnc:'0,tmbrro] Hoptyrvr6pus 5 East Anglia^[i:st'rqgho] Boctoqua.n Anrnug

The last years of Alfred's life were more peageful and devoted to learning. When Alfred died in 8gg, he left a culture which would be remembered for centuries.

the Bible

Bra6lus

6 Mercia
318

['me:Jlo]

Mepcur

I a code of law [c:] -

RoAeKc BaKoHoB

319

loxition. Some Catholic nobles wished to remove EIizh and replace her with the queen of Scotland, ry Stuartr, who was a Catholic. Mary, usually Srllcd Queen of Scots, was the heir to the English t'orle because she was Elizabeth's closest relation. nrv had powerful enemies in Scotland and had to rpe to England. Elizabeth kept her in the Tower ff l,ondon as a prisoner for nearly twenty years. prrring that time several Catholic plots were discovt'r'tl, which aimed at making Mary queen of Englarrrl. Finally Elizabeth had to agree to Mary's execulkrrr

in 1587.

l)uring Elizabeth's reign England became a great

QUEEN ELIZABETH I (1s33-1603) Queen Elizabeth I1, the last of the Tudor archs, was the daughter of Henry VIII. She
an excellent classical education. She could read and Greek and spoke French and Italian fluently People rejoiced when Elizabeth became queen

ter her elder sister Mary's death in 1558. Eti

Elizabeth made her first task the settlement England's religious affairs. She was determined stop religious struggle. She tried to gradually s Protestant religion, without offending the Cat too much. However, the struggle between Cat and Protestants continued and endangered Eliza
was an intelligent, courageous and determined an. People often called her Good Queen Bess.

ln power. English sailors, the most famous of which lre Francis Drake2 and Walter Raleighs, challenged tho Spaniards in the Atlantic Ocean. They made darlpg raids on the Spanish colonies in America and capttrrcd Spanish ships that carried treasure from the Nnw World to Spain. l,llizabeth helped the Dutcha Protestants. At that tlnre the Netherlandsb was part of the Spanish emplre, and King Philip 116 of Spain was trying to suppross the Protestant rebellion there. He sent his army ln I he Netherlands. Elizabeth did the same. So Philip Irnd to fight with England. He built a huge fleet of llrips, which became known as the Inuincible Armat/ru7. England was in danger. Elizabeth spoke to the

'

Queen Elizabeth

[r'lrzcbeO 6c'f-o:st]

320

Enrnsasera

I Mary Stuart ['meerr'stjuet] Mapua Crroapr I lfrancis Drake ['fransrs'drerk] @pencuc ,{pefir t Walter Raleigh ['wc:lte'rc:lr] - Yo.nrep Porlr I l)utch tdntjl ron.nanAccufti lhe Netherlands ['ne6elendz] Hngep.nax4u n King Philip II ['frlrp 6e'sekend] (Du.nunn II Armada [o:'mo:de] ' l,he Invincible [tn'vrnstbl] - neuo6eAlrrvras
Apma4a
321

crews of the ships that were going to do battle the Armada. She won their hearts by saying was ready "...to liue or die arnongst Aou-. for my and for my hingdorn, and for nty people... I hnow a week u)ornan, but I haue the heart of a hing a King of England too!" The two fleets were fighting for six days, August 9, 1588, the Armada was defeated. Only the ships of. the Armada returned to Spain. It great victory for England. The Elizabethan ager was one of the greatest riods of English literature. Edmund Spenser2, topher Marlowes and William Shakespearea only a few of the many writers who created
.

great works at that time. Elizabeth's court a centre of culture for English musicians, scholars and artists. The English were proud of country and their queen.

t
FRANCIS DRAKE (1540-15e6)
Francis Drake, one of the most famous of English llors and pirates, was born in Plymouthr, a seaport and the largest town in the south of England. 'fhe boy spent much of his time looking at the ships ln l'lymouth harbour and talking to the seamen. At lil'teen he was taken on a small ship and worked there fol some years. The boy learned the duties of a sailor Vnry soon and did his work so well that people said tlrrrt he was a born sailor2. When Drake was twentyfJvc, he was made a captain's mate, and soon after tlic captain of a ship.
E rr born

Ir.lrze'bi:0en'erd3] 2 Edmund Spenser ['edmend'spense] - EArvryEA CnexcepMa 3 Christopher Marlowe ['knstcfa'mo:lou] KpnctoQep a William Shakespeare ['wrljom'Jerkspra] - Vlr.nrsrvr IIIexc

The Elizabethan age

E.nuaaaerrancrufi

)22

I l'lymouth ['phmeO] flnrauyt sailor - [pupo)Kgiinnrrft

MopfiK

323

Sea-battles between English and Spanish ships common at that time. Once a small fleet of six

lish ships was attacked by Spanish ships in the lantic Ocean. Four of the English ships were and only two, one of which was commanded by came back to England. Drake demanded that the king of Spain should him for the lost ships. Of course, the king of refused to pay. Drake was very angry and dec that he would take all he could from the king of And he fulfilled his threat. He crossed the Atl with two small ships and captured several ships loaded with gold and silver. In November 1577 five ships with Francis at the head sailed off from Plymouth. Drake the Atlantic, passed through the Strait of M and reached Cape Hornz, the southernmost point South America. After a short rest the ships sailed north all the west coast of South, Central and, North Arne Leaving North Arnerica, Drake crossed the P and visited the island of Jauaa, in the south of After that he sailed across the Indian Ocean to Cape of Good Hope,, where he came in June 1580. Sailing north along the west coast of Africa, visited the Canary Islandso, then sailed on and September 1580 he returned to England.
Strait of Magellan [mo'gelen] MareanauoB npoJrrrB Horn ['kerp'hc:n] urrc lopx 3 the Pacific [ps'srfik] - Tuxnft oreau a Java [d3o:va] .fsa 5 the Cape of Good Hope rrarrc ,{o6poft uagex4rr 2
the
Cape

Francis Drake's round-the world voyage

'l'he voyage lasted nearly three years. Drake was tlrc first Englishman who sailed round the world.

ln 1588 Francis Drake distinguished himself in tlrc sea-battle against the Spanish Arnrnda in the

Frrglish Channel. Seven years after the victory over the Spanish Arfiuda, in 1595, Drake, at the head of a large fleet, lalled from Plymouth again to attack the Spaniards ln America and the West IndiesL. The Atlanfic was t'ossed in a month, but soon afterwards Drake fell lll. In January 1596 he died and was buried in the mn. There is a monument to Francis Drake in Plyhtouth.

6 the Canary [ka'nean] Islands

)24

Kanapcxr're ocrpoBa

the West Indies ['west'rndrz]

Becr-Llngua

12'

Wc do not know when or why Shakespeare left ftrrrtford for London, or what he was doing befcrr, becoming a professional actor and dramatist

l1 l.he capital. He probably arrived in London in lBro or L587. Fihakespeare's reputation was established in Londorr by L592, when his earliest plays were written: flrnry VI, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, and T.itus

lnrlronicus.

ln 1594 Shakespeare joined other actors in formhg n new theatre companyr, with Richard Burbage2 U its leading actor. For almost twenty years Shaketpr.rrre was a regular dramatist of this company and
It'o[e on the average two plays a year. Burbage played lhn rrrain roles, such as Richard III3, Hamleta, Othelfoh

nnd Lear6.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616)

William Shakespeare was born in 1564, in S ford-upon-Avon1. He attended Stratford's gra school, which still stands. The grammar school's riculum at that time was limited to teaching pu Latin, both spoken and written. The classical wri studied in the classroom influenced Shakespea plays and poetry; some of his ideas for plots and c acters came from Ovid's2 tales, the plays of and Plautusa, and Roman history.
t Stradford-upon-Avon ['stretfed EfisoHe 2 Ovid ['cvrd] Or.ugufr 3 Terence ['terons] Tepenqufi a Plautus ['plc:tas] - flrasr )26
e'pcn'ervn]

ln 1599 the company of actors with which Shakelfrcrrre worked built a new theatre, the GlobeT. It was brrilt on the south bank of the Thamess. The Gtobe ilrr.utre is most closely associated with Shakespeare's plrrvs. Two of his plays, Henry IF and Julius Caetrt/'r0, were almost certainly written during the year
Itr which the Globe opened. Some of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies were -early

written

in

the

1600s. They include Hamlet,

CrperQop4-

Itichard III - Pu.rap4 III llnmlet ['haemlrt] - launer ( )thello Oreruo [ou'Oelou]

rr [heatre company rpyrrua -. TearpaJrbxafl Prauap4 Bep6v4xc Itichard Burbage ['rrtJod'be:brd3]

llenry V - <lenprax V> .lulius Caesar ['d3uljes'si:zo]

l,ear [re] JInp t,lre Globe -[gloub] - fao6yc l,lre Thames [temz] Tervrsa

<IOauft IJ,eaapr> 327

Othello, King Lear and MacbethL. His late plays,, ten known as romances, written between 1608 L612, include Cymbelinez, The Winter's Tales and
Tentpest
a.

Around 1611 Shakespeare left London and to Stratford. He died in Stratford at the age of two on April 23, 1616, and was buried in Holy
Churchs. Shakespeare's greatness lies in his humanism. created a new epoch in world literature. For four centuries Shakespeare has remained one of best known playwrights and poets in the world. ry new generation of people finds in his works

ity

thing important. As his contemporary Ben J once said, Shakespeare "belongs not to the cen but to all times."

Oliver Cromwell (1see-16s8)

'l'he centuries-long rivalry between the Crown and lfnrliament came to an open fight in the 17th century. 'l'he king of England was Charles I, a young man who wanted to rule over England without Parliament. [lr. needed money for wars, but Parliament refused to give it. In t642 Charles I tried to arrest some tlrr.mbers of Parliament, but could not do it. Then he lel't Parliament and never came back as a king. Memlrt.rs of Parliament decided to build up an army to flght against the king, and gave money to teach the eoldiers. But they understood that eourage alone was rrot enough to win battles. It was necessary to have a

Macbeth [mek'beO] - <Marc6er> Cymbeline ['srmbrli:n] <I-{lrm6earn> The Winter's Tale -<Survrnss cKaBKaD { The Tempest ['temprst] <Eypar 5 Holy Trinity Church ['houlr'trrnrtr'tJa:d] Tpouqu 6 Ben Jonson ['ben'd3cnsn] Ben .(xoncon 328

2 3

qepxoar

Hrrch a Ieader was

clrong leader who would train the army and lead it. found. It was Oliver Cromwelll.

I Oliver Cromwell

['clrve'krcmwal]

O"nunep Kpouae.nr

)29

Cromwell was a member of Parliament. He country gentleman, a rough man, unskilful as a er, but known for his strength of character and deep sincerety and religious feeling. Cromwell trained his soldiers in complete ence, filled them with the desire to fight for dom, Parliament and religion. His famousorder "Trudt in God and keep your powder dry." Many thousands of soldiers were killed during Ciuil War. In 1644 a Scottish army of 20,000 came to help Cromwell. In the battle near the York the Parliamentary army won a victory and king's army was defeated. Charles I was brough trial in London and accused of having made war his people and of being an enemy of his country. was found guiltyr and sentenced to death. In J ary 1649 Charles was beheaded. In the same the Parliamentary government came to power proclaimed England a republic. Cromwell got tle of Lord Protector. Cromwell ruled the country firmly, but he did like to be contradicted, and finally dismissed Par ment. During the last years of his life he beca dictator who ruled the country without the co of the people. The English Republic, the first lic in Europe, did not justify the hopes of the In September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died. The litical instability that followed his death led to demand for the restoration of monarchy. In 1660 newly elected Parliament invited Charles II, the of the executed king, to occupy the English thro
was found guilty )30

John Milton
(1608-1 674)
,lohn Miltonl was born in a Puritan family in Lontnrr. At the age of seventeen he went to Cambridge. fflr,r taking his degree, he returned home and spent llx rnore years studying poetry, philosophy, music Sttrl languages. He mastered Greek and Latin literafttlr., learned French, Italian and Spanish and studlerl l,he latest theories of science. Then he travelled ln l,'r'ance and Italy. In 1639 he came back and joined [lrr, r;truggle for the Puritan cause. lrr 1649 Charles I was executed, and Cromwell betrrnro ruler of England. Milton became Foreign Seclnlrrryz to Cromwell. He worked day and night, writ-

6srn nprrsnau BrrHoBHbrM

I I

,lohn Milton ['d3on'mrlten] l,'orcign ['fcrrn] Secretary

,(xon Mrnrron - M]rr{r4crp r{Hocrpannhrx -

AeJr

331

ing, in Latin, countless letters to foreign rulers, ing and translating their replies. At the age of forty-three Milton had a great fortune: he became completely blind. Still f disasters came upon him: Cromwell died and in 1 Charles II, son of the executed Charles I, was back from France to be King of England. that the Puritans had fought for was overt The Puritan leaders were imprisoned and pu death. Milton escaped death, but he left London retired to a little cottage about twenty miles London. Arld here, lonely and blind, and in di he wrote, or rather dictated to his daughters, greatest work - the poem Poradise Zostr. The ject of the poem is the fall of Lucifer2 (Satan) and fall of man. It tells of Satan's revolt and of the in Heaven that followed. Satan was defeated and down to Hellg. Here, in darkness and pain, he with the other fallen angelsa, a mighty empire planned revenge. In the form of a serpent he came Paradise to bring evil into the world. Adam and were temptedb and fell, and, Paradise was lost. The greatness of the poem lies not in the story, in the power of the language, in the music of the and in the noble spirit that inspires the whole In 1671 two more great works followed Pa Lost: the long poem Paradise Regainedo and the I Paradise Lost ['preradats'lcst] <Iotepaxnrrfi paft,r 2 Lucifer ['lu:srfe] Jhoqr@ep3 HelI [hel] aa a with the other fallen angels ['ernd3alz] c ApyrrrMrr AHTCJIAMI' 5 Adam ['eedom] and Eve [i:v] were tempted ['temptrd] Agau Esa 6lrau noABepruyrhr lrcryrrreruro 6 Paradise Regained [rr'gelnd] <Bosrpaqdxxuft paftr 332

Humson Agonistesr. We feel that in the figure of Milton sees himself. Samson is blind, Iike l0on; his cause, like Milton's, is defeated and his

rlcs are triumphant. But, like Milton, he is a l, proud and courageous, and although he is blind, rnced and a slave, he can still serve God's ptrr. In doing this he brings about his own death; his death is his triumph. Mllton died in 1674. He is buried in London, not from the street where he was born.

Samson Agonistes ['samsn,ege'ntsti:s]

Caucon-6opeq

13)

o1'the sun is made up orrrs of the rainbow.

of rays of light of all the col-

lsaac Newton
(1642-1727',) Sir Isaac Newtonr was born in a small village Lincolnshirez in the family of a poor farmer. Since childhood the boy was fond of science. began his first experiments at school. After sc he studied at Carnbridge Uniuersity, where, still student, he formulated the binomial theorems. Newton devoted all his life to scientific ex mentation. Among his discoveries was the law of composition of light4. He proved that the white lig
['atzrk'nju:tan] 2 Lincolnshire ['lrrlkanJra] JlunrcoJlblrurrrp 3 the binomial theorem [bat'noumjel'0rerem] 6unonr Hrror 4 the law of decomposition [di:.kcmpe'zrJn]- of light - aa
pasJro?I{eHr{,fi cBeTa

Newton's greatest discovery was certainly the Law af Uniuersal Grauitationr.It is described in his book Mathem.atical Principles of Natural Philosophy2. The frrndamental principle of the book is that "every partitle of nvatter is attracted by every other particle of matlrr with a force inuersely proportional to the square of lheir distances apart3". Applying the principle of gravItution, Newton proved that the power which guides tlre moon around the earth and the planets around the trrn is the force of grauityt. The fact that the earth is fluttened at the poles because of rotation was also explained by the law of universal gravitation. Newton was highly honoured by his countrymen. In 1703 he was elected President of the Royal Societys. Much later, is the 20th century, another great sciplrtist, Albert Einsteino, who had a very high opinion of Newton's scientific achievements, wrote these words about him: "Noture to hirn was an open booh, whose letters he could read without effort." Sir Isaac Newton died in L727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Isaac Newton

llcaarc Hrroton

u every particle of matter is attracted by every other particle of matter with a force inversely [tn've:slt] proportional [pre'pc:Jnel] to the square of their distances apait - Ka]ftAas rracTuqa MaTepr{r.t flpr{Tfi rr4BaeTcfl Ka)r(Aofi apyrofi uacrrnqefi Marepuu c cr.r.noft, o6parno flpoflopqrlonalrnofi KBaApary
nprrrffxcenufi the force of gravity [grevrtr] - cr{Jra u the Royal Society Kopo.nercKoe Ha] ruoe o6rqecrno " Albert Einstein ['albet'arnstarn] Am6epr Etuurreftn

' Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy Marervrarraqecrra e Harr aJra rr arypaJrbHofi tpu.nocotpzll >
<

Sanon aceivrupnoro

the Law of Universal [junr've:sal] Gravitation [,grrevl'terj"] r.fl roreul{fi

paccTofiHrrfl Merr(Ay HrrMrr

334

735

Bonnie Prince Gharlie

(1720-1788)

It, was in L745. Charles was a real prince of royoung (he was twenty-five when he landed in ftoiland), handsome, tall and fair2, brave and adventtrr',,us. He was coming, he said, to win the crown of Ftrgland and place it at his father's feet. He wanted foi invade England from Scotland. He was sure of lrr;rgrcrt of the Scots, or at least the Highlanderss. l'ht' Highlands was the wild home of the poor but ourageous men to whom loyalty to their king was a peHsion. They were adventurous, romantic men who furvcd fighting and danger. The Stuarts had originally come from Scotland, and to the Highlanders the Bt,rrurts were a symbol for which they were prepared tu fight and die. Charles sailed from France aboard a small French rlrip. With him was a big French warship, the Elizahrlh., of sixty-eight guns, loaded with the weapons with which he hoped to defeat the English. In the sea
Ftnrrr:er:

in 1688, when James II, the of the Stuart kings, was driven off the thrond
The story begins

England. James went abroad and never returned England. But he had many followers in England sympathized with him and wanted him back on English throne. In 1715, his son James Edward ( the English called the Old Pretenderr) made an successful attempt to get back the throne. Ano attempt was made by James II's grandson, the Y Pretender2 Charles Edward, whom the Scots Bonnie Prince Charlies.

frrr England and the Elizabeth turned for France. (iharles, with only six followers, determined to go on. He landed on the west coast of Scotland, where Irc was met by 800 Highlanders. They marched to Edinburgh. More HighlandorH

l,lrey were met by a British warship, which opened f lre on the Elizabeth. For five hours a battle went on nnd both ships were damaged. The English ship turned

it marched southwards. Nowrt of the approaching forces caused terror in Edinburglr. 'l'he English soldiers who were there withdrew in lttrrt
Joined Charles's army as
a real prince

336

t the Old Pretender [prr'tende] Craprrfi rperenAenr 2 the Young Pretender Mo.ro4ofi rrpereuAeHr 3 Bonnie ['bcnr] Prince Charlie KpacrrBbrft npnnq gap.nu -

of romance [rc'mans]

crcuft upranq

Hacroalquft pouttll't'tt'r,'
rr,r

fair

[feo] - 6eroxypsrft the Highlanders ['harlrendez] - <xafi.rrexgeprt>, o6ilTar,rtlt coxoropHblx paftonoa TTIornanAulr

1t/

ic. Edinburgh surrendered, and Charles

en

triumph. Then the invasion of England began. Charles quickly moving to the south. There was panic in don. A ship was prepared to take King George Hanoverl. But suddenly Charles's army stopped. wild Highlanders, finding themselves in the

England, missed their familiesz and decided to go For months Charles was hunted through the lands. A huge rewarC was offered to anyone who capture him dead or alive, but the Highlanders not betray him. Finally they managed to get hi the coast, where a ship was waiting to take hi France and safetY.

o
o

rO

lo

James Gook (1728-177e1

l7

the-world voyage took Place in the End'eauouf he sailed round

.lames Cook ['dqermz'ku]1 - ,ll,xefivrc Kyx Yorkshire ['jc:kJre] - I'loPxnruP Lf* n"Vuf Nu"V Koponencxuft soeuno-Mopcnoft

{uot

1 Hanover ['hanave] lannoneP 2 missed their families cocKyrII4JIIlIcb rro cBoIrM

7V8

ceMb,tM

while charting - Earrocfl rra KaPrY Newf oundland ['nju:fendlend] - Huo{rayn4neug lhe End.eauour [tn'deve] - <Vcranrae>

ng

Cape Hornr and explored the South Pacific2. He covered several islands in the South Pacifip, around both islands of New Zealands and ex the eastern coast of Australiaa. The second voyage (1772-1775) was u in search of the Southern Continent. There were ships: the Resolutions commanded by tames and the Aduentureo commanded by Tobias Fu The second voyage demonstrated the ou skills and experience of Cook as a seaman and a tain. Cook did more than any other man of his to promote the health of his crew. In those times of sailors on long voyages died of scuruys beca the lack of vitamins in food and bad hygiene. made his men wash every day and air their beds; tried to get as much fresh food as he could; he his men eat sauerkraut. His second voyage lasted years and eighteen days, they sailed into the sto est seas on earth, through uncharteds southern filled with ice. Out of 112 men Cook lost four, whom only one died of an illness. The purpose of Cook's third voyage (1776-L779) to look for the Northwest Passagero (between the lantic and the Pacific Oceans) from the Pacific

(iook set out from England on the Reeolutlon, ln fptttgrany with Captain Clerkel on the Discouery2.Thay llcd around Africa and across the Indian Ocsan l,o the Pacific, then turned north to find the pntr. They sailed round the tip of the Alaska Penln. r;r, through the Bering Straita and into the Arctlrr n5, where they were stopped by thick ice. Aftor rding there as much time as he could, Cook turned rl,h to reload and repair the ships for the next yenr. llut he never returned to the Bering Strait. Capielrr Cook met his death on the Hawaiian Islandr6 Flrcre he and his crew were attacked by the nativos 3tt l,'ebruary t4, t779.

I Cape Horn ['kerp hc:n] urrc lopn 2 the South Pacific ['sauO -pe'srfik] roxnaa qacrb Tllxoro 3 New Zealand ['nju:'zi:land] Hogas Benangr,rn 4 rerlje] - Aacrpa.nur t [,reze'lu:Jn] - cPeruexue,r u [ed'ventJs] - tflpr.rxlroqenr.reD 7 Tobias Furneaux [te'baras'fe:nou] - To6uac @epno I scurvy [ska:vr] ; qllrra 0 uncharted ['nn'tJo;trd] He rranecHHbre Ha Kapry t0 the Northwest Passage['nc:O'west'pesld3] CeneporrpoxoA

Olerke [klo:k] K.napx lhe Discouery [drs'krrverr] - <Orrphrrrre) l,he Alaska [a'leske] Peninsula [pe'nrnsjule] Angcxa
l,he

- notffilp3t f* *ge

the

l,he Hawaiian Islands [ha'waran'arlendz]

Bering Strait ['benq'strelt Arctic Ocean ['o:ktrk'ouJn]

740

- IaaailotlQ tFaEe

#l

the introduction of crank movementsl made steam angines more efficient. He also made some other improvements, and the new steam engine was manufac-

tured at Birmingham in 1774. Several other inventions followed, including the double-acting engine2, l,he centrifugal governor for automatic speed control3, and the pressure gauge4. With his inventions James Watt provided some most lmportant components of early industrial revolution. James Watt introduced the term "horse powet'". The power unit, the watt6, is named in his honour.

James Watt (1736-181e) James Wattt was born in Scotland. He moved Glasgowz in 1754, where he learned the trade of i
strument maker, and also studied steam techno A primitive steatn-engines already existed in Watt' time. It had been invented by Thomas Newcomena the beginning of the 18th century. But the Newcotne engine was not universal: it could work only as a In 1763, while repairing a Newcomen engine, Ja Watt found that he could greatly improve the chine. His invention of the separate condensers a
['d3ermz'wct] 2 Glasgow ['glo:sgou] fnasro ,(rxefir'nc 3 steam-engine - uapoBaff Marrrr4Ha a Thomas Newcomen ['tcmas'nju:kemon] Toryrac Hrroxouen 5 the separate condenser orAeJrbrnrfi-xon4encarop

Ja(nes

Watt

Varr

crank movements - Koregqarble Mexagfl3Mbl 4eftcrrva gnofinoro the double-acting engine - MarurrHa the centrifugal [,sen'tnfiugel] governor for automatic speed qenrpo6exnrrfi peryJrflTop AJIa aBroMarrrrrecKoro control

y[paBJreHr,rfi cKopocTbro
lhJ pres".rre gauge
horse power

342

the

['preJe'gerd3] - MaHoMerp JrorrraArrnaff crrJra power unit, the watt eAr{Hr{qa MoIrIHocrLr, Barr

34)

Robert Burns (17se-17e6)

the family of a poor farmer. He was the eldest seven children. He spent his youth working on father's farm, but in spite of his poverty he was tremely well-read: his father employed a tutor
The great Scottish poet Robert Burnsl was

Robert and his younger brother Gilbert2. At 15 ert wrote his first verse, My HandsofiLe NeIl. When his father died in L784, Robert and his er became partners in the farm. However, Robert more interested in the romantic nature of poetry in the hard work of ploughing. He was thinking leaving his farm and going away to the warmer

rrier climate of the West Indiesl. At the same time continued writing poetry. llrrt he did not go to the West Indies. His first tk Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect2 (a set of rns essentially based on a broken love affairs) was blished and was highly praised by the critics. This lc'him stay in Scotland. He moved to Edinburgh. artists and writers of Scotland's capital enthusiirl,it:ally received the "Ploughman Poet". In a few tncks he was transfqrmed from a local hero to a narrral celebrity. Itobert Burns travelled much about Scotland collarrling popular songs. He discovered long forgotten ft)ngs and wrote his own verses. Robert Burns's pory was inspired by his deep love for his motherland, for its history and folklore. His beautiful poem fuly Heart's In The Highlands, full of colourful degrriptions, is a hymn to the beauty of Scotland's nattrre and to its glorious past. Burns's poetry is closely connected with the natkrnal struggle of the Scottish people for their liberIt,ion from English oppression, the struggle that had been going on in Scotland for many centuries. His ftrvourite heroes were William'Wallacea, the leader ol' the uprising against the English oppressors, and Itobert Bruce5, who defeated the English army and hr[er became king of Scotland.
the West Indies ['west'rndrz] - Becr.Lln4raa<CrraxH rJIolrr,tM l)oerns Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect o6paaou Ha IrrorJraEAcI(oM AlraJIeKTet essentially based on a broken love affair [a'fea] - B ocuonr()M rra reMy paa6r,rroft nro6su William Wallace ['wrljem'wclas] - Yra;rrswr Voruec Po6epr Eprcc Robert Bruce ['rcbat'bru:s]

t Robert Burns 2 Gilbert ['grlbat] ['rcbet'ba:nz] ft.u6epr

344

Po6epr Bepnc

t+5

On the anniversary of his birth, Januar! 2b, ! both at home and abroad celebrate Robert brr"rr.. not only Scots. Robert Burns's birthday.is celebr annually by the lovers of poetry in many countri the world.

Robert Burns died at the age of BZ of heart dil caused by the hard work he had done when he young. On the day of his burial more than 10 people came to pay their respect to the great b

Horatio Nelson
(1758-1805)

lloratio Nelsonl entered the Royal Naual Collegez hr .Ianuary L77t at the age of twelve. He studied
Fxt:ellently and passed his lieutenant's examination ftrrre than a year under the official age in L777. Nelson's bravery as a naval commander was never tlrrrrbted by his contemporaries. He always led his men hy his own example. He first made his name at the hrrttle of St. Vincentg in February 1797, during which hc captured two enemy ships. During the wars against l,'r'ance in the 1790s he took part in many sea battles nnd lost his right arm and the sight in his right eye.
t{oratio Nelson [hc'rerJrou'nelsn] - fopaqrao Henrcos the Royal Naval College Koponeacrrlfi goenno-vropcxoft
ROIJIeAlr(

St. Vincent [snt'vrnsent] - Cenr Br,rncenr

)47

Besides his personal bravery, Nelson was a commander enjoying great love and devotion of the who senred under him: they were ready to die for Nelson took daring but calculated risks. He disobeyed his superiors when he thought it sary. At the battle of Copenhagenl in LSOL the mander-in-Chief Admiral Sir Hyde Parker3, that the British were losing, and he hoisted the nala on his flagships: " Stop ftghting" . Nelson, on ship, put the telescope to his blind eye and exc " I really do not see the signal!" He continued ing until the Danisho surrendered.

Nelson sailed from Engiand for the last ti 1805, as Contrnander-in-Chief of the British fI meet France and Spain at Cape TrafalgarT, the south-westerly point of Spain. At Nelson's instruction, the famous signal hoisted on the flagship: " England expects that eur man will do his duty". As the battle raged around, Nelson was on musket balls fired from a French ship struck him in left shoulder and pierced one of his lungs. The was mortal. He died a few hours after that. But he died he learned that he had won a great victory. Admiral Nelson is Britain's national hero. A column crowned with his statue stands in Tra Square in London, in memory of this great man.
,

George Gordon BYron

(1788-1 8241
(leorge Gordon Byronl, one of the greatest poets l,lngland, was born in London in an old aristocratic 1791' t, poor family. After the death of his father in in Scotland, where rnother took him to Aberdeenz ten he ilru Uoy spent his childhood. At the age of to England. ilrlrerited th" titl" of Lord and returned iln tived in the family castle which was situated near loltinghanzs close to the famous Sherwood Forest' Hr.studied at Harrow4, then at carnbridge uniuersi(

[,koupn'hergen] ' 2 the Commander-in-Chief' - rJlaBuonouaxgyrcrqrfi 3 Hyde Parker ['hard'po:ke] - farig flapxep a hoisted ['hcrstrd] the signal noAHfirr cr{rrraJr 5 on his flagship na csoiiM- Qaanvrarcrou xopa6le Copenhagen

Konenrares

lcorge Gordon Byron ['d3c:d3'gc:dn'baleran]

6 the Danish ['dernrJ] 8 a musket ball

348

Cape Trafalgar [kerp tra'falga] -

AarqaHe

- vruc Tpaga.nrrap Myruxeruaa ryJrff

liufipou Aberdeen [,rebe'di:n] - E6ePgru Nottingham ['nctlrlam] - Hotrunrervt llarrow ['herou] - Xappoy (snanenuma'fl ttlrcon&' Jwtozue u3 eat 0 anu,u Jttu c'fl t tL ! C K lltl.fl,o a rc o m o p ott c m a,llu a no c n e 0 c m a uu ,luvuocrnanu )
t rrt

Axcop,q*c

lopgon

)4g

ty. When he was 2!, he became- a member of and

Iiorrr" of Lords. In 1809 he travelled abroad it"a po"t"gall, Spain, Albania2, Greeces and Tur He returned home in 1811' His speeches in the House of Lords in defence caus th;-Lu;ditesb and the oppressed Irish people pe universal irritation. When he and his'wife after an unhappy marriage, his enemies seized

In the Swissl period (1816 May - October) Byron wrote the third canto of Childe Harold's Pilgrimoge, The Prisoner of Chillon2, and the philosophic drama
Manfreds,

oppo"t""ity

*u" u".rr"ed of immorality and had to leave his tive countrY. In May fbfO Byron went to Switzerlando' where themade friends with his great contemporary' he,yent to ;;; s. Srr"il"v?. At the end of 1816.in the moven I where he became actively engaged for the liberation of Italy from Austrian rules' In for summer of 1823 he went to Greece to fight Iiberation of that country from Turkish oppressi< f Cy"or,', creative work is usually divided into periods. During the London period (1812-1816) he wrote first two cantos of Child'e Harold's PilgrLrnagee' his *ot. Iyrics Hebrew Melod'iesLo, and Orientalrr
I
2 Albania [rei'bernje] - A.n6asras 3 Greece [gri:s] IPeqrs a Turkey ['ta:kr]- TYPqzn 5 the Luddites ['L"darts] - JryAArrrbr 6 Switzerland ['swltsala
Portugal ['pc:tjugel] floptyranrax
l

and- began

to persecute him' The

During the Italian period (1816-1823)' which is oonsidered to be the most important and mature one, he wrote the last canto of. Childe Harold's Pilgrimgge, and the novel in verse Don Juana, in which he fave a great satirical panorama of the European soglal life of his time. During the short months of the Greek period (1823-1824) Byron wrote little: just some lyrical Doems, one of which is On this Day I Complete my Thirty-sixth Yeat'. The poet's thirty-sixth year was to be his last: he fell seriously ill and died on April lg, t824. Deeply mourned all over Greece, he begome a symbol of liberation struggle and a Greek
hational hero.

't ;;;;;il:sr,"it"v 1'p", Austrian ['c:strten] ru

s

B' Irlerrn
naAbrllecrBo

raldz'prlgnmrdSl Chitd.e Horold"s Pitgrim <flanovrn[.recrso 9aftrA-lapo.nrAar -----] * iii-iii tltelod,ies ['hi:bru: 'meladrz] - <EapeficKr{e MerroArrl rr Oriental [cfl'entl] BocrotlHble 350

I
I

urnefiqapcrcufi Swiss [swls] The Prisoner- of chillon ['Jrlan] - rTlrs;rencrcrfi ysn]tr) Manfred ['menfred] - <Man$Pe4r t[on ]ICyanr Don Juan ['don'd3uan]

On this Day I Complete mg Thirtg'sixth Yeor - <B caoft tpr4qatr ulectofi ro4r Aerrb a BaBepluaro

atoT 151

lhnl, life-Iong love

for the Highlanders and their couny which is evident in much of his writing. Scott nrself said, "I had a uerA strong prejudtce in fauour lhc Stuart family, which I had originally got from ( $ongs and tales of the Highlanders". ln L778, at the age of seven, the boy went to the nous Royal HiSh School of Edinburghr, where he :nme very good at Latin. In 1783, when he was lve, he entered Edinburgh Uniuersify, where he rrained for two years. During this time he learned lian, Spanish and French. Later, in 1789-t792, studied arts and law. Scott made himself famous as a poet and - to a greater extent2 as the author of numerous fittrch
hhtorical novels. Scott's work shows the influence of the 18th centuly Enlightenment. He believed that every human was bnsically decent, regardless of class, religion, politkrs or ancestry. Tolerance is a major theme in his hlstorical works. His novels express the belief of the trr[hor in the need for social progress that does not lnjcct the traditions of the past. He was the first novelist to portray peasant characters sympathetinnlly and realistically, and was equally just to mernlrunts, soldiers, and even kings. Scott often wrote about the conflicts between diffcrent cultures. Iuanhoes (1791) deals with the strug5le between Normans and Saxons, and The Talismana rlcscribes the conflict between Christians and MusopeArr.Efl rrlxoJra E4rn6ypra l,o a much greater extent

Walter Scott (1771-1832)

Sir Walter Scottl, a Scottish writer, a born teller and master of dialogue, one of the historical novelists, was born in Edinburgh.
ther was a lawyer and his mother - the daug professor of medicine. a In his childhood he heard from his grand many stories and legends of the past. The boy great interest for these stories. He also learned songs and legends of the Highlands. Some of his cestors had fought on the side of Prince Charles ward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) when he trying to seize the throne. This gave the young

lhe Royal High School of Edinburgh ['edrnbere]

KopoleBcxas

I Walter
)52

Scott ['wclte'skct]

Ba.nrtep Crcott

- B ropasAo 6o.nrureft crerrerrr{ lvanhoe ['arvonhou] <AftseEroD The Talisman ['tehsmen] <TanncMan, 353

limsl. The novels devoted to Scottish history deal clashes between the new commercial English and the older Scottish culture. Scott's knowledge of history is remarkable, his descriptions of historical events are very ta ed. His works are translated into many lan
the

world.

Queen Victoria (181e-1e01)

Queen Victorial is the longest-reigning monarch in English history. She came to the throne as a young woman in 1837 and reigned until her

death in 1901. Victoria married her German itJf cousin, Prince Albert of SaxeI Coburg2 but he died at the age I'orty-two in 1861. She could not get over her sorBf Fow at his death, and for a long time refused to be lpen in public. '['his was a dangerous thing to do. Newspapers betarr to criticize her, and some people even doubted thc value of the monarchy. Many radicals believed tlrnt as a result of developing democracy it was time tor monarchy to die. The Queen's advisers persuaded her to take more hr[erest in the life of the kingdom. She did so, and she tron became extraordinary popular. At the time when nronarchy was losing its place as an integral part of i,lrc British governing system, Victoria managed to erlablish it as a respected and popular institution.

Muslims ['mushmz]

()ueen Victoria [vrk'to:rre] - KopoJreBa Bnrcropua = l'rince Albert of Saxe-Coburg ['zelbet ev'szeks'koube:g]

754

MycyJrbMaue

Anr6epr Caxc-Ko6yprcxurl

- rpuHrl
)55

One important step back to popularity was the lication in 1868 of the Queen's book Our Life in Highlands. The book was the Queen's own d her life with Prince Albert and her family in her tle in the Scottish Highlands. trt delighted the in particular the growing middle class. They had er before known anything of the privatg life of

monarch, and they enjoyed reading about it. They impressed by the fact that the Queen wrote about servants as if they were members of her family. The democratic British liked and respected example of family life which the Queen had them; they saw that the Queen and her family their own moral and religious values. By her Victoria touched people's hearts. She succeeded,

showing the newly industrialized nation that monarchy was a connection with the glorious of the country. Quite suddenly, the monarchy out of danger. It had never been safer than when it had lost most of its political power. " haue corne to belieue that it is natural to haue a ous souereign," wrote one of the critics. Queen Victoria was also popular in Europe. became known as the Grandrnother of Europe marrying members of her family into many houses of Europe. Among her grandchildren Emperor William IIr of Germany, and Alexa wife of Tsar Nicholas IIr of Russia.

Charles Dickens (181 2-18701

in 1812, in the family primary education at a small el'a clerk. 11e-tgot his trlrool in ChathaTnz, and. from his mother who was a
Charles Dickensr was born
wcll-educated woman. In the L82L the Dickens family moved to London. Mr. Dickens was heavily in debt and finally was takprr to a debtors' prisons. Charles got a job at a blachhg factorya in the East End of London. This was the Irrost unhappy time of all his life. Later he learned Ehorthand and did some reporting in the House of
Charles Dickens [tJo:lz'drkrnz] gap.rrra ,{uxnenc Yeteu Chatham ['dretem] a debtors' ['detez] prison - AoJlroBa.fl rIopEMa

Emperor William II ['empere'wrljem 6e'sekend] - rrMrl Bn.nrrevrru II 2 Alexandra [,relr9'zo:ndra] Arercangpa 3 Tsar Nicholas II ['tso: 'nrkales de'sekand] qapb Hr,rxoraft

a blacking factory

)56

(rcpen daa vucmrcu odyeu)

Qa6prca, r4aroraBJrrrBaroulaff

Barccy

757

Commons for newspapersl. Being a reporter, he

all over the country, getting news, writing

and meeting people. In 1833 Dickens wrote a number of sketches, were published under the title Sketches by Boz2, in 1836 he suddenly became famous. It happened this. A firm of publishers3 had a numbei of by a humorous artist. They wanted to get some texts to illustrate them, so that the pictures and cles could appear together in a magazine in ly parts. Someone suggested giving the job to the newspaper reporter Charles Dickens. Dickens liked job and took it, and that is how the book Pic Papersa came into being. The book is about Mr. wich and his three friends, who decide to travel England and send to the Pickwick club in Lo account of their journeys and their observati the people they meet on these journeys. The hu of the book consists in the absurd situations w Mr. Pickwick and his friends get into. The book great success with the reading public, and Dickens once became the most popular novelist of his time.

writer's great talent, these characters become alive his pages. They were real enough for Dickens. And we believe in his characters because he believed in himself. He shows us a great moving picture of ryday life and everYdaY PeoPle. 'lhe strain of the writer's continual work brought t his sudden death in 1870. He lies buried in Westm.inster Abbey, but as he wished it, with nothlng ot the stone except his name "Charles Dichens'

In Dickens's novels we find a sharp criticism of iul injustice. He had seen so much evil as a child, t he burned with the desire to fight it. So, in Oliuer *fr he attacks the cruel workhouse treatment of lltlren, in Nicholas Nichleby2 tlrre evils of badly-run Iroolss, tn Little Dorrita the tragedy of the debtors' lson, in Bleah Houses the slowness of the law. Critics often say that Dickens made his characters real, strange, non-true to life. However' thanks to

The rest of the writer's life is a story of without rest. He wrote novel after novel. At the time he was editing newspapers and magazines, iting America, Italy, Switzerlands, France; gi readings from his books to huge crowds of

I did some reporting in the House of Commons for n peropriipcxofi pa6orofi a uaaare o6rq pers - BaHIrMaJrcfl 2 Shetches by Boz ['sketJrz bar 'bcz] <,O.repxlr Bosar 3 a firm of publishers IaoAareJrbcrcafl Qzptvra a Pichwich Papers ['prkwrk'perpaz] <Sanucrcra fftarcsu x.ny6a'r 5 Switzerland ['swrtseland] Illaeftqapza 358

Oliuer ?uisf ['cltve'twtst] - <Onuaep Tguct> Nicholas Nichteby ['ntkales'nlklbl] - <Huxo.nac Hlttnr6lr> [Jroxo oprarlr{soBaunbre rurcoJlbr badly-run schools Littte Dorrit ['lrtl'dcrlt] - <Kpourxa ,{opputr <Xonognrrft gorvr> Bteah House ['bli:k ,haus] )59

During the Crimean 'Warl (1853-1856) disturblrrg reports began to come to England of the terrible eonditions in the hospitals where wounded soldiers were being treated. The chief hospital, at Scutariz in Turkeys, was an old, half broken building with a lot of rats and mice. But even this horrible place was overcrowded. There were not enough beds, and men were lying on the floor. There were no clean
ehirts or bedclothes.

In that terrible situation Sidney Herbetta, the Minister for Waf , wrote to Florence Nightingale,

Florence Nightingale (1320-1el0)

in a v6ry rich Florence Nightingalel was born .'v' ,,rts 6vw E '--ttit ily. She got a very food :d:"ul,i-*;:^t;.Tl:X.,i and Greek' she fluently spolt art, literature, L ever since Italian, French ttti i"t*an'-But and the :*,11: sick dc the vilragers ""r""a her home and cats ",.1 h."s-es rorrrrd ""d 1i1::1^t' read books on nursing' a profes of hosPitals' ports of porun \rr ' histories a spent some time worklng as rrarmqYrlT Finally sh ; I'ra - - --l ent foi Gentrcwomelc u''I o'o5' I il? f' the fashionable street of Lo nes don's most famous doctors'

:aiT,:#i.c

asking her to go to the Crimea with a group of nurses. It took Florence Nightingale a week to get ready, and with thirty-eight nurses she sailed for Scutari. When she arrived at Scutari, she found the conditions even worse than the reports had stated. She found that everything was lackingo: furniture, clothes, towels, soap, knives, plates. There were no bandages, very few medicines, and almost no food. Luckily, she had brought with her large quantities of food and medical supplies. Everywhere she met with inefficrency and confusion; the officials in chargeT could rof did not want to help her. She often worked for twenty-four hours on end8, dr:essing woundse, lping surgeons in their operations. She and her nurses got down on their knees and scrubbed the floore
the Crimean [krar'mlan] War - Kpnrut:rcaa nofina 'Scutari ['sku:torr] - Crytapu Turkey ['te:kr] - Typqna Sidney Herbert ['srdnt'he:bat] - Cu4rreft fep6epr ia the Minister for War - noessuft Mlrnucrp 6una Hoxrtorna Bcero everything was lacking charge '- n/lMnlrr4crpaqra the officials [e'fiJralz] in ' for twenty-four hours on end cyrltaMl{ naupolr

'z Florence Nightingale ['flc:rans'nartrnsltll-.. an Erstnhlishment ioi C""tt"*"I;i 1l:tl^g-lt*",i; I{lI8 }r(eEIrIrIn 6'naropo4xoro
i, ;;
u (6onanw4a) ,60

@nopenc

ttar

'

parrLl dressing wounds [wu:ndz] - oa6Htl'rtlRbIBafi

161

and walls. She organized the cooking of the food and the washing of their clothes. In 1855 she was made inspector of all the in the Crimea. It meant long, uncomfortable J neys in snow, rain and cold. She ruined her but refused to go home until the Iast soldier Only when peace was declared in 1856, she ret home an invalid for life1. But-she lived fifty-four years longer. Though could not leave her house, she worked as much as had done at Scutari. She changed the whole sy of hospital organization of the army. She wrote on nursing. She started the Nightingale Tra School for Nurses2 at St. Thomas's Hospitals, one of the finest in the world. Florence Nightingale lived a long and glorious She died in 1910 at the age of 90.

CaPtain Robert Scott (1868-1s12)

ln June 1910 Captain Robert Scottr set sail on borrrd the Terra Nouaz and started for the south. He
f,rrrrted to reach the South Pole. When the ship got to

Arrstralia3, Scott received the news that the Norwethe way south 3lrrna explorer Amundsenb was also on Pole. to reach the South Arriving at the place in the Antarctico called Cape EvansT, Captain Scott and his crew started for the Pole'
{

I an invalid for life rro?rcr{Buennrrft nHBaJrr4A 2 the Nightingale Training School for Nurses - III (Daopenc HafttunreriJr AJrfi uegcecrtip 3 St. Thomas's Hospital Bo.nrru4rla cBflroro Tomaca
762

Po6epr Cxorr )aptain Robert Scott ['kaptn'robet'skct] - Karr{rarr tlte Terrq Noua ['tera'nouva] - <Teppa Hosa) Australia [c:'strellje] - Aactpa.nraa nopaerrcrcraft Norwegian [nc:'wi:d3en] - AuYn4cen Amundsen ['o:mundsen] - Aurapxtrara l,he Antarctic [ren'to:kttk] 9sanc Oape Evans ['kerp'i:vnz] - Mbrc

161

First they had to cross the Bamierl, a great p of ice of nearly 500 miles, and climb a huge glaci When they reached the foot of the glacier, the and some of the men went back, but three sledge each pulled by four men, went on. It was a terrible journey. It was bitterly cold, sno* was so soft that they sank to their knees in i and the heavy sledges were very difficult to pull. Scott watched the men carefully. He had deci that the final part of the journey - 150 miles ' would be made by four men and himself . These the men he chose: Doctor E. W'ilsonz, Lieutena Bowerss, Captain L. Oatesa and Edgar Evanss. On January 3, tgLz, when the South Pole was 1 miles away, the five heroes said good-bye to t friends and went on, five brave men who would er again see living faces except one another's. thirteen months nothing was heard of them, but Scott's diaries we know all about their last days. On January 18 they reached the Pole, frost-bi ten6, hungry and weak. And at the Pole they saw tent with the Norwegian flag flying above it. Am
i

fuel, but th_e storm *", ,o violeni could not go on. Scott and his companions th;; ;;;y died there ln their tent.
Eight months later a se lent tent. They were lyi they had died. On the were rocks for scientific brought back from the pole they had not forgotten th

lce. Evans was the first could no longer walk, t not leave Evans till his party moved a litile quic worse. Oates was the secon He knew that he was sl f.riends. He said to them, may be sotne time|". He never came backz. At last they came t_o a .pol- only ereven miles from the place where thev hiJ left a store of food and
he

sen had been there a month before.

Bitterly disappointed, Scott and his compani set out on the return journey. It was 950 miles to ship. Their strength was goingz and the food u
running short8. Their sleeping bags were covered 1 the Barrier ['brrre] Baprep 2 Doctor E. Wilson ['wrlsn] Aoxrop Vnncox 3 Lieutenant Bowers fieftenent'bauez] - .neftteuanr Bayepc a Captain L. Oates [outs] xauutaa Oytc 5 Edgar Evans ['edge'i:vnz] O4rap Esanc 6 frost-bitten o6rropoxcexarre - was going lrx cr{Jrbr trccfiKaJrr4 7 Their strength 8 the food was running short truula roAxoAr.rJla K KoHrIy
)64

am going outside and may be some time He never came back "p"*" _- o" a search party rrorrcKoBaff r"pr""---'
BOBMO)rCHO, BAAep*Cycb H^a HeROTOpo"

_ fl

arrfiAy u,

,; ;;;ffiurr",
365

Ernest Rutherford
(1871-1e37)
Ernest Rutherfordr was born in South Island, Zealand, in the family of English settlers. He sent to primary school when he was five. During studies in the secondary school, he distinguished self in physics. Later he went to Cambridge, w he continued scientific research. After graduation occupied a research chair in physicsz at Mont Uniuersityt in Canadaa and lectured at leading -versities in the United States and Britain. Later he worked at Manchester Uniuersitys.
Ernest Rutherford ['5:nrst'r,r,6efed] - Spnecr Peaep@op4 BaHI4MaJI occupied a research chair in physics

Itrrl,lrerford's famous work is The Scattering of tt und, Beta Particles of Matter and the Structtl'the AtomL. 'l'lrc atoms had always been regarded as the smallirrrlivisible units of which matter was eomposed2. I,lrcrford's research showed that the atom is made ol' smaller parts and that its structure is very rlrlex. The structure of the atom resembles the lHr system, with a central nucleus and a number of l,r'ons revolving around it. Rutherford showed that rrtom can be bombarded by neutrons so that the ,l,rons can be thrown off and the nucleus itself r lre broken, or "split." In the process of splitting rrucleus, matter is converted into energys. 'l'he splitting of the atom has opened to man a new enormous source of energy. At the same time, ver, it has brought about a threat of a destrucnuclear war, during which humanity can kill itll' and destroy the planet. That is why it is so imtant for the people of the world to concentrate ir efforts on establishing good understanding and l,ing peace on earth.

{tuaurn Montreal [.mcntrr'c:l] University

r{ccJreAoBarenrcroft
CI{TCT

Monpeanrcxnft

Canada ['kanede]

Manchester University

KanaAa

Man.recrepcxnft yrrl{Bepcrrrer

Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles of Mullu ttntl tPacceusanue a.ltttfla ll 6eln lhe Structure of the Atom MATEPI{II }I CTPYKTYPA ATOMAD 'IIICTIIq raa Koropblx co(r'roll'l' tlFTFilllrt of which matter was composed Marepnff n;lorl6;tnnys ]ee e rrratter is converted into energy
'l'lLe

:)rreprlllo

366

lFr

Winston Ghurchill (1874-1e6s)

Sir \Minston Churchilll, the eldest
son

He graduated from the Royal Military C Sandhursta. As a war correspondent he was during the Boer'Warb in South Africa. After cape he joined the Conseruatiue party. Since was taking an active part in Britainls political occupying a number of important posts in the ernment.
1

Itain once again until 1955, when ill health forced to resign. IIe spent most of his last years writing (The Hisry of the English-speaking People,) and painting. recognition of his historical studies he was givthe Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. In 19GB US Congress made Winston Churchill an honry American citizen, Sir Winston Churchill died in 1965 at the age of . His death marked the end of an era in British Itlstory.
rrr

(llrurchill suceeeded Chamberlainl as Prime Minin 1940, and during the Second World War he :essfully secured military aid and moral support rrr the United States. He travelled endlessly durthe war, establishing close ties with the leaders other nations and co-ordinated a military strategy k:h finally brought about Hitler's defeat. llis tireless efforts gained admiration from all r the world. Yet during the 1945 elections he defeated by the Labour Party, which ruled until 961. Churchill regained his power in 1951 and led

Chamberlain ['tJelmbehn]

rlem6eplen
369

Agatha Ghristie
(18e0-1e76)

published in 1920. It was The Mysterious Affair Stylesr, and was met by the reading public with l,r.rest. But Agatha's really great pbpularity came 1926, when she published her masterpiece, The u rder of Roger Achroydz. lrr the same year, L926, Agatha surprised the pubhr l,y suddenly disappearing for a few days after her hrrnband wanted a divorce. She was soon found to be Itnying in a hotel under an assumed name8. Her disll,l)carance is still a mystery! After the divorce she married a British archae-

l)rrring the First World War Agatha worked at a pital, and that experience \Mas useful later on when started writing detective stories. Her first book

- In Sf. Mary's Churchyard.t, Cholsey, Berksh forty-seven miles west of London, lies Lady l Iowanu - Dame Agatha.Christiea. She was, a known to millions of people throughout the as the Queen of Crime or, as she preferred, Duchess of Death. Agatha Christie was born in 1890 in Torquay| England. Her father was called Frederick Miller6, she was born as Agatha Miller. In 1914 she ma Archie ChristieT.
- x.na46urqe npr{ rIepKBr4 Mapnn Cholsey ['tJoulzr], Berkshire ['bo:kJre] rloficlr, Bepxurup Mallowan ['mrelouen] ae4rz il4"rrrroy"" lady Dame Agatha Christie ['detm'ega0e'krrstr] _ gavra Arara Itpacrra 5 Torquay 6 Frederick['tc:ki:] - Topxefi Miller 7 Archie Christie ['frgdirk'mrle] - @pe4epzx Muaaep ['o:tJr'krrstr] - Apun Kpr"r" 370
1 St. Mary's Churchyard

gkrgist, Max Mallowana. This marriage proved to be u happy one. Agatha wanted to stop using her frlrrner husband's name. But her publishers said tlrrrt it would not be wise because the name of Aggtlm Christie had already become well known to Glrt: public. So she remained Agatha Christie to her rrnders for the rest of her life. Agatha Christie wrote nearly seventy novels in hcr career, and more than a hundred short stories. Hcr most famous characters are Hercule Poirots and Miss Marple6. Hercule Poirot first appeared in 1920. Poirot has become a legend all over the world: the huge mous'l'he Mysterious Imts'trerros] Affair at Styles Istallz] <Tauncrgenuafl Lrcroplrfi B r{Meur.tr{ Crafi.nc r <V6uficrno 'l'lrc Murder of Roger Achroyd ['rcd3e'rekrord] Po4xcepa Ercpofiga>

rrnder an assumed name

Manc Mannoyan Max Mallowan ['meks'mrelouon] I{ercule Poirot ['e ekju:l pwo:'rou] - Eprcur flyapo Miss Marple [mo:pl] - Mr4cc Mapn.n

rroA BbrMbrrrrJreunhrM r{MeHeM

371

tache, the egg-shaped head, his high opinion of self, and his great ability to solve complicated teries thanks to his knowledge of human ps Miss Marple is an English spinster and lives in English village of St. Mary MeadL. She does not like a detective at all, but always succeeds where police have failed. Instead of using a magnifying looking for clues, she uses her instinct and k edge of human nature. As Miss Marple herself said, "Hytman Nature is the satne euerywhere", In March t962 a UNESCOz report stated Agatha Christie was now the most widely read ish author in the world, with Shakespeares second.

Margaret Thatcher (1e25-)

Margaret Thatcherl is the second daughter of a frocer and a dressmaker, who became the first womftr in European history to be elected Prime Minister. Tlren she became the first British Prime Minister in lhc twentieth century who won three consecutive hrmsz. At the time of her resignation in 1990, she *ns the longest-serving Prime Minister of Britain llrrce 1827. Some people consider her a true political rnvolutionary because she broadened the base of the (lonservative Party, including the middle class along with the wealthy aristocracy. Margaret Thatcher was born on October 13, 1925, )n Lincolnshires, England. She was a clever child. Ihrly in life she decided to become a member of Par-

1 St. Mary Mead [snt'mean'mi:d] Cenr Mapr Mug 2 UNESCO ffu'neskou] IOHECKO 3 Shakespeare ['Jerkspro] Illexcuup )72

lhree consecutive [kan'sekjutlv] terms

cpoKa

Margaret Thatcher ['mo:garrt'OatJa]

Mapraper Tetuep rptr troqlreAoBareJrbnLlx

l,incolnshire ['hrlkenJra]

JlunxoJlbumup
173

liament. She was educated at Sorneruille Colleger at Oxford University. She earned a master of degreez from Oxford in 1950 arld worked for a time as a research chemist. In 1950 she married Thatchers, a director of a paint firm. After her riage she specialized in tax lawa. In the 1959 elections Thatcher won a seat in liamerit. Because of her debating skillsb she soon came prominent among other politicians. In 1974 became the leader of the Conservative Party. When the Conservatives won a decisive victory the 1979 general elections, Thatcher became Pri Minister. As Prime Minister she limited gover control; giving individuals greater independence f the state and ending government interference in economy. Thatcher became known as the Iron because of her strict control over her cabinet and country's economic policies. During her third term Thatcher continued t "Thatcher reuolution" by returning education, heal care and housing to private control. Margaret Thatcher resigned from office in 1 Margaret Thatcher is certainly an outstanding ure in Britain's political life. According to politi observers, she brought long-needed changes to Bri ish government and society.

stiPlDt,liMENT

THE BRITISH MONARCHS

iaxon kings 'sieksen'kqz]

Alfred the Great

['alfrad 6e'grert] Edward the Elder
fedwed 6e'eldel

849-899 't-924 892-939 921-946

?-955

899-924 924-939 939-946

946-955 955-959 959-975
97

Athelstan [e0elstan]
Edmund Edred

['edmend 6e'fe:st] ['edred] Edwy the Fair ['edwl de'fee] Edgar the Peaceful ['edge 6a'pi:sful] Edward the Martyr [edwed de'mo:te]

944-959

94+975
963-978

5-978
0I

Aethelred

968-l
98 r -

0I

978-l

[a0elred]
Edmund
Danish kings ['dernrJ'krqz]

II

l0l6

l0l6
l0l6-1035
r

Canute

9921--1035

Ike'nju:t] Harold Harefoot ['hareld'heafut]

Hardecanute Edward the Confessor

?-1040

035- I 040

l0l9-1042 1040-1042
l
I

saksen'kn1z]

002-r 066 t042-1066

020- I 066 028- I 087
I

['edwed de ken'fesa]

Harold

II

haercld de'sekend

066

t Somerville College - Couepnn.nucrcrarl KoJTJIeATK 2 a master of ['snmavrl] crerrerrb Marrrcrpa ryManr4Tap arts degree HayK s Denis Thatcher ['denrs'0etJa] [enuc Tetuep a tax law HaJroroBoe BaKouoAareJrbcrBo 5 debating- skills rroJreMwrecKoe r4cKyccrBo 374

Norman kings ['no:men'kr4z]

William the Conqueror

['wrljem 6e'kcqkere]

l
I

William

II

060-l I 00

['wrljam 6e'sekend] Henry I

087-l
100-l

100 135

1068-t 135

775

-1

conunued

097-l I 54 I 135-l
189

Henry

II

l 133-l

lt54-11

James I
[d3ermz 6e'fa:st]

566--l 625

r603 t6fr

flhenrr 6a'sekend] Richard I the Lion-Heart ['ri:tJed 6e'fa:st 6a'laran'ho:t]

|157-1199 I189-l I

Charles I

600-l 649 1625 l64e

630-t 685 r660- t6tt5
1685r

[tJo:k 6e'fe:st]

John Lackland

tt67-1216 1199-t2l
1207-1272

REPUBLIC
Charles

[d3cn'leklend] Henry III

flhenrr 6e'0e:d]

II

1649 t660

l216-l

Edward

t239-t307 lz't2-l
128+1327
I

James II fd3elmz 6a'sekendl

[tJo:k 6e'sekend] William

1633-1701

t6ttt

fedwed 6e'fe:st] Edward II fedwad 6a'sekand] Edward III

fledwed 6a'0e:d]

III

r650-t 702 1662-t694

689- I 702
689_ I 694

307-l

1312-1377 1327-137

fwrljem 6a'0e:d] and Mary II fmeeu 6o'sekend]

Anne George I

t66s-t7 I 4 t702_1714
1660-1727
r

Richard Lancaster flreqkestel

II

1367-t400 1377-l

t7l4_l

Henry

IV

t367-r4t3
t387-1422

['d3c:d3 de'fe:st]

fhenrr 6e'fc:0]

George

II

683-t 760 1727_t760

738- I 820
r

Henry V

l4l3-l
t422-t46

fftc:ft

6e'sekend]

fhenrr de'fi0]

George

III

760_t 820 820_t 830 830_t Eg?

1

Henry VI

t42l-t47

ffic:d3

6a'0e:d]
r

Edward IV ['edvod 6e'fc:0] Edward V

['edvad

1442-t483
l 470-l 483

6e'fi$]

William lV fwtljsm 6e'fc:0] Victoria

[vrk'tc:rre] Edward VIII
['edwed 6e'sevnO]

ffic:$

George IV 6a'fc:0]

762-t 830

t765-t837

l8r9-t901
r84t-t910
I

837-t

901

Richard

III

1452-148s

te0t-t9t0
r9t0_r936
I

Henry Henry

VII

1457-t509 1485-l

fhenrr 6e'sevan0]

VIII

l49l-t547
I

509-l

fhenrr dr'ertOl Edward VI

['edwed 6e'srksO]

after l9l4)

537-l 553 1547-l

I

George V fd3c:d3 de'fif01 Edward VIII ['edwed 6t'eIt0] George VI

865-- I 936

1894-t972

936

r895

1952

Mary 776

l5l6-1558

553-l

[$c:ft

e36- I 952

6e'srksO]

Elizabeth

lI

1926-

t9s2-

r'hzebaO 6e'sekend

LIST OF PROPER NAMES

Adam Smith ['adam'smrO] AgaM Cuut Adolf Hitler ['aedalfhrtle] Aaonrip lurlep Agatha Christie ['age0e'krrstr] Arara Kpzctu Albert of Saxe Coburg ['albet ev'saks'koube:g] Carcc-Ko6yprcxufi Alexandr a f ,nhg' zo:ndre] A;rexcan4pa Alfred the Great ['relfred de'grert] A-nrQpe4 Be;t Amundsen ['o :mendsen] AruyuAceu Anne [an] Auna Anne Boleyn ['buhn] Ansa Eoaefis Archie Christie ['o:tJr'krrstl] Ap.ru Kpuctll Arthur Cadbury ['o:0e'kadbarr] Apryp Keg6epu

Arthur Wellington

['wehqten] Apryp Be.n.nuur

Asser ['esa] Accep Beatles ['bi:tlz] Buurrr Ben Jonson ['ben'dzcnsn] Ben,(*concor Benito Mussolini [be'ni:tou,muse'li :nr] Benrato M Bernard Shaw ['be:ned'Jc:] Bepnap.q IIIoy Boadicea [.bouedr'ste] Boa4racea Bonnie Prince Charlie ['bcnr'prrns'tfo:h] K trpr4nq 9apnu Bowers ['bauez] Bayepc Calvin ['kaelvrn] Kanrsns Canute [ke'nju:t] Kanyr Catherine ['kreOnn] Exatepr,rna Catherine Howard [hauad] Ercarepuna fonap4 Chamberlain ['tJermbelm] gervr6epJreH Charles [tJo:lz] gapnra Charles Darwin ['do:wIn] rlapnrs [apnun Charles Dickens ['dlkmz] rfapnra ,{urxenc Charles Edward Stuart ['edwed'stjuat] rlaplrs E Crroapr
378

rles James Fox ['d3ermz'fcks] rlapnro,ll,*teue (Foxe rrcer ['tjc:se] rlocep I stopher Marlowe ['knstofa'mo :lou] Kpucro@p Mapne lstopher Wren [ren] KpucroQep Pan r:k Berry ['tJ,rk'berr] rlarc Beppu rrdius ['klc:djes] Knan4raft ke [klo:k] Kneprc tantine ['kcnstentarn] KoucraETr{E id Livingstone ['dewrd'hvnlstan] Aosun Jlusrsrcron is Thatcher ['denrs'0retJe] [euuc Tetvep l,on De Valera ['i:ten do va'leare] I4rou ge Ba.nepa gur Evans ['edge'i:vnz] E4rap Esanc rund Spenser ['edmend'spense] D4nayu4 Cuencep ard ['edwad] Egyapa ard the Confessor [ken'fesa] Dgyapg llcuone4unrc ['egbet] Er6ept nstein ['arnstam] Eftnrurefin lzabeth [r'hzebeO] Erraaasera lzabeth Fry [frar] Enzaasera @pafi vis Presley ['elvrs'prezh] ennrac flpecau us [r'rezmas] Spaaru t Rutherford ['e:nIst'r,rdafed] Spuecr PeaepQop4 ,rence Nightingale ['flc:rans'nartlqgerl] @aopexc Hafi 'I'}IHTET4JI

ncis Bacon ['fransrs'berkan] @peucnc Beros rncis Drake [drerk] (Dpeucuc,{pefirc ncis Ferdinand ['fe:drnend] Opanq @ep4unaHg rick Miller ['fredrrk'mrle] (Dpe4epur Mu.nnep iedrich Engels ['fri:drrk'eqgelz] @pnAp]rx 9nnctttt Gcoffrey ['ft efrr],{xceQQpn Gcoffrey Chaucer ['tJc:se] [xceQQpu rlocep Poorge [$c:$] .{xcop4xc corge Gordon Byron ['gc:dn'buaren] [lropA* PeFAnrr Eaftpon
i.1,,

George Harrison ['hensn],{xcopg*c lappucor Gilbert ['grlbet] Iu;r6epr Guy Fawkes ['gar'fc:ks] Iaft (Dorcc Hadrian ['herdnen] Agpuau Harold ['herald] Iapo;rr4 Henry ['henrr] Ienpu, Ienpux Henry Bolingbroke ['bchqbruk] Ienpu B(

Horatio Nelson [he'rerJrou'nelsn] Iopaquo Hyde Parker ['hard'po:ka] Iafit flaprcep Isaac Newton ['azrk'nju:tn] Llcaarc Hrroros Jack Straw ['dgak'stc:] .{*cerc Crpo

James [fiemz],{xcennc James Cook [kuk] flxceruc Kyx James Watt [wct] flxceuc Varr Jane Seymour ['si:mc:],{xcefir Cefiuyp Johann Gutenberg [Jchen'gu:tanba:g] ]Iorass

lip ['fihp] (Duluuu

a [ma'trlde] Marn.nrga [mreks] Marcc leon [ne'pouljen] Hauo.rreos rlas II of Russia ['mkeles 6e'sekend ev'r,r,js] Hurcofi II, qaps Poccun [outs].Oyrc Cromwell ['chve'krcmwel] O.nunep Kpouae;rr ['cvrd] Osn4rfi ton ['po:masfir] fla.rrMepcroE McCartney ['pc:l me'kc:tru] flol MarcKaprnu 'B. Shelley [!e:sr'bi:'Jeh] Ilepcu B. IIIeanu

John [ficn],{xrou John Bunyan ['bmjen],{xcoa Basrss John Hawkins ['hc:kmz],{xcoa Xorcnsc John Lennon ['lenen] [xcou JIeEnoH John Milton ['mrlten],{xcou Mu.nrros John Wesley ['wesh],{xcou Vocnu Judith ['fiu:dtO] lxtysut Julius Caesar ['d3u ltas'si :zel lO trufi. I{eaapr Karl Marx ['ko:l'mo:ks] Kapn Maprc Lord Chatham ['1c:d'tJatem] Jlopg rlareu Lord Grey [grer] Jlopt lpefi Louis XIV ['lu:r de'fc:,ti:n0] JIyn XIV Mahatma Gandhi [me'ho:tme'gendr] Maxarua Mallowan ['malouen] Merroyer Margaret ['mo:garrt] Maprapet Margaret Thatcher ['OatJe] Mapraper Teruep Martin Luther ['mo:trn'lu:0a] Maprux Jhorep Mary ['meert] Mepu
:

Ilaser II

tagenet [plan'tedgrmt] fl.naurareEer tus ['plc:tas] fl;raat Gregory ['poup'gregan] flaua lpmopufi John Paul II ['poup'd3cn'pc:l6e'sekend] flaua lloass ['randelfl Pengo;rrQ ard ['rrtJed] Pu.rapg Burbage ['be:brd3] Pff.rapA Dep6e4*c the Lion Heart ['laren'ho:t] Puvapg Jlrsusoe

Cepgqe

Starr ['nr;gou'sto:] Punro CraPP

['rcbet] Po6epr Bruce [bru:s] Po6epr Bptoc Burns [be:nz] Po6epr BePuc rt Owen [ouen] Po6ept OYeu Peel [pi:l] Po6ept flu;rr Scott [skct] Po6epr Crorr Walpole ['wclpoul] Po6ept Vonuon ney Herbert ['stdm'he:bet] CnAsefi lep6ept Bolivar ['sarmen bc'li:vo:] Cuuos Bonnnap hia ['soufie] Coipra Andr'ew [snt'cndru:] Cn. 9u.qPP .
381

380

St. George [snt'dgc:dg] Cs. Ieoprufi St. Patric [snt'petrrk] Ca. flarpur Stuart [stjuet] Crroapr Suetonius [swi:ltounjes] Creronufi

Stephen [sti:vn] Crraset

LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

,l

i
l

n [.ebe'di:n] E6eP4nu anistan [afgremsten] Aipraurrcrax

Terence ['terens] Tepenrlr.rfi Thomas Becket ['tcmes'bekrt] Touac Barcet' Thomas More [mc:] Touac Mop Thomas Newcomen ['nju:kemen] Touac Tobias Furneaux [ta'bares'fa:nou] To6uac (Depuo I Tony Blair ['tounr'blee] Toun B.nep Tudor ['tju:de] Tro4op Victoria [vrk'tc:rIa] Bnrctopun Walter Raleigh ['wc:lta'rc:h] Vonrep Ponn ,t, Walter Scott [skct] Bamrep Crcorr Wat Tyler ['wct'tarle] Vor Tafi.nep William ['wrljem] Vunssrr William Booth [bu:6] Vra;rrau Byrc William Caxton ['kekstn] Vu.nr,sru Kaxcron )-* William Harvey ['ho:vr] Vu.nrsvr lapaefi William of Orange ['crrnd3] Bu"urre.rrnr Opauucu William Pitt [prt] Vunrnn flnrr William Shakespeare ['jeftspra] Vrnnrarvr IIIe William the Conqueror ['kcrlkere] Bnlrrensrr
I
:

ka Peninsula [e'laske pe'nrnsjule] rroJryocrpoB

ia [re]'bernje] A;r6aurm
['aqglsr] Srrrncu [aen'to :ktrk] AntaprcrrrKa ['rentw'a:p] AurnePueu r ['eregen] Aparon Ocean ['o:kttk'ouJn] Cenepurrfi Jle4onurrrft orcean ['eskat] 9crcot

['refrrke] AQpurca

tarctic

,,ii" 6""un [at'lanttk'ouJn] AraaErlrrrecxufi

['erJe]

Asns

orceas

lia [c:'stretljs] AnctPaJrrra ria ['c:stne] ArctPue ria-Hungary ['c:strte'hrtqgan] Aactpo-Beurprs ['bc:lkenz] Ba.nxasrr tic ['bc:ltrk] Baltraxa [bel'fo:st] Ee;rQact ium ['beld3em] Benrrua
gal [ber1'gc:l] Beuranua Nevis ['ben'nevrs] Beu Hesrc ng Strait ['benr;'streft] BepnnroB rpoJrlrB ire ['bo:kjre] BeprcuuP
EuPwrranrewr

BATEJIB

William II of Germany ['dga:meru] Bn"nrrenru II, parop lepuauuu William Wallace ['wcles] Vu;rr,su Vo;r.nec Wilson ['wrlsn] Vn;rcon Winston Churchill ['wmstn'tJe:tJrl] Vnncros Y Wolsey ['wulzr] Byncn

rlin [be:'hn]

worth ['bczwe0] BocYoPt istol ['bnstel] Bpuctolr istol bhannel 1'brlstel'tJanl] Bpucto;rrcrcufi uporrrrB ritain [bntn] Bputanua
78)

Bepaan mingham ['be:mrqam] ton ['bcstn] Eocron

J82

Britannia [bn'tanje] Bpnranua Britanny ['brrtenr] Eperanr (o6.rracrr rra

(Dpanquu)

rrrea Ikrar'mre] Kprrnn c

KAHAJI

California [,kah'fc:nje] Ka.ureoprr{,n Cambridge ['kermbnft] ICeu6pu4xr Canada ['kenede] ICana4a Canary Islands [ke'neerr'arlendz] Kanapcrcae Canterbury ['kenteberr] Keurep6epu Cape Evans ['kerp'i:vnz] nrrc gsauc Cape Horn [hc:n] urrc lopa Cape of Good Hope ['gud'houp] urrc ,{o6pofi n 9"p" Trafalgar [tre'felga] urrc TpaSaJrbrap Cardiff ['ko:dr{l Kap4uS Carlisle [ko:'larl] Kapaafi"u Central Lowlands ['sentrel'loulendz] L{enrpa.rrruaa
MEIIEOCTb

Ioden [ko'lcdn] KarnoAen nberland ['krmbolsnd] Keu6eprleuA rrbrian Mountains ['krmbrren] Kewr6pnftcrcne ropbr tlexocnoBarr,ff 'r:hoslovakia [.tJekouslou'vrekje] r'<lanelles [,do:de'nelz] [ap4aneJrrrbr rnark ['denmo:kJ,{auna onshire ['devenJ ra],{eaonruup t'chester ['dc:tJrsta] .(op.recrep rlin ['dnbhn] .{y6;tnn nkirk [drn'ke:k] flronrcepx Anglia ['i:st'e4ghe] Bocrounas Anrnus I nburgh ['edrnbra] D4rnu6ypr ypt ['i:d3rpt] Eruuet rc ['eara] Eftpe land ['rlglend] Axr.rrna lish Channel ['r4ghj'tjanl] Anurnficxzfi rporrrrB (JIa Manur) m ['epsem] Ducowr
['esrks] Eccercc rope [Juarap] Eapona nders ['flo:ndaz] @.nan4pna nce [fro:ns] (Dpanrlza [fir'ni:ve] ]ICenesa many ['dgemenr] fepvranna lbraltar [dgr'brc:lta] fu6pa;rrap rampians ['grempjenz] Ipauuuarrcrcrre ropbr G reat Britain ['grert'bntn] Be;rnrco6prrrarru,ff Greece [gri:s] Iperlna fl r r lf of Mexico ['gnlf ev'meksrkou] Merccuxancxnfi aaJrritB
G

Central Plain of Scotland ['plern ev'skctlend] nas TlTorlarrAcrcafl paBrrrrna

I{

Clyde [klard] K"nafi4 Clydeside ['klardsard] Knafigcafig Colchester ['koultJrste] Ko.nvecrep Copenhagen [,koupen'hergen] Konesraren Cornwall ['kc:nwol] Kopxyo.na Coventry ['kcventrr] Koaenrpu
384

rrlf Stream ['gnlf.stri:m] Io;rrQcrpnu Hunover ['haeneva] fanuoaep flnrrow ['herou] Xappoy Hustings ['herstrqz] lacrnnrc

)85

Illotnanguu) Hirqshima [,hrrc'Ji:me] Xzpocurvra 1 Holland ['hclend] Io;urax4ua Holy Roman Empire ['houh'roumen'empara] Puucxas nMuepuff Hong Kong ['hcq'kcq] Ionrconr India ['rndre] VIYgma Indian Ocean ['rndren'ouJ n'l Vlu.g:nirc rcufi oxe aH Inverness [,rnve'nes] ]Iuaepnec Iraq [r'm:k] llparc Ireland ['areland] Llp.ran4ua Irish Republic [breriJ rfpnbhk] LIpraHAcKag Irish Sea [si:] Ilp.nargcroe Mope Isle of Man ['arl ev'men] ocrpou Men Isle of Wight [wart] ocrpoB Vafir Israel ['zrerel] ]Iapauar

Hawaiian Islands [ho:'warjen'arlendz] IasaftcKue Hebrides ['hebrrdi:z] Ie6pr4rr Henley ['henh] Xannu Highlands ['harlandz] Xaft;ren4 (arrcorcoropua.n

Italy ['rteh] Virar^ua

Japan [d3e'pren] f,Inosus Java ['d3o:ve] flaa Kent [kent] Itesr Lake District ['lelk'drstrrkt] Oadpnrrft rcpafi Lancashire ['lreqkejre] Jlaunanrnp Lancaster ['laqkeste] Jlanracrep Leeds [i:dz] Jlusc Liverpool ['hvepul] Jlunepuy.nr London ['lr'nden] JIonAon Lough Neagh ['lcx'ner] JIox Hefi Luxembourg ['lrrksemba:g] Jhorcceu6ypr Madras [me'dro:s] Ma4pac Maldon ['mc:ldan] Mo;r4on
386

nchester ['mentjrste] Manuectep nchuria [mren'tJuarIa] Manvxcypua e [mo:n] Mapna terranean Sea [,medrte'remjen'si:] Cpe4zaeMrroe Mope ia ['mo:fie] Mepcua ['me:zI] Mepcefi le East ['mrdl'i:st] Cpe4nuft BOCTOK lands ['mrdlendz] Mlrgreu4 ntreal [.mcntn'c:l] Monpeanr ['mcskou] Mocrcsa ki [.nege'so:kt] Haracarcu by ['nerzbl] Hec6u erlands ['nedalandz] Hu,qepraEAbr le ['nju:'ko :sl] Hrrorcac.n foundland ['nju:fendland] HuoQayEArreEA port ['nju:pc:t] Hrroropr Zealand ['nju:'zi:land] Honaa 3e;rau4za olk ['nc:fek] HopSonrc mandy ['nc:mandr] Hopuan4nn th America ['nc:0 a'merlke] Ceuepuan Arrepraxa thern Ireland ['nc:6en'alelend] Cenepnafi trIpnau4ua Sea ['nc:0'si:] Cenepnoe MoPe umberland [nc:'0nmbeland] Hoptyrvr6epJretA umbria [nc:'0rrmbrre] Hoprywr6pra ay ['nc:wer] Hoprerraaich ['ncnd3] Hopu4nc tingham ['nctlqam] Hottznrewr tinghamshire ['nctnlemJIa] HottunreMrur4p kney Islands ['c:knr'allendz] Oprcneftcrcrae Empire ['ctemen'empale] Orrouarrcxa.fl ford ['cksfad] OxcQop4 :ific Ocean [pe'sfik'ouJn] Tnxnfi oKeal{ kistan [,po:kt'sto:n] Ilarcucran lestine ['prehstarn] flanecrnna

Paris ['pens] flapzlr

Pennines ['penarnz] flennuncxeTe ropbr

Plymouth ['phmaO] flnuwryt Poland ['poulend] flonrrua Portugal ['pc:tjugel] flopryra.nnn Prussia ['prrtJe] flpyccua Quebec [kwr'bek] Kse6er Roman Empire ['roumen'empara]
Rome [roum] Pzru Russia ['rnJe] Poccus Salisbury Plain ['sc:lzben'plern] Coac6epraficcaa Sandhurst ['srendhe:st] Cen4xepcr Scandinavia [,skandr'nervja] Crcan4unaaua Scotland ['skctlend] Tllor.uanAu,a Scutari ['sku:ten] Crcyrapu Serbia ['se:bre] Cep6ua Severn ['seven] Cenepn Sheffield ['Jefr:ld] TIIeQQrur4 Sherwood Forest ['Je:wud'fcnst] Illepny4crufi .nec Shetland Islands ['Jetlend'arlandz] TlleurasAcrcrle ocl Sindh [srnd] Cungx Singapore [,sr4ge'pc:] Cunrauyp Snowdon ['snouden] Cnoy4on Southern Uplands of Scotland ['sn6en'rrplandz IOxcno-IIIorJraEAcKaa BooBbrrueurrocrb South Pole ['sauO'poul] IOlrcnrrft rroJrroc Soviet Union ['souvretJu:ruen] Cosercrzft Copa Spain [spem] Llcuanras St. Albans [snt'c:lbenz] Cenr O.n6anc St. George's Channel [snt'dgc:dgrz'tJren1] up

[me'gelen] MarennanoB rrpoJrr4B tf ord-upon-Avon ['strretfed e'pcn'ervn] CtperQop4Ha-3fisoge Vincent [snt'vrnsnt] Cenr Blrnqenr Canal ['su:rz ke'nrel] Cysqrrafi KaHaJr ['srrsrks] CYccexc itzerland ['swttselend] [Isefiqapr4'n ames [temz] Tewrsa

it of Magellan

uay ['tc:'ki:] ToPrefi f algar [tra'frelga] TPaQa-nrraP lnt [trent] TPeur rkish Empire ['te:krJ'empare] Typeqxafi rrMreprrs rkey ['te:kr] TyPqra e [tarn] Tafrn rter [',rlsta] O.nrcteP ited Kinedom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-

O6,rennndnHoe KopoJreBcrso Beruxo6putanrau u Cenepnofi llptaugrrla nited states of America ffu'nartld'stetts ev e'menka] coeArantlnnrre llltarrr Auepurra

land ffu'nartrd'krqdam ev'grert'brrtn

end'nc:oen'arelendl

trecht [Ju:trekt] VrPext ales [wellz] Valrc aterloo [,wcta'lu:] BarePnoo

essex ['wesfts] Veccercc West Indies ['west'rndrz] Bect-Lln4ua Westmorland ['westmelend] Vectvroplen4

Cr.

Ieoprua

York [jc:k] loPI Yorkshire t'jc:klra] ftoPrcruuP

Stonehenge ['stounhenft] Croynxen4x Strait of Dover ['strert ev'douve] ,{ynpcxuft rpoJIrIB Ae Ka.ue)
388

189

ENGLISH.RUSSIAN VOCABULARY
abbey ['ebr] z a66arcrso abbreviation Ie.bri:vr'erjn] n corcparqeE]re ability [e'brlrtr] z cnoco6nocrs able [e-rbl] a cnoco6nsrft aboard [e'bc:dJ ad,u na 6opry, na 6opr abolish [a'bchJ] u orMennrb above [e'bnv] prep laa1 abroad [s'brc:d] adu sa rpauuqefi absence ['rebsans] n orcyrcrBrre absolute ['abselut] a a6co;rrornrrfi absolutely [,abse'lu :tltl adv a6conrorso absurd [ab'se:d] a a6cyp4nrrft abundant [e'bnndent] a uao6unrnrrfi accent ['aksant] n aKqeET, rrpor{Bnoruenr4e accept [ek'sept] u uprurrMarb accompany [e'krrmponr] q conpoBorrcAarb according to [e'kc:dr4 ta] r coorBercrBuvt c account [o'kaunt] n c-*er, orqer accusation [,ekju'zeiln] n o6susesre accuse [e'kju:z] u o6szu.Err achieve [a'tJi:v] u" Aocrrrrarb achievement [o'tJi:vment] n Aocruix"eurre acre ['erke] z arcp across [e'krcs] prep qepes act [akt] u"4eftcraoBarb; n aKT,4eficrsne

action [rekJn] n geircrnme actively ['aktrvh] adu an+runs.o add [ed] u 4o6aa;rarr addition [e'drJn] nz in additiotr n4o6auon

aAMr.rur{crp y[paBJIeH]re admiral ['admrrel] n a1wvparr admiration [.redmr'rerJn] z Bocxuulenrre admire [ed'mare] u Bocxuularbcff 390

administration [ed.mlnl'strerJn] n

raft ['eokro:ft] n cavroJrer, aBrraqus force ['ea,fc:s] BoerrHo-BoaAyrurrbre cr4Jrbr raid ['ee'rerd] z aoa4yururrfi EaJrer rm [e'lo:m] z rpeaora; u rpeBorrcr{Tbcs rmed [e'lo:md] pp BcrpeBoxcbsssrfi lcohol ['alkahol] n arrrcororrb ive [e'larv] a x+ur,oit lliance [e'larans] n corog llow [e'lau] u noano"nsrb, pasperuarb l-powerful ['c:l'paueful] a uceuofyrqufi lly [a'lal] n coroarrun; u Bcryrrrrb B corog most ['c:lm\ust] adu noqrizr ngside [a'l\qsald] adu pagolr, 6orc-o-6orc lltar ['c:lte] n arrrapb llteration [.c:lta'relJn] n narvreneurre, repeAeJrxa

z Boopacr, BeK rian [e'greanan] a arpapnrrfi , ce"nrcroxossficrsennrrfi [e'gri:] u corJraruarbcff reement [e'gri:ment]: in agreement with s cor.lracuu c ricultural [.agrr'knltJerel] a cerrbcKoxoasficrsessbrfi [erd] z rroMoulb [em] n rleJrb [eo] z BoBAyx; u ilpoBerp]TBarb
[erd3]

enturouJ [ed'ventJeras] a nro6atqrf op"Krroqeurrfi ice [ed'vars] z coner isable [ad'vazebl] a rlenecoo6paaaarfi viser [ed'vaze] rr coBerrrlrx birs [e'feazf n gena ect [e'fekt] u ranarr brd [e'fc:d] u uoaaonaru aid [a'freld]: be afraid 6osrscs ect [,o:ftere'fekt] n trocJreAcrBrrff

t ['adzrlt] z napocnrrfi v&nce [ed'vo:ns] u Hacrytrarb, [poABr4rarbcr BtrepeA vanced [ad'vo:nst] pp nepe4oaofi vantage [ed'vo:ntld3] z npenMyrrlecrBo venturer [ad'ventJeral n mcxareJrb trprxJrro.renufi

)91

although [.c:ll6ou] adu xora altogether [,c:lte'gedeJ adv Bcero

anrl^aze [a'merz]

u r.rayMJrffTb

amateur ['remeta].2 nro6nre.nr ( ne npoQeccuonai ambitious [am'bIJ es] o tlecrorlo 1mribrilr I among [s'mrr4] prep cpe4la amount [e'maunt] n KornqecrBo amphitheatre [,rmfi'0rste] z annQurearp anarehy ['enakr] n auapxr{ff t ancestor ['anseste] n trpeAor I ancestry ['ansestn] z upor4cxotrcAerrue, fipeArcrr '{ ancient ['ernJnt] a 4pennuft ri anger ['ar]gal z rEeB ! angry ['rer1grr] a cepgursrfi animal ['enrmel] D *cllBorrroe anniversary [,anr've:serr] z roAoBrrlusa "i '") announce [s'nauns] u o6rssrsrr annual ['anjuel] a encero4arrfi annually ['enjuelr] adu etxeroAno antiquity [en'trkwrtr] z gpenuocrb, anTrrrrrrocrb apart [e'po:t] adu orgensmo ape [erp] z qeJroBeroo6paeuaa o6esrssa appear [e'pre] u troaaJrffrbcfl
i

hitect ['o:krtekt] n apxnrexrop hitecture-[.o:kr'tektJe] z apxnteKrypa hway ['o:tfweI] n aPKa

'"

apple [epl] n s6;rorco apply [e'plar] u nprrMen,nrb appoint [a'pcrnt] u naanarrarb apprentice [e'prer?trs] z yreuurc, rroAMacrepbe
approach [e'proutJ] u npn6nur*carbcff; n
IIOAXoA

appearance [e'prarens] z rroffBJrenrre, Bselrrnocrb

upr.r6.n:

?92

['eene] rz rrJrolrlaAb, TeppuTopfia e ['o:qiu] u ciloprtrb cy [,an'stckrest] n apxcroKParrta rat [e'rtstekret] z aPrrcroxpar ratic [a,rtste'kratrk] a apncrorcparuqecrcr'rfi [e'rr0matlk] z aPnQuerrrKa z pyKa; u BooPy]rcarb [o:m] [o:md] pp Boopytresubrfi forces [o:md'fc:slz] aoopyxceEEbre crrJrbl r ['o:me] n Aocrrexu, 6Pona [o:mz] n opyr*lre ['o:mr] rl, apMl{a [e'rest] n apecr; u aPecroBbrBarb [e'rarvel] n upn6rnue [e'raw] u upn6nrarr ['arou] 11. crpeJla [o:t] z lrcrcyccrBo [!o:trst] n xyAoxcnrrK nd- [a'send] u uo4ruMarbcs' BocxoAltrb trj] z scenb ['aspekt] rt acrercr ble [e'sembl] u co6uparb te [a'soustert] u. accoqrar{poBarb' cB,ff sbrBarb tion [a,sousl'elJn] n accoqnaql4a soon as [ez'su:n az] rcax roJrbrco to f'a,zte] uro Ao, qro Kacaerc,ff tronomy [e'strcnemt] n acrpouoMrrff well as [az'wel ez] rarc )rce Karc r{ hletics [aO'lettks] n arrlerrrna last [et'lo:st] naroneq om ['atam] z atorvr tach [a'tatJ] u npncoeArrEfirb [e'tk] u ararcoBarb, Eana4arb; n ararcat nt [a'tetnment] n AocrrrrrceErre

\\
\
\ \

I
I

attempt [e'temt] n rotrbrrrca; u rrbrrarbce attend [e'tend] u noceularb attendant [a'ten-dent] z coupoaoxc4arorqrafi attention [e'tenJn] n B:nnvra:r.ue attitude ['atrtjud] n orrrorueurre attract [e'trrekt] u trpr{Brrercarb aunt [o:nt] n rerKa author ['c:Oa] n aBrop authority [c:'gcrrtr] n aBroprrrer automatically [,c :te'matrkaltl adu aBroMarrrrrecrc]t avenue ['avenju] n aBerrro avoid [e'vcrd] u us6erarr awaken [e'werken] u 6y4nrr awakening [e'werksnrq] n npo6yx4enue
B

ically ['bersrkelr] adu s ocuoBrroM,

['bersrs] n 6aeuc ['bo:skrt] n KopsrrHa th [bo:O] n BaIrHa ths [bo:0sJ n 6anu

in [bersn] n 6acceirs

rJraBHbrM o6paeou

tlefield ['betlfi:ld] n uo.ne 6os ch [bi:tJ] n MopcKofi 6eper, IrJrnttc [bi:dz] n 6ycrr r [bee] n MeABeAb rskin cap ['berrskrn,kap] urarrrca r{B MeABexcrefi
ruKypbr

backwards ['bekwedzf adu HasaA bagpipe ['bregparp] n BoJrbrrr$a baker ['berke] n 6yno.rnrarc balance ['belens] n 6a;n'alac, paBnoBecue; u y
paBrroBecl{e

band [band] n opKecrp bandage ['bandrfi] n 6ura:r bank [brqk] n 6aurc;6eper pexrr banker ['baqke] n 6anr<up bank notes ['bar;k,nouts] 6anxnorsr banquet ['be4kwrt] n 6anrcer barbaric [bo:'benk] a rapaapcxufi bard [bo:d] n 6apg,6po4a.rzfi Myabrrcarrr barley ['ba:h] n ar{Merrb baron ['breran] n 6apon barrack ['brerek] z 6aparc barrel ['beral] n 6o.nca
BbIBATbCg

base [bersl n 6aea, ocnoBautre; u 6aanpoBarbcff, based on ['berst'cn] ocnonannuft na basic ['bersrk] a ocnosuofi
394

['bju:trfuh] adu xpacnno uty ['bju:tr] n rpacora me [br'kerml cn. become [blklm] (became, become) u crauoBlrrbcff thes ['bedklou6z] n rocreJlbnoe 6e.ns6 tbi:dl n 6yw \ er [bte] n trrrBo fall [br'fc:l] (befell, befallen) u cJr] rarbc,n c allen [br'fc:ln] cn. befall ell [br'fel] c.rz. befall [bfqren] c",rz. begin in [br'grn] (began, begun) u HaqrEarb un [br'g,rn] c.,rz. begin r [br'hewja] z uoae4elrue behead [br'hed] u o6esrnaB!(rb behind [bfharnd] prep sa, rroBaArr belief [br'li:fl n Bepa, y6exc4enrae believe [br'li:v] u Beprrrb bell [bel] rL BBorfoK, KoJroKorr belong [br'lcq] u trprrnaAJrertcarb below [br'lou] adu r'ulaay
395

ten [bi:tn] cat. beat

t [bi:t] u 6urr,

[bi:st] n

BBepb'

utifully

benefit ['benrfit]
BbIIO,qy

ttr rroJrbaa,

Bbrroga; u AaBarb ul

berry ['berr] n nroAa beside [br'sard] prep onorro

besides [blsardz] adu xporue roro betray [br'trer] u upeAaBarb beyond [bt'jcnd] prep oa rrpeAeJraMrr bible [barbl] n 6u6nua

led [bcrld] pp aap6nrIfi ly ['bouldhf adu cMeJro [bcm] n6om6ai u6ou6urr rd [bam'bo:d] u 6ou6apArlpoBarr, o6crpeJrr4Barb bombing raid ['bcmr4'rerd] BoBAyIuHbrfi na;rer

fire ['bcnfare] z rcocr6p [buts] n caroru

bieycle ['baIsftl] n BeJlocurre4 bill [brl] n _cqer; BarcorrotrpoeKr birch [ba:tj] n 6epesa bird [be:d] z urnqa birth [ba:0] n porrcAerrue give birth porrcAarb birthday-['ba:0der] n AeEb polrcAeurrff bishop ['brJcp] z erncKon bitter ['bfta] o roprrcuft bitterly ['bteh] adu roprrco bitterness ['brterus] n roper{b blackbird ['blrekbe:d] n AposA blacken [blakn] u qepsurb, rrorpbrBarr uepnoft x blacksmith ['blaksmrO] z rcyaueq blame [blem] u o6snssrr blew [blu:] c",2. blow blind [blarnd] a c.neuoft block [blck] u BarpoMorrAarb blond [blcnd] a 6enoxyprrft blood [blnd] n KpoBb blow [blou] (blew, blown) u Ayrb blown [bloun] cz. blow boar [bc:] z xa6an board lbJ:dl n: on board na popt, na 6opry go aboard a ship [e'bc:d na rcopa6.rr boast [boust] u xBacrarb "'Jrpj "ecrt boat [bout] z nogxa, rcopa6;rr boat race ['bout'rers] roAotrnbre ronrrl body ['bcdr] n reroi rpyrra
396

['bc:de] n. rpanurla; u FpaEr{tr4Tb [bc:n] ppz be born po4lrrbc,E

['bcrou]u6patrBAoJrr [bc:t] cz. buy uet ['buker] n 6yxet ['bua3wo:zi:] z 6ypxyaarra

ve [brerv] a xpa6prrfi vely ['brervlrf adu xpa6po very ['brerven] z xpa6poctt [bred] n xae6 [brerk] (broke, broken) u JroMarb, paa6unarr break away ['brerk e'wer] oropBarbca, oTAeJIriITbC,fi break out ['brerk'autJ paepaarrrbcff [bred] cz. breed [bri:d] (bred, bred) u paoBoAlrrb [bnk] n Kr{puutr

[bru:s]

z Jraryub

[brart] a apxufr. htly ['brarthl adu npro liant ['bnljant] a 6aectalquft ng [brr4] (brought, brought) u upuuocr{rb' trplrBo3rrTb, trprrBoAlrTb bring up ['brry'np] (brought up, brought up) u Bocnu'
TbIBATb

[brc:d] a urraporufi [brc:dn] u pacrurrpfirb

,97

.uiinnsrfi butcher ['butJe] n Mncrrlrrc butter ['b,rte] z MacJro buttonhole ['bltnhoul] z ner"ua (na o4enc4e) buy [bad (bought, bought) u rroKyrarb by and by ['bar end'bar] uocrereurro, co Bpe
BCKOpe

build [brld] (built, built) u crpor4rb cm. build burial ['berrel] n uoxopoubr, BaxopoHenr4e burn [be:n] u roperb, rrcertb bury ['berr] u xopou]rrb, npffrarb busy ['brzr] a (o ue;ro"eref aauarrrfi; (o uecre)

broadleaf ['brc :dli:{l o rutrpono"rucrsesHrrfi broke [brouk] c.n. break broken [broukn] cn. break broken [broukn] cJroMaHnhr fr., pas6:rrrl;rir bronze [brcnz] z 6ponaa brooch [broutJ] z 6porurca broth [brc:O] z 6y.nron brought [brc:t] cm. bring t budget ['bnftt] z 6ro4xer

re [kee] n sa6ora reful ['keeful] a sa6ouruuufi, aKxyparrrlrfi, ocro-

poxnrrfi

built lbiltl

['keefuh] adu ar<r+yparrro, ocropo]KHo o ['ko:gou] n rpyo ['krerel] n po]KAecrBeHcraff aecnr ter ['ko:prnte] n n;rornran riage ['krenft] n Kapera, oKuraxc ['kerr] u Hocnrb, Boakrrb carry oirt arrnoJruffTb [ko:t] n rerrera

fully

calculated ['kalkjul efidf pp paccrrr4rannrrfi call Bc:l] u BBarb, rraabrBarb; n BoB, trpr,rabrB call for uplrabrBarb K came [kem] cM. come camp [kemp] n Jrarepb campaign [kem'pem] n KaMrratrrff canal [ke'nal] n KaHaJr candle [krendl] n cBerra , cannibalism ['kenlbelrzm] z raunu6a.nraem, cannon ['krenen] n ryruxa capital city ['keprtel'sftr] croJrraqa captain's mate ['keptnz'meft] uorvrorqnuir KAII capture ['kreptJe] u BaxBarrlrb B rrJren
398

down ['ko:st'daun] u c6poczrb BHI4B stle [ko:sl] n BaMoK tch [kred] (caught, caught) u JroBlrrb, nofimarr l,hedral [ke'Oi:dral] n co6op ttle driver ['kretl,drarva] uoronulr{K cxora e-farming ['katl.fo:mrq] z crcoroBoAcrBo ught [kc:tf ctw. catch use [kc:z] n fipvtqvrua; u [pr4rrt4HffTb, BbrobrBarb ve [kerv] n rerqepa ebrate ['sehbrert] u. upaoAuoBarb ebration [,seh'brerJn] z npaa4uoBaHr{e ebrity [sr'lebrrtr] n BuaMeurarocrb

[kers] nz

in

case B cJr] rae

nrrfi

hes] qenrpaJrbHoe rApo

JIETI4C

] a qenrpaJreroaqnff

ortain [sa:tn] a orpeAeJriinnrrfi halk [tJc:k] p uen allenge fltJrehnft] z BbrBoB; u 6pocarr BbrBoB amber ['tjermba] nanata r hamber ['tJermba] n KoMHara, raJrara (a uapnanrenre) hampionship ['tJampranJrp] n rreMrrnonar hange [tJernft] n repeMeHa; v Meuflrb ohannel- [ijrenlj-z Kauarr, rpoJrrrB

ehapel ['tJepel] z qacoBHn Itaracter ['krerekte] n xaparTep, Jrlrreparypnrrfi repofi 399

nepconatr

vil war ['srvrl'wc:] rpa)rcAancral lgfrf;e

chemical industry ['kemrkl'rndestrr]

MbIIUJIEHHOCTb

chemist ['kemrst] n xvrwvrr

aim.[klerm] u nperenAoBarb, safrBfifitD ElQft rt an [klren] n KJraH klren] r"rala 'l tklreJ] n croJrxrroBeHrre; ucroJrrcHyBbofi ,r,r'l assical ['klaslkel] a r"rraccu-+ecrufi ay [klet] n rrrvrna ean [kli:n] a umcrrrir. ear [kha] a cucrr;tiri u 'rwcrurb, orrnularb or erk [klo:k] n KJrepK mate ['klarmrt] n KJrr,rMar imb [klafm] u ra6nparbcs, BJresarb

iff [kl{ n enarra

ose [klousf

oak [klouk] z unaq

6rmsr<railr

osely ['kloush] adu 6trlasxo, recrro th [klce] n. cyrcrro [klou6z] z oAerrcAa ['klou6rq] n oAerrcAa thmaker ['klc0rnerke] n cyrnoAeJr, Macrep no r{Bro-

choir [kware] n xop

TOBJreHrrro cyKHa

king industry ['klou0merkrq'rndestrr] cyrcounaa

rrpoMbrruJIeHHocTb

Christian ['knstjan] a xpvtcrvranccuft Christianity [,krrstr'aenrtr] n xpucruancrBo Christmas ['krlsmas] z Poxt4ecrBo church ttJ",tj] n qeproBb cinema ['smrma] n r"l4tmo ' circle [sa:kl] n Kpyr circulation [,se:kj u'lerJn] z ql4pKyJrnrllrfl citizen ['srtrzn] n rpatrcAanr.ru

loud [klaud] n o6;raro lub [kl,rb] n xny6 ue [klu:] n Krrgq (rc maitne) rachman ['koutJman] n rcyrep I [koul] z yrorrb
coat [koutl n r;,a;nvro, Kyprxa cobbler ['kcbla] n carotrculln eode of law [ikoud ev'lc:] cBoA BaKoHoB ooffee-house ['kcfihaus] z rcoQeftna coin [kcrn] z uonera coincide [,kourn'sard] u conua4arr collapse [ke'lreps] u o6pyruuBarbcff, o6sanusarrcff r ['kcle] n BoporHr{K
401
t

civil ['swrl] a rpaxc4ancrcrafi

civil
400

iz a ti o n [, s rvt I at' zelnl n \Lrrrtrrrtra aIIr4 fi civilized ['srvrlarzd] pp \nBnnwrsosaHlrbrfi civil rights ['srvrl'rarts] rpax4arrcrcrle rpaBa

collect [ke'lekt] u.co6nparr I '{ collection [ka'lekJn] n KorrrreKqrrn college ['kcltft] n KorrJleAtrc , ,i collide [ke'lard] u craJrr"vrBarbc,fi colonial [ke'lounjal] o Korrourra.rrrnrrfi colonialism [ke'lounjelrzm] n r,onrolavraJrnaM ' col<inist ['kclenrst] n KoJrouurcr colonize ['kclenarz] u KoJroHrrsltpoBarb i colony ['kclenr] n KoJronr.I.fi colourful ['knleful] a rcpacounrrft column ['kclem] n KoJIoEHa combat ['kcmbret] n cpa]KeHr4e combine [kem'barn] u coeA]IHErr, o6te4l/tHffTb i come into being ['krtm rnte'bi:lq] no,ffBJrfirbcff comfortable ['knmfetebl] a y4o6nrrfi command [ka'mo:nd] n KoMaHAa; u KoMaHAoBarb KoMaHAPTP commander [ke'mo:ndo] n KoMaHAPrp commander-in-chief [ke'mo:nde rn'tJi:fl rJraBHoKo!
,:
,

centration camp [,kcnsen'trelJn'kampl KoaqptsElt qronnrrfi Jralepb ncern [kan'sa:n] u: as concerns qro Racaercf, ncert ['kcnsot] tx KoHTIePT

H,fifl IUKOJIA centrate ['kcnsentrert] u ronqenrpt{poaerb

clude [ken'klu:d] u saK"Jrrcrlarb' EaBepruarb densat]ion [.kcnden'selJn] z KorrAeucarrnfl ition tkendilnl n ycrroBvre nfirm [kan'fa:m] u rro4rBep]fiAarb nfusion [ken'fiu:3n] n cuaterrte' [epefloJlox' Hepao6eplrxa

commemorate [ke'memerett] u ooHaMenoBbrBarb

,qyroqprfi

"I

common ['kcmen] a o6r\nir,.lpocrofi common people npoctrie Jrro4ra community [ka'mju:nltr] z oQrultna companionship [kem'prenjenJlp] z roBaperulecrBo company ['krmpenrJ n KoMrIaHn,r, Tpyflrra comparatively [kem'preretwlr] adu cpaBnltreJrrno compare [kam'pee] u cpaBlrrrBarb comparison [kem'prnsn] n cpaBneHrle comietitiott [,tr-pt'trJn] n copeanonante, complete [kem'pli:t] u BaBepruarbi a aanepuriin uonnrrfi completely [kem'pli:thf adu rorrHocrbro comprehensive school [,kcrnpre'hensw'sku:l]
402

iferous [kou'nrfares] a XBOI4HbIH nnect [ke'nekt] u"coeAlflrfirb nnection [ke'nekJn] n cBfi'lb nquer ['kcrlke] u aasotinusarr uest ['kcrikwrst] n saBoeBauvre ervative [ken'se:vetIv] a rconcepnatlrnnrrfi nsider [ken'srde] u paccMarpl4Barb' clltlTarb nsiderably [ken'srderebh] adu sna'awreJlbHo ist [kan'srst] u coctoats rator [kan'splrato] n xoncnr4parop' saroBoplq?rn nt ['kcnstant] o uocto,snnrrft nstantly ['kcnstanthf adv rocroflrruo nstituency [ken'stltj uensr] n raa6rapate'nrnrrft orcpyr nstitute ['kcnstrdut] u cocraeJlflrb nstit'ution [.kcnstr'tju )n) n KoHcrrryql'Is nstitutionai l,kcttsir'tjuJ nel] a :xoncrvtryrruonnuft nstitutional acts Koucrt4Tyrlr{onnbre arcTbr ntain [ken'tern] u coAep)Karb contemporary [ken'tempererr] n coBpeMeHHLrK oontent(s) ['kcntent(s)] n co4epxcanr{e oontinent ['kcnttnent] n rconrvnenr continental [,kcntr'nentel] a KoHrl{Herrtanrnrrfi continual [ken'trnjuel] o noctoannrrfi continually [ken'tIr1 uahf adu rocroffHno continue [ken'trnju] u rpoAorrncarb

407

cont cont

continuous [ken'trnjues] a npo4onxcaroulufica

i

rrBopeqrrfl

.:

cont convenient [ken'vi:njent] a ygo6usrfi conveniently [ken'vi:4jenth] adv ygo6no conventions [ken'venjnzl n ycJroBHocrL4, o qarr conversation [.kcnve'serJn] n paaroBop convert [ken've:t] u upeBparqarr, o6paqarb convince [ken'vrns] u y6exgarr cool [ku:l] o npoxJraAnbrfi co-operation [kou,cpe'relJn] n corpyArrr4rrecrBo co-ordinate [kou'c:drnert] u KoopAr{HrrpoBarb, cor
BbIBATB

copper ['kcpe] z MeAb copy ['kcpr] u KofinpoBarb; n ruorrvrs' akaevrnnnp corporation [,kc:pe'rerJn] n Kopnoparln,fi correspondent [,kcu'spcndent] n KoppecroH4rrr, corresponding [,kcn'spcndr4] a coorBercrnyrorqufi cost [kcst] (cost, cost) u cror{rb cottage ['kctrd3] n KorreAJK, AoMr4K council ['kaunsl] n coBer count [kaunt] u ctrnrarb; n rpaQ countless ['kauntlrs] a 6ecqucnennsrfi counter ['kaunte] z'rpuJraBoK country ['kantrr] n crpana countryman ['krrntrrmen] z cooreqecrBexHerK countryside ['knntnsard] n BaropoArraff Mecrrrocrb county ['kauntl] z rpaQcrno (agvrunr.rcrparrrBrraff qa a Anrnnu) coup d'etat ['ku:der'to:] z repeBopor courage ['krr$] z cMeJrocrb courageous [ka'rerdgas] a cme.nrrft course [kc:s] z: in the course of g xoAe court [kc:t] n ABopi KoporreBcrcnfi 4nop; cyA cousin [k.rizn] n ABoropognrrft 6par, ABoropoAuag cover ['knve] u rrorcpbrBarb
404

cow [kau] n KopoBa cowhouse ['kauhaus] rt KopoBrrrrr cradle [krerdl] z ronsr6ear craft [kro:ft] n peMecJro craftJman.-hip-1'k*' ftsmanJrp] n sannr:ne peMecJroM crane [kretn] n Kpar{ cream [kri:m] n KpeM, cJrIaBKil create [kn'ett] u coaAaBarb' creative work [kn'ertrv'we:k] rnop'recrraft TpyA crew [kru:] n KoMaHAa (xopa6nx) cricket ['knklt] n Kprarer crime [krarm] n upecryrrJreHr{e criticize ['kntrsalz] u Kpr{rr4roBarb crops [krcps] n BepuoBbre KyJrbrypbr, BcxoAbr, ypoxcafi crgss [krcs] n Kpecr; u rrepecercarb crowd [kraud] n roJrra; v roJrrrrrbcfl crowrl [kraun] n Kopoua; u yBeHrrrrBarb cruel [kruel] a ncectorufi cruelly ['krueh] odu xcecroro cruelty ['krueltl] n Ececrorocrb crusade [k5u'serd] n KpecroBrrfi uoxoA crush tktnJl u paopyrrrarb, Kpyrunrbi n paorpoM cultivate ['knltlvert] u KyJrbrtrBr4poBarb cultivated ['k4ltlvertrd] pp rynrtypnrrfi cultural ['k,rltJerel] a KyJrbrypnrrfi culture ['krrltce] n KyJrbrypa custom ['krstem] n o6rlqair customer ['ka.steme] n rroxyrrareJrb, KJTUTeHT cut [k,rtl (cut, cut) u peoarb cut down cpy6arr (gepesss) cybernetics [sarba'netrks] n xn6epnerrrKa
D daily ['derh] o er*eAHesHrrfi dairy-farming ['deerI,fo:mrq] n MoJlotrnoe xoasficrso damage ['dremr$] u paspyruarb:' n paopyrrreHr{e damaging ['demId3Iq] a paapyurutenrnrrfi

405

damp [damp] a csrpor? danger ['detndge] n onacnocrb dangerous ['dernd3eres] a ouacnrrfi daring ['deerr4] a crenr;tit, orqatrnurrft, ornaxc dark [do:k] a riinnrrfi darkness ['do:knrs] n reMnora date back to ['dert'brek te] aocxoArrrb K t deal [di:l] u nMerb AeJro c death [de0] z cMeprb debates [dr'berts] n gedarr;r debt [det] n Eorrr
decade [dr'kerd] n AecflTvrnrerrze decay [dr'ker] z ynarqorc decent ['di:sent] a nplanlzuwurir decide [dr'sard] u perrarb decision [disryn] z perueune decisive [dr'sarsrv] a perrrr{rensnrrfi deck [dek] z ua;ry6a

delight [dt'latt] n Bocropr; u deliver [de'lwe] u AocraBJr,f,rb delta ['delte] n Aerrbra

declaration [.dekla're lnl n safi BJreHr{e declare [dr'klee] u Ba.EBrrtrrb declare war o6ssBJlfiTb nofiny decline [dr'klaIn] u rplrxogurb B ynaAon decorate ['dekerert] u yrcparuarb

decrease [dr'kri:s] u yMeHbruarbcfi dedication [,dedr'keflnf n upeAaHuocrb deed [di:d] n Aenro deep [di:p] a rny6or<uir. deepen ['di:pen] u yrny6natr deeply ['di:plt] adu rny6or<o deer [dre] n orleub defeat [dr'fi:t] u uo6e*cAarb; n ropatileur4e defence [dr'fens] n san\Lrra defend [dr'fend] u Barrlrqarb defender [dr'fende] n sau1vrrla.vIr" definite ['defirut] a orpeAerrilnnufi degree [dr'gri:] n crereHb delegate ['dehgrt] n Aerretar
406

demand [dr'mo:nd] u tPe6onarb', n democracy [dI'mckresr] z AeMoKparilS democratic [dema'kretlk] o AeMoxparl'tqeoilnt demonstrat6 1'demanstreit] u 4ertronctpupolarb tii densely populated ['densh,pcpju'lerhd] rrrroruo Hacortaff density ['densltr] n rJroruocrb depart [dt'po:t] u yxoArrrb, yesrr(arb department [dl'po:tmant] n orAeJr' orAeJrenr{e department store [stc:] ynnnepMar depend [dfpend] u BaB]rcerb dependent [dr'pendant] a sanzcurvnrfi deposed [dr'pouzd] pp crvrerqilnnrrfi deposits [dl'pczlts] n sarrefiira depression [dl'preJn] n 4enpeccuff' yruererrnoe cocros' Hrre, BIIaAnHa deprive [dr'praIv] u Jrrrurarb descendant [dr'sendent] z uotouox describe [dr'skratb] u orrlcbrBarb description [dI'sknpJn] n onncalewe desert ['dezet] n rycrbrns design [dr'zarn] n upoerT; u rpoeKrrapoBarb desire [dr'zale] n )r'erranve despise [dr'spaz] u rpeallparb despotic [dfspctlk] 4 4ecroret'recrcnft destination [ ;destl'ne lnl n Mecro HaBHatreurra destroy [dr'strcl] u PaBPYruarb destructior/ [dr'strnkJn] n paapyruenne destructiv{ 1dtstrrrttrv] a paepynrnrenrnrrfr detail ['di:tprl] n Aerartb, no4po6nocrr detective l[r'iektryl n Aereryrr(B; 4 Aerextnsnrrfi J"i""-i""Tion [dr.te:mi'nedn] n perurrMocrb determine [dr'te:mrn] u peurrrrbc,fi determined [dr'te:mrnd] pp peruratenrnrrfi develop [dr'felep] u pasBnBarb '-

407

developed [dl'velapt] pp paer.urrltrr development [dr'velepment] n pasBurrrre devil ['devrl] n AbflBoIt A""ot! [dr'vLut] u nocBsrrlarb' orAaearr ce6s devotion [dr'vouJn] n rpeAaruocrb diagonal [dat'regenel] o 4raaroHa;rbr{srlt dialect ['dalelakt] n Avrarrerr diary ['daIen] n AHeBHT{K dictate [drk'teIt] u Ar4xroBarb dictator [drk'terte] n ALrKraroP dictionary ['drkJanarl] z cnonapr die [daI] u YMrParb differ ['dfe] u orJrlrtlarbcfi difference ['dtfaransl n pasuuTla' orJlr4rrlle Aitf""""t [trferent]-o paaHuft' paorlrdrrHrtfi' otn rouluftca (ne tarcofi) difficult ['dlfikalt] a tpy4nsrfi difficulty ['drfikeltt] n rpyAHocrb dig [drg] (dug, dug) u Korarb dignity ['drgnrtl] a AocrorrncrBo diminish [dr'mrnrJ] u yMenbrnarbcfi

discontent [,drsken'tent] n HeyAoBJrernoptinnocrr discover [drs'krve] u orrcpbrBarb discovery [drs'krrverr] z orrcprrrue discuss [drs'kls] u" o6cyx4arr discussion [drs'k,tJn] n o6cyxc4eHue disease fdr'zi:zJ n 6oaeanr disgrace [drs'grers] n ofiaJra disgraced [drs'grerst] pp orrarrbnrrfi, B oraJre dish [drJ] n 6;rro4o dishonesty [dr'scnrstr] z neuecrrrocrb dislike [drs'lark] u ne nro6zrr dismiss [drs'mrs] u pacnycrcarb disobedience [.drsa'bi:djens] n Henocrryrrraulre disobey [,drse'ber] u rre cJryrxarbcfl dissatisfied [,drs'sretrsfard] pp HayAoB,uernoptirr rr r,r ii dissolve [drs'sclv] u pacrBopflrr, distance ['drstans] n paccronruc i distinct [drs'tn1kt] a orqi,ilrr.r rr,r i.i . distinguish [drs'tr4wrJ1 u o'r'.n lrrurrb, pasJrr4qr,r,r, district ['drstnkt] o pai.ion fi disturbing [drs'ta:brq] o't'pr,rroir*rrrfi ri ditch [drtJ] z KaHaBa, I)on direction [dr'rekJn] n HarpaBJIeHue divide [dr'vard] u AeJrr4'r'r, directly [dl'rekth] adu nPatto divine [dI'vam] o 6oucuc't'trr,r rr t,rft director [dr'rekte] n AlrPeKroP division [dr'vr3n] n A(]Jrounr, ()'r'AeJIeHI{e dirty ['de:tr] 4 rpsaHbrra l]uBBoAI,Irbcff ait"hit"tage [.arsed'vo:ntld3] n rreBbrroAxoe' ne6naro' divorce [dfvc:s] n pn:rr(ul: r) vMeHT document ['dckjurrrcnt I rr,r1r'r( e rrpl4fi THOe rroJlo?KeHlr dogma ['dcgme] n AolMl domestic [da'mestrk] o /U)Mn rrr rrprft dominate ['dcmrnert] a) /(oM n r lr poBarb dominion [da'rnrnjon] ,l /loM lr r noH (sanucuuaff or qerorn,r,opua) yTluaranarr double [d.,.bl] a gnofiuoll; rr doubt [daut] u coMHeBll'r'rr(!rt n coMrreulle downstairs ['daunsteezl uilu rrHB, BHI,Isy drain [drem] n BoAocror(, rurrrrJrnaall]Iff tlrainpipe ['drernparp] n rlrTlor:'r'oqHaff rpy6a

n'u6o

r4Jrr4 Koro_1u6g,1,1,1,1

discipline ['drsrplln] n
408

Aetcr\wnJrr,rna

409

drank [drreqk] cas. drink draw [drc:] (drew, drawn) u r,flrryrb' rrpttrflrl'l
prtcoBarb, qepruTb drawback ['drc:brek] n He.qocrarorc drawbridge ['drc:bndSf n uoAtiivrnrrfi uocr drawn [drc:n] cu. draw dress [dres] n fiJrarbei u oAeBarbcfl dressmaker ['dresmefte] n roprrl4xa qrew luru:J c.tw. draw drew ldru:l cu. r,.rtlw drink [dnqk] (drank, drunk) u uurb drive [drarv] (drove, driven) u rnarb, uoroHfftb,

r
,]

I
I

i
i'

driven [dnvn] cn. drive drop [drcp] u xauarr drove [drouv] cn. drive drug [drng] n Haprcorrrr drug taker ['terke] HapKoMaH drum [dr,rm] n 6apa6an drunk [drnqk] cz. drink dry [drar] a cyxofi due to ['dju:te] r,ta-oa
dug [d^g] cm. dig duke [dju:k] n repqor duty ['dju:tl] n Aorrt, o6ssansocrs dynasty ['drnastr] n Annacrurfi,
E

MaIUnHy

i
;

'ir

it
' ,:.,,

[r'kcnemrst] n exonoMrrrcr nomy [l'kcnemr] n exorroMr{Ka t ['edrt] u peAaKrtrpoBarb ucate ['edjukelt] u o65nrars, AaBarb o6paaoaanlre ucated ['edjukertrd] pp o6paeosasHbrft ucation [.edju'kerJn] n o6paeoBaHr{e 'ectively [{feknvt4 adu etpQeKrnBrro icient [r'fiJant] a eQQercrnsusrfi brt ['efst] n yclr;rure [eg] z afiqo ect [r'lekt] u-arr6zparr ection [r'lekJn] n nrr6opu n [r'lektren] n e;rercrpon ectronic [,rlek'trcmk] o e.nercrponnuft ectronics [,rlek'trcnrks] z e.nerrpour4ra tary [.eh'menten] o oJreMeuTapnrrfi [elk] n aocr m [elm] n Bns bassy ['embesr] n rocoJrbcrBo brace [rm'brers] u oxBarbrBarb [r'me:d3] u Boorrurcarb igrant ['emrgrent] n eMrrrpaHr

I'i:zrf a.n6rrrtfi ipse ['ekhps] z safMeuze [,rks'ncmrk] a eronoMu.recrcafi lly [,fte'ncmrkeh] adu snonoMr{qecrcr4

earl [e:l] z rpaQ earn [e:n] u eapa6atblBarb earth [e:0] z BeMJrfl earthen ['e:0en] o sexulanofi

igration [,emr'grerJn] z orvrurparlr4s Jraf,ron [,emlgrerJnl eMrrrparlr4s tional [r'mouJnel] a oMoquona;rrnrrfi

['emfasrs] n yAapeurre, yrop
uMrrepr.rJ{

earthenware ['e:Oenwee] n Qaanc, KepaMrIKa easily ['i:zrh] adu nerr<o east [i:st] n Bocror eastern ['i:sten] a socto.IHbrfi eastward ['i:stwed] adu x BocroKY
410

[rm'plcr] u Hanr{Marb, AaBarb pa6ory mployer [rm'plcre] n HaHnMareJrb, pa6oro4are.nr empty ['emptr] a uycrofi; u Brra,4arb (o perce) enclose [rn'klouz] u oropilKrrBarb, o6uocurr enclosures [rn'klougezf n oropar*uBaHrle Dncourage [m'kandg] u uooqp,Erb

mpire ['empare] n

end [end] n KoHerI endanger [rn'delndge] u uo4neprarb orracuocrn :'r ,l endlessly ['endhsh] ady 6ecxoueqHo '.\ enemy ['enrmr] n Bpar 'r energetig [,ene'dgetrk] a enepru.rsrrft engage [m'gerdg] u rranrrMarb, BarrnMarb engaged [rn'gerd3d] pp: be engaged 6rrrrnsaHgrbl! engine ['end3rn] n Morop .l enjoy [rn'jcr] u EacJra)KAarbcff , ,l enlarge [rn'lo:d3] u yBeJrr4rrrrBarb t enlighten [rn'larten] u upocBerrlarb r
r

[r'speJeh] ad.u ocolesno ce ['esans] z- cyulHocrb tially [r'senJeh] adu s ocHoBr{oM. B cvruuocru tablish [rs:taUtiJl u ycrauaBJnrBarb,

established order

enlightenment[rn'lartenment]ntrpocBerqerrlie { enlist [rn'hst] u nocryrarb Ha BoeHrryro cnyxc6y i

enormous [I'nc:mes] a onponnnrrft I enormously [r'nc:meslrl adu vpeaarrvaftno I enough [r'qnfl adu Aosorruu.o ensure [rn'Jua] u o6ecne.ruBarb enter ['ente] u Bcryrarb, trocryrrarb entertain [,enta'tern] u pasBrremarb entertainment [,ente'ternm entf n paaBreqenr,Ie enthusiastically [en,0juzr'estrkeh]-odu-e EryBraE

envy ['envr] n saBncrb; u BaBr{AoBarb epidemic [.epr'demrkf n errlaqerlaa epoch ['i:pek] n erroxa equal ['i:kwel] a pannrrfi , equality [i:'kwchtr] n paBeucrBo equally ['i:kweh] adu na paBrrbrx rpaBax

i
q
,iJ

il

ropffAoK astate [r'stert] n roMecrbe uary ['estjuerr] n ecryapwir cternal [r'te:nel] a se.rHbu? [i:v] n Kauyrr t [r'vent] n co1strne lly [r'ventjueltl adu B KoHqe KorrqoB ident ['evrdant] a ouenw4nrrfi il ['i:vel] n srro olution [.eva'lu:Jn] n aBorrroqr4ff actly [rg'zrekth] cdu ro.rso ple [rg'zo:mpl] n npuwrep ceed [r'ksi:d] u uperocxoAr4rb lent ['eksalant] a ornra.rHrrfi cellently ['eksalenth'l adu orJrrrrrHo cept [rk'septf adu KpoMe ception uK'sepJnl n ucrcrrotreHrre Dron [ft'sepJn] ucKJrroqeHu nge [rks'tJernd3] n 6npnca; u ting [rk'saftir1J a BaxBarbrBaroquil m [rks'klerm] u nocr"lrzqarb se [rks'kju;zf u usnwHffrb ecute ['eksakjut] u. KaBHr4rb
;

[rs'trbhJt'c:de]

uil

!r. fr

equatorial[,ekwe'tc:rrel]aercBaroprraasnrrfi equipment [I'kwrpment] n o6opy4onanure era ['rere] n spa

erect [r'rekt] u BoBABHrarb escape [r'skerp] n no6er; u 6excarr, cracrr4cb
412

I
I
'i

I I

ecution ['eksekju:Jn] z raenr ecutive [rg'zekjutrv] a zcuo.n executive body r4crroJrH exhibit [r'gzrbrt] n encrronar exhibition [,ekir'brjn] z Bbrcraart exile ['eksailf n ccbrJrra, r{BrnattHf{ exist [r'gzrst] u cyqecrBoBarb
existence [r'gzrstans] n expand [rks'pand] u

expansion [rks'prenjn] n pacrpocrparrenure, eKcrrar expect [rks'pekt] u o)KlrAarb, paccrrrrrrbrBarb expensive [rks'pensrv] a 4oporofi experience [rks'prerrens] n onbrr experiment [rks'penment] n erccreperMenr

export ['ekspc:t] n oncrropr; u aKc[oprr{poBarb, BbrBol exporter [eks'pc:te] n erccuopriip express [rks'pres] u Bbrpa]rcarb extend [rks'tend] u pacrrrwpflrbcfi, rpocrrrparbcfi extent [ks'tent] n: to some extent Ao HeKoropofi cr extension [rks'tenJn] n pacuuperrr4e, pacrpocrpa extinct [fts'trqkt] a nrruepurrafi extra ['ekstre] a AorroJrHrare;rrnrrfi extraordinary I rks' trc drn erfj a trpe B B brrra ft:rlttrt extremely [fts'tri:mh] adu o.resu, rrcKJrK)rrrrreJrbuo eye [ar] n rJraB
:

explain [rks'plern] u o6rscnsru explanation [.eksple'nerjn] n ollsacneurre explode [fts'ploud] u rapriaarrca explore [rks'plc:] u rccJreAoBarb explorer [rks'plc:re] n nccJre1oBareJrb

experimentation [rks,penmen'terJn] n arcrep TI{pOBaHIle 4

fagade [fe'so:d] n gacag

feet [fi:t] cu. foot fell [fel] cn. fall felt [felt] cn. feel

fame [fem] n rrBBecruocrb famine ['fremrn] n roJroA famous ['fermes] a usaecrubrfi fancy clothes ['fansr'klou6z] rvracrcapagurrfi KocrroM farm [fo:m] n OepMa; u Brur?rMarbcn ceJrbcrctrM xossficrBoM farmer ['fo:ma] n Kpecrb,Enran, Qepuep farmhouse ['fo:mhaus] n Qepruepcrcrnfi 4owr farming land ['fo:mrq'land] KyJrbrr4Br4pyeMafi BeMJrff (eerr.na Koropyrc o6pa6arsrnarcr) farmland ['f-o:mlend] n o6pa6arbrBaeMafl oeMJrff fashion [feJn] n.MoAa fashionable ['freJnebl] o mo4nrrfi fast [fo:st] a 6rrcrprrfi fasten [fo:sn] u trpraKpetrJrarb fatal [fertl] a @araarnrrfi favour ['ferve] ni in favour of n nomsy favourite ['fervent] a nro1mv.wir fear [fie] n crpaxi u 6garrca fearless ['fiehs] a 6eccrparunarfi feast [fi:st] ry nup feature ['fi:tJe] z qepra fed [fed] crvr. feed feed [fi:d] (fed, fed) u KopMrrrb feel [fi:l] (felt, felt) u qyBcrBoBarb feeling ['fi:h4] z rryBcrao

fall [fc:l] (fell, fallen) u ra,qarb fall ill Ba6orerb fallen [fc:ln] cu. fall

fence [fens] n ea6op feudal ['fiu:del] o Qeoga.nrnrrrt feudalism ['fiu:dahzm] z Seo4a.uusru

faithfully ['fer0fuh] ad.u sepno. upeAaHno,

414

field [fi:ld] n rrorre

fierce [fies] a cmpeurrfi

1lt

fiercely ['fiesh] adu cnupeno fight [fatt] (fought, fought) u 6oporrca, Aparbca fight off or6usarr fight ffaftf n 6opr6a ' fighter ['farte] z 6opeq qr4+pa figure ['figa] n Qzrypa, fill [fru u HarroJrn.Erb filling [fftlry] n laa,*ur^r"a finally ['farnah] adu s Kouqe finance [far'nans].n @unancrr; u Qrauancr4poBarB nnaqgia! [far'nrenJ l].4 Srauancosrrfi iitt"trtit{y lrut'"*nJltl ad.u n QnnancoBoM orrrorue financier fiar'nenJre] z Sunancncr find [faInd] ( fo\nd, found) u HaxoArirb fine [farn] cl tlyAecnbr*,.-u rrrrpa@ finger ['fi4ga] n raJreq fiord [fic:d] z Quop4 fire [fare] z oron6; u crperrffrb open fire orxpbrrb oronb fireworks ['fatewa:ks] a @eftepBepr

i
i ,

firmly ['fe:mh] adu rsepgo fisher ['fiJe] z prr6onor fil trttt-trit, tit) u rroAxoAr4rb, roAramca, 6rrrr

fixed [fikst] pp ycrar{ouenurrfi, aarcpeunilnnrrfi fixed price [prars] rnrip4aa rleHa

nuo

flattened [flretnd] pp BbrpoBnennrrrZ fled [fled] cm. flee flee [fli:] (fled, fled) u 6excarr, crracarbca 6ercrrol fleet [fli:t] n $nor r flew [flu:] cm. lly floor [flc:] z no.B, ora)rc flow [flou] u reur flower [flaue] n qBerorc flown [floun] cn. fly fluently ['fluanth] adu 6erno
416

flat [flat] a n.:nocxlair

forgotten [fe'gctn] cn. forget fork [fc:k] n Bvlrrr"a form [fc:m] u QoprvrupoBarb formal ['fc:mel] a Qoprvra;rrnrrfi , oQuqza;rrnrrfi formation [fc:'merJn] n o6paaonauue former ['fc:ma] a 6*sluauilr formerly ['fc:meh] adu rlpex"ge formulate ['fc:mjulert] u cipopuyJrrrpoBarb fort [fc:t] n $opr fortificalion I Jc:trfi'kerJn] z yKperJrinnuft rrynrcr fortified ['fc:trfard] pp yKpenniinnrrfi

fog [fcg] rl ryMau folklore ['fouklc:] z @olrrcaop folk music ['fouk'mju:zk] HapoAnas MyBbrKa follow ['fclou] u cJreAoBarb Ba follower ['fcloue] z. rocJreAoBareJrb following ['fclour4] a cle4yrorqr.rfi fond [fcnd] a: be fond of nro6rarr food [fu:d] z uuula foodstuffs ['fu:dstnfs] n rpoAyKrbr rrrranufl foot [fu:t] (mru. v. feet) nora, gyr on foot [erurcoM forbade [fe'berd] c",ra. forbid forbid [fa'brd] (forbade, forbidden) u sanperqarr forbidden [fe'brdn] cyra. forbid force [fc:s] n cvrJrai u gacraBJrsrr cranofi foreign ['fcnn] a rrnocrpannrrfi foreigner ['fcnne] R rrHocrpareq forest ['fcnst] n Jrec forgave [fe'gerv] cn. forgive forget [fa'get] (forgot, forgotten) u sa6rrnarr forgive [fa'grv] (forgave, forgiven) u rpotrIarb forgiven [fe'grvn] cm. forgive forgot [fe'gct] cm. forget

fly [flad (flew, flown) u Jrerarb

fortify ['fc:trfar] u yKperrrrflrb

417

n tnca fri:] a cno6o4nnfi; u ocro6ox4arr ['fri:dam] n ceo6o4a freely .(h] odu cno6o4uo I n cso6o,qnrrfi .re"rrosex freeze [fri:z] (f rozen) u__gaMepoarb
[fcks]

fortress ['fc:tns] z Kperrocrb i fortunate ['fc:tJenrt] a y1a'eJrunbrfi, neeyuufi forwards ['fc:wedz] adu nnepdg ,: fought ffc:t'l cn. fight found [faund] cm. find found [faund] u ocrroBbrBarb foundation ffaun'derJn] z ocnoBaur,re, Oynl enr founder ['faunde] n ocnoBareJrb
J

gallery ['gelerr] n raJrepen game [germ] n tl.rpa rden [go:dnl n cag. garland ['go:land] n rlrprrnn4a gas [gres] n rag [gert] n Bopora gateway ['gertwer] n Bopora gather ['ge6o] u co6rapars general ['dgenarel] n reHepaJr, a o6u1rzfi, nceo6rqzft nerate ['dgenerert] u renepupoBarb, nrrpa6ararnarr neration [,dgene'rerJn] n norcoJreurre tle [ftentl] a JracroBbrfi, wrarrufi, nonorlrfi (o cxnone)

in [getn] n Bbrrrrpbrru; u BbrrrrpbrBaTb

frequently ['fri:kwenthl adu tracro fresh tfreJl a cse)Kzfi friar [frare] n EurrqeHcrnyrorqrfi Mo_Hax friendly ['frendh] .a gpyxcecxnilr, Apy)KeJrrooHbrri .r,i rrrenqry l'renotrl "4 Apy,IcecKfiI,I, gpyrre.nro6nrrfi . friendship ['frendJrpf n gppnla 'l frighteneh f tr4rriJuul pp ilnyrannrrfi rrrSrrrir'rrnu 1'auttrnal pp liltjLLy I'i1'.Fl.tlbl.t1t frontier ['frrrntre] n rparrr4qa, trpurpauurrrrBre pafirir
],
;,

try

froze [frouz] ctw. freeze frozen [frouzn] ctry.-freeze ' fruit [fru:t] n Spyrcr

funclion ['fr'DkJn] t i$inxqua; u @ynxrlrror{}r fundamental [.fnnde'mentl] a Qyn4arvrenramHrrfi,

nosHofi

fulfil [fu]'frl] u Bbrrrorrunrb full [fuI] a ronustir

fuel [fiuelJ z roprouee

:.'

funeral ['fiu:naral] n troxoponbr fur [fe:] n Mex furniture ['f9:nrtJa] z me6enr future ['fiu:tJe] a fygyryuir
418

[grft] n Aap lded ['grldd] pp rroooJroqennrrfi glacier ['glresje] n rre4lalar. glamorous ['glremeres] o ruzxapnrrfi glanrour ['glreme] n 6aecx, oqapoBaur{e, BoJrrrre6crgo [glo:s] n crercJro, crarau glorious ['glc:rres] o c.nannrrfi glory ['glc:rr] n crraBa god [qcd] n 6or gold [gould] n aonoro goldsmith ['gouldsmr0] n aonorbrx Aerr Macrep goods [gu:dz] n roBapbr goods train ronapnsrft iloeBA got [gct] cn. get
:

iant [ftarent] o orpounrrfi, rnranrcrcufi

['d3entn] z vrenrorroMecruoe ABopffHcrBo phical [,dgrs'grrefikl] a reorpaQuuecrcufi phically [, dgre' grrefikhl ti du reorpae nqec K ra [dgr'cmrtrr] a reoMerplrfi (got, got) ? AocraBarb, rroJryrraTb, rrouar{arb [get] rid of ['get'rrd ev] rae6anr,rrbcff or [goust] n rpr{Bpar

ft

419

graduate ['gredjuert] u oxar$rrrBau ( yvednoi : grand [grrend] a r,errtrtecrnennrrfi grandson ['grrends.rrn] z ruyrc -gravQlgsw] a rvrpavu,ufi; n_rltgrvnra / E"aoitiiib;T.g-revfteifnl z iip anuraqun gravity ['grrevrtr] n rpr{ratrcenrre grarry ['grervr] n coyc grazelgretzf u uacrucb gteatly ['grerth] adu oqela:, a 6ommofi creuenu greatness ['grertnrs] n r,e$n'rrr:e greengrocer ['gri:n,grouse] n seJrerrqrrK greeting ['gri:trq] n uprrBercrBue gretv [gru:] cil. grow grocer ['grouse] z 6araaefiulrnx group [gru:p] n rpytrua gro\r [grou] (grew, grown) u pactu, BbrparqrrBarb grown [groun] crw, grow grown-up ['groun'.rrp] a aspocnrrfi growth [grou0] n pocr guarantee [,garan'ti:] u rapanrrrpoBarb guard [go:d] n oxpana; u oxparrffrb guerrilla [ga'nle] n raprrroaH guide [gardJ n rllqi u Becrrr guiding principles ['gardr4'prrnsrplz] pyKoBoA,E

govern ['gnvan] u yupaBJrarb governor ['g,rvena] z ry6epnarop graceful ['grersful] a uaarqnrrft gradually ['gredjuehl adu nocteuenno

gymnastics [d3rm'nrestIks] n rrrMuacrr4na

H hair [hee] n Borrocbr haircut ['heekrrt] n crprr*cKa hall [hc:l] n salr, rrpuxonca,E hand-copier ['hend'kcpre] n repeuncrrrir

handle ['hrendl] u o6paularsc,x hand-made ['hend,merd] a cAerlaHubrfi aplnuryrc handsome ['hendsem] o rcpacraanfi handwork ['hrendwe:k] n py.rnaa pa6ora handwritten ['hendrrtn] a pyrcouucnr,rfi hang thaq] (hung, hung) u Br{cerb, Belrrarb happen [hepn] u cnyqsr'sst happiness ['hreprms] n cqacrbe harbour ['ho:be] n raBanb hard [ho:d] a raep4rrfi hard-boiled egg ['ho:dbcrld'eg] afiqo BKpyryK) hard work ['ho:d'we:k] yropHan pa6ora hardworking ['ho:d,we:krq] o rpyAorlro6ngbrfi, upra.nencnrrfi

hare [hee] n Basq hantest ['ho:vrst] n

JEcarBa,

ypo*cafi

guild [gild] n rla"lrb4]ts. 'i guilty ['grltr] a BuHoBar gUitar [gr'to:] n rr4rapa .! gun [gm] n rrrcroJrer, rrymKa gunpowder ['grrn,paude] n uopox guy [gar] n uapenb gymnasium [d3tm'nerzjem] n rrlMlracru.recrcIafi aar
420

rrpr1Erlrrrrbl

.i

';

hat [hrt] n rurrffrra hate [hert] u nenanr4Aerr hatred ['hertrtd] n HeHaBI4crb head [hed] z roJroBa; u BosrJraBJrETb headline ['hedlarn] z BarorloBor health [hele] n BAopoBbe health care ['helO,ksa] s.qpaBooxparerrrre healthy ['helOI] o a4oponnft hear [hre] (heard, heard) u c.urrruarr heard [he:d] cu. hear heart [hc:t] n cepAqe heat [hi:t] z rerrrro, Ecapa heating ['hi:tn1] n orotrJleHrre, ororrrrreJlbnaa

cr4creMa
421

heaven [hevn] n ne6e9E Tfl}ICCJIO heavilY ['hevrh] heavy ['hevr] a try ['hevr'rndestn] raxciinar nPo heavY i he@ghog ['hefthcg] n 6xc heel [hi:l] n rrnrxa height [halt] z Bbrcora' Pocr heir [ea] n HacJreAr{rlx heiress ['eens] n HacJreArrraqa held [held] c.rz. hold helmet ['helmtt] n rurreM help [helP] n norvroub; u rroMorarb herd lhe:dl n craAo h"""Ait""y [hl'redrterr] o nacneAcrBerrubrr4 herring ['henr1] n ce;rii4rca

] n ncranaa rrBFoPoAb

hold [hould] (held, held) u Aeptrcarb' rlpoBoAllrb hold back ['hould'bekJ orpatrcarb (nauagenne) holiday ['hcltdl] n upaoAHI4K' KarruxyJrbr hollow ['hclou] a uycrofi; n AYrIJro holy ['houh] a cnatoft homeless ['houmhs] a 6es4orvrnrrft honest ['cnIst] o'recrnsrft honorary ['cneran] a uo'rernsrfi honour ['cne] n qecrb hood [hu:d] n Karrroruou
hope [houP] ,x Ea,qermAa; u rraAeflrbcff hoirible [rhcrebl] o Yxcacxuft horse [hc:s] n Jrorua'qb horseback ['hc:sbrek]: on horseback nepxorvr horse-racing ['hc:s,rersn1] n crcar{Klr

hisher education

itiAiii;d

hdily

['haIlendJ ., BbrcoKoropn'fi; o afi onsr IIIorn an4rar'r cteuenu i'h;il4 ad'u Bbrcoro' B Bbrcoxoft friEtrriav ['harwer] n ruocce hill [hIU n xoJIM n rpfiAa xorIMoB

['harer' eoJu

KeU rU, ItDru

urss

n nr

hilt-range ['lulrernd3] hilly ['hrl] o xolwrucrufr hip [hrP] n 6e4Po hire [hala] u nanrawrarr historian [hl'stc:nen] n ltctoprar tris t oric atiy tht' stcn kehl a du r{cro history ['hrsterr] n trcropvrfi'

horserider ['hc:s,rarde] n BcaAHvK hot [hct] cl ropfftrrafi, xcaPrcrafi however [hau'eve] adu ognaxo tre' rcar 6sr ro rru 6rt.lto huge [hju:ft] 4 orpoMrrsrft human being ['hju:men'bi:r4] n rreJIoBeK humanism [lhjumemzm] n rymanrlsM humanity [hju'mrnrtt] n'renoaeqecrBo humid ['hju:mrd] o snalrnbrfi ho*o"oos 1'hi,.tme.es] o rcrvropracru'recrcnfi humour ['hju:me] n roMop hung [tr,rq] ctvt. hang hunt [h,rnt] u oxorrrrbcfli n oxora hunter ['hrrnte] n oxornrrr hurry ['h^rl] u cuerulrrb husband ['h.r*zband] rL Myrrc hygiene ['hald3i:n] n tvLrLtel*,a hymn [hm] n rIIMH
ice [ars] n il)E idea [ar'drel n ngea
421

rrre crcr4

hit [ht] (hit' hit)

422

u YAaPnrb

ideal [ar'drel] a u4ear,slal;rilr illiterate [I'lrtent] 4 HerpaMotnrrfi illness ['rlnls] n 6oJresur

tl

,t

I
I

'{ ['rl,r,strert] u tlJrJrlocrpl4poBarb .l image ['mrd3] n o6paa n vrwvrra\Ias' rroApa]rcaurre { imitation [,mr'teIJn] immediately [l'mi:djetltf adu HeMeArrenrro ! 4 immoral [r'mcrel] a aMopaJrrnrrfi immoiality [,Ime'rrelttl] z aMopaJrbuocrb immortal [I'mc:tl] a 6eccrvreptnrrfi import ['rmpc:t] n r{Mrropr; u uM[oprr4poBarb' BBoBa, importance [tm'pc:tens] z Ba]rsHocrb important [tm'pc:tent] o nalrnsrfi imported [rm'pc:trd] PP nnosuusrfi impossible [rm'pcsrbl] a neaoarvrolrurrft i]i impossibly [rm'pcslbltl adu rreBosMotftHo impress [Im'pres] u uporroBoArlrb B[errarJrer{ue i { imprison [Im'pnzn] u saKriotlarb B TropbMy I u YJryqurarb improve [rm'pru:v] pp VlWmennrrfi improved.[lm'pru:vdl improvement [lm'pru:vment] n yJryrrrrreur4e lllrPluYsrueu! Lrrrr inclination [,rnklt'neiln] n cxJroHrrocrb include [rn'klu:d] u BrcJrrotrarb income ['rnkem] n AoxoA increase [rn'kri:s] u yBeJrutrrrBarb increasingly [ln'kri: sn:/rrf adu acd 6orlrrrre ra 6onuue indeed [rn'di:d] adu s caMoM AeJre' AeficrsuteJrbHo indented [rn'dentld] PP uspesar independence [,rnda'pendens] n fresaBncrrMocrb i independent [,rndependant] cl rreoaBr4craurrfi independently [,rnde'pendenth] adu EesasuclrMo individual [,rndr'vrdjuel] o rzrnqvBlzqya-nrnrrfi ; n r4rrAlrBl

illustrate

industrialization [rn,d,lstnalar'zerJn] n rrn,qycrprraJrr{sarlr4a lndustrialized I m'd,rstnel atzdl pp up oMbrruJr ennrrft industry [\ndastrr] 4 rpoMbrruJrerruocrb

lnefficiently
TOqHO

[, rne'fi J anthf a du neeQQercrrrBrr

o, HeAocra-

infant school [\nfent'sku:l] urco.ua AJrfl caMbrx MaJrenbxrrx infectious [rn'fekJes] o lrnQercqraonnrrfi, eapaenrrfi inflation [rn'flerJn] n nngr.a:qna influence ['rnfluens] n BJrtrfir.ne influential [.rnflu'en ]al) a nnnsre.rrsnrrfi information [,rnfe'merJn] n unQopmaqun inhabit [m'habrt] u Hacerrarb inhabitant [rn'hebrtent] z o6rnrarenr inherit [m'hent] u HacJreAoBarb inheritor [rn'hente] n HacJregrrnr

)
)

initiative [r'nrJ etrv] n ttntrq*rarrrBa injustice [rn'dgnstrs] n HecnpaBeAJrr{Bocrb inland ['Inlend] o pacnoJroxcennrrfi Bnyrp]t crparrlr innovation [,rne'verJn] z noaoBBeAenr{e insist [rn'srst] u HacranBarb instability [,rnste'brlrtr] n necra6ra;rbnocrb, neycrofiIII4BOCTb

instance ['mstens]: for instance Hanpr{Mep instead of [rn'sted sv] nuecro inspire [rn'spare] u BAoxHoBJrffTb instruction [rn'strnkJn] n uncrpyrcrlr{fi

indivisible [.rndt'vrzlbl] a ne4enraurrfi industrial [rn'dnstnal] a uporvrrrm.nennsrfi industrialist [rn'dlstrrahst] n ilpoMbrruJrenHrrx

424

AYYM, rreJroBeK

instrument ['lnstrumant] z urrcrpyMeHT insurance [rn'Juerens] n crpaxoBaHne integral [\ntegral] a HeorteM.neuufi, oyrqorneHnrrft integral part ['rntegrel'po:t] HeorbcMJtMaF rtRc'n intellectually [,rnte'lektjueh] adu n*TeltJt KT,y u rr bno intelligent [rn'tehd3ent] a paByMHNft interfere [,lnte'fie] u BMeruHBatDot interference [,rnte'fiarens] f,hcTbo international [,rnte'naJnal Hepo7lrr,rft interpret [rn'te:prrt] u nnrepnpTllpEat,l, interrupt [,rnte'vrpt] u npopuaefb

425

pol ;-r-jrt,l'-^l o no6nstfi: ![i"a-[karnd] , go6pufi; n BrrA' PoA

keep [ki:p] (kep!, kept) kept [kePt] cae. keeP key [ki:] n KJrIoq kill tkrll u Y6ranatr

u Aep]Kuttrl

l([rHtsHTE

Ititg[krq]nrtoporlbn KoporleBcrBo Iti"Eab* ['krqdam]

'ktt"e [ni:] n Korrerro knew [nju:f cn' know knife [narfl n Ho'K

EHI4E

iron [aren] n xeleao adv upour4rrecKll

i"""il"Uv

[ar'rcnrkh] island ['allend] n ocrpoB pp usottvrpoBa*r{brr4 [arse'iertrd]

;;l;t"h

,L lluboo"""

lack [lrek]

['lerbere] n pa6otrwrx rlero,, *"*-"ut"a; u rdMerb rreAocrarorluo

nn6Ygr lad flred] n napegb laid tlerdl cru.laY tain [lern] cn.lie

I'

ir
l'
!

last [lo:st] u rpoAoJr)na1b:fl ^['lo s] upounuft

1

i"tirlrJ

K
keen [ki:n] o ocrPufi' tonxraft
426
{

Iatitude ['latrtju:d] n ruupora laugh [lo:fl u cMefirbcfl law [1c:] n saxorr' rpaBo lawful ['lc:ful] cr saKorrrbrr/t
427

ptace

stn'1'pi:

wrrap

lawyer ['lcje] n topncr lay [er] (laid, laid) u Krlacrb, BosJlararb lay [er] cn.lie lay out ( a porh) .paa6znars (naprc ) Iayer ['lere] n crotrt lead [ed] n cBuueq / lead [i:d] (led, led) u Becrrr pyrcoBo4lrreJrb leader- ['li:de] n B-orrcAb, leadership ['li:deJrp] n pyrcoaoAcrao leading principles ['li:drr1'punsrplz] pyKoEoAs

learn [a:n] (learnt, learnt) u yqrrrb, ysnaBarb learned man ['le:rud'mren] yrduufi rIeJroBeK learnt [e:nt] cm.learn least [i:st]: at least uo rpaftneft uepe leather ['le6e] n Korrca leave [i:v] (left, left) u ocraBJrflrb' rrorcr4Aarb, lecture ['lektJe] n Jre:rcwls; u rllrrarb nerqrrro led [ed] ctt..lead left fieft] cn.leave

rrprrEquubr

left fleft] a

ner.sttrt

left-wing fleft'wry] a resbrtrr (o nonr.rrr.recKoM,4Br4u legal ['li:gal] o saxonsbrfi legion ['li:fien] n nrernor legisl ative ['ledgrsl a tw.l a B aK oEoAaretsnrrfi

fe [lafl n rrrraHb Itarll rKrrsHb ft fifi] n nraQr; u rloAnlrMarb Urftl z nla@r; t [att] n cBer; u ocBerqarb ing ['lartrq] z ocaeuleulre ke [atk] u.nro6urr, HpaBurbca ke tlarkl prep r"arc [ark] DreD r"ar" ikely ['larklr] a noxo]Ke mit ['lrmrt] u orpaxuqrrBarb ted ['lrmrt:,df pp orpaur4qesnrrfi [arn] n lr.rnvrs, crpoqKa ['larne] z.nafinep [rqk] n cBEByIouIee eBeuo cub ['laren'krtb] n Jrsstiuor [hst] z currcor ten [hsn] u crryluarb stener ['hsne] n cJryruareJrb teracy ['htaresr] n rpaMorlrocrb iterate ['htent] a rpamotnuft iterature ['htretJa] n ntrreparypa
['loudld] pp Harpyxcennr'rfi al ['loukel] o uecrnrrft ted [lc'kertrd]pp: were located 6srnu pacuoJrotrceubl [ck] n oaMor; u saurlparb locksmith ['lcksmI0] rt cJrecapb logic ['lcdgtk] n JrorI4Ka lonely ['lounh] a o4nnor<uit long-standing ['lcq'strendrq] a Aar.r.uir. look for ['luk fc:] u rlcrcarb look after ['luk o:fte] u rpr4cMarplrBarb, yxa]fiI{Barb loophole ['lu:phoul] n 6oirnn4a, au6paeypa lose [u:z] (lost, lost) u repflrb loss [cs] n rrorep,fi lost [cst] cn. lose
429

ry ['larbrenl n 6n6nnorena [ar] (lay, lain) u rrexcarb

[oud]urpyarrrb;zrpya

legislature ['led3IsleItJa] z BaKoxoAareJrbcrBo leisure ['le3e] n orAbrx, cso6oAnoe BpeMff Iend [lend] (lent, lent) u AaBarb ssafiNrbl length [eq0] n Arruna lent [ent] cu.lend lesser ['lese] a uenrruzfi level ['level] n ypoBeEb liberal ['hberel] a tu6epanrnrrfi liberalism ['hberehzml n nu6eparrlroM liberation flrbe'rerJn] z ocso6o*cAerrue liberty'['hbatr] n cso6o4a
428

lot [ct]: a lot

wrnoro loudly ['laudh] adu rpovrrco lover ['L,rve] n nto6nreJrb, BoaJlro6;rennrrfi low [ou] a law.snuir

low-cost ['lou'kcst] a Aeuriiarrfi lowland ['loulend] n HI{BMeHHocrb low.paid ['louperd] a Hr,tarcoourauvaaeurrfr loyalty ['lcreltr] rL Beprrocrb, rpeAanrioctr luckily ['lzrkrh] adu t< cqacrbK) lungs [,r02] z niirucue M machine [me'Ji:n] n Marrrrrna machinery [ma'Ji:nart] n wrarunnrr made [merd] cm. make magical ['mredgIkel] a nonme6nrrfi magnificent [meg'rufisnt] a BeJlraroJrennrrfi magnifying glass ['mregnIfatrrl'glo:s] yBeJrnq
CTCKJIO

main [meIn] a rJrasHrrfi mainly ['mernh] adu rnasr.rru

o6pasowr

maintain [mern'tetn] u
cocTo,fiHr[rt

noAAep]rcr4Barb, coxpan coAeprrcarb B xopoueM cocrofiHlrpr maintaining [mern'terruq] n coAepxcanr{e B

rnarch [mo:tJ] n troxoA; u ruararb, ilAEDt uepuH marijuana [,men'hwo:na] n Map[xyaHa marine [me'ri:n] o uopcrcofi marked [mo:kt] pp o6oanaveunrrfi, orMeqcHHbtfi market ['mo:krt] n pbrrrox marketplace ['mo:krtplers] n pbrnor marriage ['mrerrd3] n cyupy]KecrBo, ceueftna,s ECnoHb married ['mend] pp )rcenar, BaMy)KeM marry ['mren] u )rcenurbcs, BbrxoAlrrb BaMytK martyr ['mo:te] n Myirenun massive ['mresrv] o NracclrsHrrft master ['mo:ste] n Macrep, xossrarr; u oBJraAerb masterpiece ['mo:stepi:s] n rueAeBp material [me'trenel] n MarepnaJr; a MarepuaJrrnrrfi mathematics [,me0e'mretrks] n MareMarr.rxa matter ['mate] n Marepna mature [me'tjue] o apearrfi maze [merz] z na6rapunr meadow ['medou] n Jryr. meal [mi:l] n eqa, trprreM nr4rr{Lt mean [mi:n] (meant, meant) u nMerb B BrrAy, roApaoyMEBATb

major ['merd3o] a r.nasHBrft majority [ma'dgcntl] n 6onttu4HcrBo make sure ['merk'Jua] y6e4ntrcs make up ['merk'np] (made up, made up) u cocraB.
manage ['mrnId3] u yAaBarbcs

meaning ['mi:nrq] n Buarreuue means [mi:nz] n: by means of npu rroMoultr meant [ment] cM. mean meanwhile ['mi:nwai] adu Me)rcAy reM; reM BpeMeHeM measure ['mege] n Mepa meat [mi:t] n M,flco medical supplies ['medrkel se'plarz] MeArrrILrHcK]re
rrprlHa,qJrelKHocTr4

map [mrep] z rcapta mapmaker ['mrepmerka] n raptorpa$

430

medicine ['medsrn] n Me4:,z.\lr.rra; JrerapcrBo medieval [.medr'i:vel] a cpe4neserosrrfi meet [mi:t] (met, met) u Bcrperrarb member ['membe] n qJren memory ['mem-en] n rraMflTb mention ['menJn] u yrroMrruarb
411

merchant ['me:tJent] n Kyreq merciless ['ma:sllrs] a 6esfr<a:locrnlrfi merry ['merr] a r,ecerrrfi. met [met] cn. meet metal ['metel] z MeraJrJr method ['meOed] n MeroA mice [mus] ci]t. mouse middle [mtdl] n cepe4vrll.a middle class ['mIdl'klo:s] cpeguufi Krracc midnight ['mrdnalt] n rroJruotlb might [mart] n MoIrIb mighty ['maItr] a rvrorqnrrft mild [marld] a msrrcraft military ['mrlrten] a soeHHrrfi milk [mIlk] n MorIoKo mince pies ['mlns'parz] cJraAKne rrr4po]rcrctr c raa Qpyxron mind [marnd] n YM mine [marn] n fir.axra; u 4o6rrnatr (uto-nu6ygr us'

mix with ['mrks wr6] crvrerur{Barbc,H c mixed forest ['mrkst'fcnst] crvreruannrrri .nec mixture ['mrkstJe] n cMecb moat [mout] n poB

modern ['mcden] o coBpeMenHmil modest ['mcdrst] a cnpounuft rnodification [,mcdrfi'kerJn] R naoTlr.rtlr]rxarlufi, Br4Ao}ISMEHCHrIE

moisture ['mcrstJe] n BJrara mole [moul] n Kpor monarch ['mcnek] n Mouapx monarchy ['mcnekr] n Mouapxutr monastery ['mcnestan] n uouacrrilph money ['m,rnr] n Aerrbrrr monk ['mnqk] n Monax monopoly [me'ncpch] n MoHonorrfl monument ['mcnjument] z rraMf,Tutlt( moon [mu:n] n Jrylaa
rl
{t

miner ['marne] n uraxrep mineral resources ['mtnerel n'sc:srz] rroJreoHbre

IIAEMbIE

eervrrnr)

racnQ
t

miniature ['mmjatie] n MnHr4arropa minimal ['mrnlmsl] a v'vr:rvrmanrnrrfi minister ['mrnrste] n MrrHLtcrP minor ['marne] 4 MeHbrul4it, rtanr;ttr minstrel ['mrnstrel] n MeHecrpeJrb miraculous [mr'rrekjules] a uy4ecnrrfi mirror ['mIre] n seprcaJro

miserable ['mlzerebl] a Hec'ractnrrfi Hecrracrbe misery ['mIz

misfortune missionary
$2

eyAarra cr'rouep mistake [mrs'terk] n onru6rta mistletoe ['mlsltou] n oMerra

moor [mue] n [ycrbrura^fi MecrHocrt nopooulaff mop [mcp] n mna6pa rnoral ['mcrel] a uopa.nurrrfi mortal ['mc:tel] a crreprnrrft mostly ['mousth] adu 6otrcllteft qact'r,K) motherland ['ml6alend] n poArrna motor-bike ['moutebark] n Mororl]rnJr motor-car ['mouteko:] n Marrrlrua motor-cycle ['moutesatkl] n MoroqurcJr mountain ['mauntin] n ropa mountainous ['mauntrnes] a ropracrr,til mourn [mc:n] u orJraxnBarb mouse [maus] (nn. y. mice) Mbrrub moustache [rne'sto:J] n ycbr mouth [mau0] n ycrbe move [mu:v] u ABrrrarbca movement ['mu:vment] n gnuxcenne MP ['em'pi:] vaen rapJraMeuTa

BepecICoM

{tl

multiply [?nalfiplad u yBeJrurrrrBarb murder ['ma:de] u y6ur,arr;, n yduircrro

music ['mju:zrk] n MyBbIKa musical ['mju:srkl] n MK)BrrKJr musician [mju'zdn] n Mysbrxaur mystery ['mtsten] n rairla'a N

mud [mrrd] n rpaer

noble [noubl] a 6naropo4nrrfi; n ABopnHr,rH noise [ncrz] n ruyM nonconformist ['ncnken'fc:mrst] a nonroneopurncrcrnft
ta

nobility [nou'brlrtr] n BHarb

neutron ['nju:tren] n nefitpon newly ['nju:h] adu nll.or;r news [nju:z] n HoBocru nickname ['ruknerm] lz upoaBrarrle nightfall ['nartfc:l] n HacryrrrreHrre Horrr{

nail [nerl] n rBoBAb narrator [ne'rette] n paccKaarrtTr

pacKonbuz.recxrafi non-true to life ['ncn'tru:ta'larfl nepea.nrurrfi, Herftr4g-

nennrrfi

nationalized

['neJ nelarzdJ p p Ha\norraJl r4orrpoB aHH

naval ['nerval] a BoeuHo-rvropcxofi navigable ['nrevIgsbl] a AocryrrHrrfi 4"ua HaBlTraqnn navy ['nervr] n Boerruo-rvrop6xofi Snot nearby ['mebar] adu to1nr{Bocrlt , ,t nearly ['nreh] adu toqrla necessary ['nesesn] a neo6xoAraurrfi necklace ['nekhs] n oxcepeJrbe need [ni:d] n Ey]r'Aai u Hyrrcgarbcn negative ['negetrv] o orpr{qatelrnsrfi neighbour ['nerbe] n coce4 neighbouring ['nelbanrll a coceAcxufi nephew ['nevju:] n rrJreMsHHr{K nest [nest] z rnee4o; u rlreoAvtrbcfi, crpours rni! network ['netwe:k] n cerb neutral ['nju:trel] a nefirpa.nrsrrfi neutralize ['nju:helavl u nefirpaauaoBarb
!
:

noticeable ['noutisebl] a sarvrerurrft novel ['ncvel] n poMarr novelist ['ncvehst] n poManlrcr nowadays ['nauederz] adu s Harue BpeMff nuclear ['nju:khe] a a4epnrrfi number ['nrmbe] n 'tvlcJro, HoMep; u Hacru4TbrBarb numerous ['nju:meres] a lrnorosrac"uennrrfi nurse [ne:s] n lafilafi-, MeArtqraucraff cecrpa; u yxa]KrrBarb Ba 6orgrrrrrvrz oak [ouk] n Ay6 oats [outs] n onec obedience [e'bi:djens] n rocrryru anere obey [e'ber] u cnyruarbcs observation [.cbze'v et[n) n na6.rrro4erure observe [eb'se:v] u na6nro4arr observer [eb'se:ve] n nadnrogareJrb obvious ['cbvres] a ouenz4nrrfi occupation [,ckju'pelnf n saHfirrae, orrcyrraqr{E occupy ['ckjupar] u saHr4Marb, oKryrrr/rpoBarb
19s

north [nc:O] n. ceBep north-western ['nc:0'westen] a ceBepo-aaua4nrrfi Northwest ['nc:0west] o ceaepo-sana4nrrfi

434

occur [a'ke:] u cJryqarbcff, [poucxoArrrb ocean [ouJn] n orcean ocear,ic climate [ouJr'anrk'klarmrt] oKeanrqecK[
KJII{MAT

ilI

offend [e'fend] u o6vtrats offer ['cfe] u upeAJlararb; n upeAJlo]rcenlre

li offic-er ['cfisp] z o@ur1ep, qrrHoBHr{K rruqc official [a'fiJalJ a o$zqranrnrrfi; n o@w4vra:l.bnoe lr officially [a'fiJeh] adu o@uglrarrbuo often lcfnf adu qacro r' ota-faihioned ['ould'freJnd] a ctapomo4nrrfi open [oupn] o ornpbrrurit; u ornpblBarb" open-air ['oupn'ee] a Ha orrcpbrroM BosAyxe r openly ['oupnh] adu otxPuto opera ['cpra] n orlepa
I

r. operation [,cpe'rerJn] n orepaqvfl I opinion [a'prnjen] n Mrreur.Ie i opium ['oupram] n ouuyM opportunity [,cpe'du:rutl] tt BoaMo)rcnocrb' rrp.{cr&r susrufifica c.n5nrafi oppose [e'pouz] u rporrrBocroffrb opposed [e'pouzd]: be opposed to 6utr nporllB opposite ['cpezrt] rl rporrrgononoxcnrrft opposition [.cpe'zIJn] n onnoeerrytfi. oppress [o'pres] u" npfirecHffrb oppression [e'preJn] n fipvrrecneHrle oppressor [a'prese] n yruerareJlb' rrpr{TecHureJrb orangery ['cnnd3err] z opan]rcepe,fl orchard ['c:tJad] z Spyrcronrrfi ca4 order ['c:da] u [purKaabrBarb, SaKasbrBarb; n rrpraKaSt

organize ['c:genaz] u opraHrrsoBbrBarb origin ['cnd3rn] n rpoucxo)rcAenue original [e'ndgrnel] a opzrwnatrcurrfi , nepRoHaqa.nts utfi originally I a'ndgrnah] adu opulrHaJrbHo, IrepBouaq aJ b Ho originate [e'ndgrnert] u npozcxoArrrb orthodox ['c:Oedcks] o rpaBocrrasrrrft otherwise [',r6ewarz] adu unarae otter ['cte] z BbrApa outbreak ['autbrerk] n Bcrrblrurca outlet ['autlet] n BbrxoA outnumber [aut'nrmbe] u upeBocxoAI4Tb trrrcJroM outpost ['autpoust] n aBanrrocr outside ['autsard] adu nlae, cHapy)rcer, Hapyxcy outskirts ['autske:ts] n rpeAMecrbfl outstanding [aut'standr4] a BbrAaroquiltca oven [rrvn] n AyxoBKa overboard ['ouvebc:d] adu sa 6opr, aa 6oprou overcrowded [ouve'kraudld] a [eperroJrnennrrfi overhang [ouve'heq] (overhung, overhung) u HetftFE overhung [ouve'hrrq] c"u. overhang overlook [ouva'luk] u BbrxoAr{rb oHHaMn Ha, r'ocrlopO?F
BaTb HaA

overnight [ouve'nart] adu wa Hoqb overseas [ouve'si:z] a aavropcrcrafi overthrew [ouve'Oru:] cu. overthrow
cBeprHyTb

overthrow [ouve'Orou] (overthrew, overthrOtEl

overthrown [ouve'Oroun] c",2. overthrow owing to ['oulq te] 6naro4ap,fl, ero-Ba, BcJreAcTllF own [oun] a co6crsenxrrfi; u BJraAerb ownership ['ounaJrp] n nna4enze
P

ordinary ['c:dnerr] o o6rr'rHrrfi, o6rrruoseumrfi ore [c:] n pyqa organ ['c:gen] n opraH t organization [,c:genar'zerJn] n opraur{aarll'Ia
436

in order AJrff Toro qro6rr

3aKa3

pagan ['pergen] n .sobrrrHtrK page [perft] n crpaHrrqa, ra]K paid [perdl cn. pay
{r7

pain [pernl n 6onr painful ['pernful] a 6o.neanennrrfi paint [pemt] u Kpacr4Tb, rrncarb KpacKaMrl| painter ['pernte] n xyAo)rcurrr painting ['perntr4] n ]xvrr,ortucb, Kaprur{a palace ['prehs] n ABopeq paradise ['peredars] n pafi i n po4nrerrkr z ti"p*o"nufi upraxo4 iarish t'pir"ll parliament ['po:lement] z napnaMeur parliamentarian [,po:lemen'teensn] @ rapJraMe
parents
['pee"rents]

I
,,1

pardbn [po:dn] u uporqarb; n uporqeurre, uuAyJrbrerrrlr4

';
,l

parliamentary monarchy [,po:1e'menterr'mcnakr] rapJr MeHTapHaA MOIIapxI{,fl parrot ['paret] n nouyrafi part [po:t] n \acrb; u paccraBarbc,E particular [pa'trkjula] o oco6exnrrfi

in particular n oco6ennocru particularly [pa'tikjulalrl adu ocg6enxo partly ['po:tlr] adu ';,acruqla.o partner ['po:tne] z uaprniip party ['po:tr] n uaprun

pass [po:s] u npoxoArrrb MvrMo, nepeAaBarb pass a bill ['po:s e'brl] upraruaMarb BaKoHorpoeKT ,,r pass a law ['po:s e'lc:] npraru4Marb BaKoH passage ['presrd3] n upoxoA passenger ['presrndge] n naccamzp i passer-by ['po:se'bar] z upoxoxcufi passion [pre.|n] n crpacrb pastime ['po:starm] n rrplasruoe BpeMfirr pasture ['p-o:stJe] n nacrl:rrrrre patch tpiijt ,'iunoar^; KrroqoK, ne6o.nrruofi y.racto
,v

SEMJII4

patron ['pertren] n rorpoBrrreJrb pattern ['preten] n yoop pay [per] (paid, paid) u rJrarLrrb
438

payment ['perment] n firara peace [pi:s] n uup peaceful ['pi:sful] a urapnrrfi peak [pi:k] n trvrr, Beprurinapear [pee] n rpyrua peasant [peznt] n Kpecrb,flnr{H peer [pre] n rep penetrate ['pemtrert] u upoHrrxarb peninsula [pe'mnsjule] z uonyocrpoB penny [penr] n rreHHrI people [pi:pl] nroArr per cent [pe'sent] npoqenr perform [pa'fc:m] u [peAcraBJrffTb, craB]rrb cue*Ta*Jrb performance [pe'fc:mens] n npeAcraBJreH]re, c[eKTaKJIb period ['plened] n repr4oA perish ['p"nj] u nortr6arr permisiiot 1p"'-rJtr] n paspeurerrrae persecute ['pe:sekjut] u upecJreAoBarb person [pe:sn] n Jrrrrruocrb, rIeJroBeK personal [pe:snel] a :nusttritir persuade [pe'swerd] u yroBopr4ts, y6eAurr philosopher [fi'lcsefe] n $rnocoQ philosophy [fi'lcsafi] z Qra.nocoQraa physical ['fizrkl] a Qusu.re cxuir. physics ['fizrks] n Suelz,xa picnic ['ptkmk] rL rrrrKHLtK pi"t o"e-"'-que [, pIktJe'resk] .o xczsonucuhlft piece [pi:s] n KycoK pierce [pres] u uponrrxarb, rrpouaarb pig [prg] n cBnnbn pigsty ['pIgstaI] n cBrrHaprrLTK pilgrim ['prlgnm] n nrarrrrrprrM pil grima ge ['prlgrrm fi3f n rraJroMrrrlrlecrB o

pilot

['parlet] n fivrnror, pin [pm] z 6ynanrca pine [parn] z cocna

JroqMaH

479

pirate ['parertt] n fivpa't

place [plers] rL Mecro; u roMelrlarb plague [pletg] n rlyMa plain [pleIn] n paBllvllaa planet ['plemt] n rJlanera plant [plo:nt] n pacrerrze; u ca]rcarb itantaTion 1plren'terin] n n.nanrarrlrn play [pleI] u urparb; n rbeca playwright ['plelrart] n ApaMaryplr pleasant [pleznt] a upraatnufi pleasure ['plege] n yAoBoJrbcrBrle plot [plct] n BaMbrcen (ponarua), aaronop plough [plau] u raxarb ploughman ['plaumen] n naxaPr plum [pl,rm] n clrvrBa pocket ['pcktt] n KaPMaH poet ['poult] z noat poetry ['portrl] n fioesvfl. point [pcInt] n Mecro, roqKa; u yxaobrBarb pole [poul] n urect, rroJlroc police [pe'li:s] n fionrvfi\ns. policy ['pchsr] n fiorrvrrvrna political [pe'lrtrkel] a nolrvrrvrrecKnfi politically [pe'lrtrkeltl a du rrorlt4 rllqecK I4 politician [,pch'tlJn] n fiolrvrrvrn

pqrtrait ['pc:tnt] n nol)rpor

aTh

E, llilJlft*FEitts
HHF

postag potato povert

possibility [.pcsr,brrrtr] r r,J;[Hflil,,l.= possible ['pcsrbl] a BosMonrHhtH-'-="' post [poust] z nocr, uort,t.6 1io-"Tluto'lJfttllHr' H'=ii'rFiFrrrr.E,,,/rr,r uzf n Hu;l,r,,lttralte n Hr/rule't,il

politics ['pclrtrks] n rtorrvrrvLna polytheistic [,pch0i:'rstrk] a rrorlr4relr cruuecwtrir, eepaqzft Bo Muorrax 6oron poor [puef a 6egurlir
pop ['pcp'krltJe] non KyJrbrypa "otto"e poppy ['pcpl] z MaK popular ['pcpjule] o roryrrnpnrrfi popularity [,pcpju'lantr] n rloryJlffpxocrb population [,pcpju'ledn] z HaceJreurde port [pc:t] n^ropr portion [pc:Jn] n nopqI,IE
440

power [paue] n cvrra, BJrnel,b powerful [,paueful],a clrJn,uutfl, Hfelr*tHH F,lr.t l, practical_ ['praktrkl] trpn rtrrr r,boiri _o_ I practical_ly ['prektrklfl ad u trpailTHqEF*H practic_e [,prrektrs] n frpaK't,trKai u npg=_HtsHa rr,r_rr "l praise [prerz] u xBaJrrrrb pray [prer] u MoJrr.rrbcff prayer ['prere] rL MoJrLrrBa preach [pri:tJ] u rporoBeAonn,t,h predict {pn'drkt] u rpeAcKa0r,t nfl,rF predominalce [prr'dcmrnorrs] n lrlteo6lagFHHe prefer [prr'fa:] u [peAnoqr/rrll,r,l, prehis_toric [.prrhr stcrrk] a Aorr(:,t,ollHrtFFFHH prejudice ['pred3adrs] n npe41lr,,,,,yti,,o' *"" prepare [pn'pee] u roroBrrrb presence ['prezens] rL [p]rcyreTnHe present [,prezant] a rprrcyrcrnytoulltHr H]ilHEtfi Hii*i present [_pn'zent] D Aapprrb, npo/l,niu,,at,u present_day [,preznt,der] o ""i,,uinn,,H, o,l,Hrtr,elnititr K HaruI4M AHfiM preserve [prr'ze:v] u coxpaHffTr) press [pres] r? upecca pretext [pn'tekst] n rpeAJror prevail [prr'vell] u rpeo6rraAarb prevailing [prr'velhq] a upeo6la4nrorrlrrfl

rr

{{t

priest[pri:st]n cB,firrlerrHr{K .. primary ['prarman] a rrepBurrurtfi, na.ra.nsnufi -educati-o'n primary ['prarmerr.edju'kerJn] naua
o6paaouanrae

prevalence ['prevelens] z upeo6.ua4arrlre prevent [pn'vent] u upeAorBpaularb, He AaBarb rrer larr.6ygs cJrytrrlrbcfi previously ['pri:vreslt'l adu npeABapureJrbno price [prars] n qeua pride [prard] z ropAocrb

profitable ['prcfitebl] o BbrroAnbrfi

..
r,,ilr,o

.]

prime minister ['prarm'mrnrste] npeubep-Mnuucrp primitive ['pnmrtrv] o rrp]rMrrrrarnrrfi, nepno6srrnu prince [pnns] ,x upuuq princess [pnn'ses] n rp?rnqecca principle ['pnnsrpl] n nprrnqr(n print [pnnt] u reqararb printing ['prrntrq] n Kn]rrorreqaraHLre prison [pnzn] z rropbMa prisoner ['pnzna] n fiJrela,nvtK, BarcJTr)rrdnnrrfi B Tropr private ['prarvrt] a .ractnrrfi privately ['prarvrtlr] adu s.acrla.uu o6paeou t

b; z o6eqaHne promote [pre'mout] u cuoco6crBoBarb, coAeftorloElrb pronunciation [pre,nrrnsr'erJn] n upo]rarrorueurre proor 1pru:tJ n AorcaaareJrbcrBo proper.['p_rcpe] o 4onxcurrfi no4o6aroqufi , property ['prcpatr] n co6crseHnocrb propose [pre'pouz] u npeAJrararb proprietor_[pre'prarete] n nnageJreq prosecute ['prcsrkju:t] u, nnecne4oBaTb ro sanoHy [.prcsr'kju:Jn] n cy4e6noe upecrreAoBaur{e llosecu!.ion. prosperity [pre'sperrtr] z upoqrerarrue oqnerarorquft
E

Aaroqrlftcfi

ll

, ,,rrt

aHa, Sarrlr4Ta

prove [pru:v] u AorcaobrBarb

privileged['pnvrhdgdfppnpuwrrrernpoBannrrfi prize [praz] n llp:as

probably ['prcbebh] adv sepoarno procedure [pra'si:dge] n npoqeAypa process ['prouses] n rpoqecc irocession lptr'siJnl z upoqeccrrn proclaim [prs'klerm] u npoBoorJraruarb produce [pra'dju:s] u rpor{BBo4nrbi n rrpo4yxr producer [pre'dju:se] n uporroBoAr{reJrb

i
I ,r ;
r

i
, ',

pudding ['pudrq] n rry1vrnt pull [pul] u raIqr{rb

professor [pre'fese] z upoQeccop profit ['prcfit] n BbrroAa

442

qurify ['pjuerrfar] u oquqarr Puritanism ['pjueutenrzm] n ilypvrrarrcrBo purpose ['pe:pes] z rleJrb pursue [pe'sju:] u npecJreAoBarb (qeas),

BaHr,rMarbca

44)

IICM-JIU6O

ran [rrn] crl. rln rang [rren] cM. trtrg

range [reInd3] n xpe6ct' rapid ['reprd] a 6trcrlrt't ll rapidly ['raprdk] adD 6r,rc't'1xt rare [reeJ a pe1xvrir. raspberries ['ro:zbartz] n mtt"rt u nn rat [ret] n Kpblca rather ['ro:6a] odu 4ono.rlt,utt
paqr4oHa

rather than ['ro:da 6en] t:lcopon 'tHM rationing ['rreJanrq] n pacupo/llriltllF,

FE Frir--tr

rlri

rIr,Irr!1

queen [kwi:n] n KoPoJIeBa .. o="i"t [l*aret1 a cnoxoftnrtft' rnxuir quietly ['kwaieth] adu cnor<oftno' rl4xo R

rabbit ['rcbrt] n KPoTIIIK

race [rers] ! Paca racial ['relJel] 4 PacoBbII{ radical ['raedlkel] a pa4vr"aJrbr{brlr radicaliim ['rredrkalzm] n pa4urcarrnIsM

ravine [re'vi:n] rL oBpar raw [rc:] a crrpofi ray [rer] n.Jlyrr reach [ri:tJ] u Aocrvtarb readily ['redrh] adu c loroBll(x:'l,hrl ready ['redr] a roroB real [rrel] o peaJlbublft, nactocttlHH realistically [ne'hstrkeh] adu pF n]tGTHaHH realize ['rrelarz] u fronrtMarb, l)HJnlEltaa+E really ['neh] adu geft.craureJrr,Ho reappear [.rre'pra] u BHoBb rronHJtrltbeE reason [ri:zn] n [prqrrHa, pnryM rebel [n'bel] u BoccraBarb rebel [rebl] n rloBcraHeq rebuild [,rr'brld] (rebuilt, rclrrrlltl tr FHEG ] il,r,11sp,
IIepecTparrBaT6

BATOH

""ii*"V n 4ox4r rain [rem]

t"acks ['retlwer'traks]

rebuilt [,rr'bIlt] c'v. rebuild ryrtl recall [,rr'kc:l] u BcrIoMI4HarL ]r(eJIeBHoAopo]rcubre

rainbow ['rernbou] n PaAYra rainfall ['relnfc:l] ru ocaAKIa rainY ['rernr] o Ao]r(AJrrrBbr]1 raise [rerz] u roAHI4Marb raisins f'revtnzl a vrsrou
444

receive [rr'si:v] u rroJryrrarb, npnHHHef recent [ri:snt] a ueqanlauft. recite [n'sart] u AeKJIaMupoBn'r'r, recognition [,rekag'nrJn] n npHlHHIH recognize ['rekegnalz] u yanann't'br 6FHEEEEi] reconsider [,rtken'slde] u nepc(!MH,t'pHEgtE
{{=

reconstruction [.rrkan'strrkjn] z uepectpofixa' crpyKrllrfl rec-;;; Gl'knve] u ronpa rJrsrbc'fl (uocae 6oneanu) ' (noc;re 6o1"T1]--,-: [n'krven] " o-ottp""*a (4o6posorlbqeB B apMIrI """o"""V ;;;;"it in''kru:tl u nalupars reduce [rI'dju:s] q YMeHbruarb r"a""tio" in'drtkin] n yMerrbrrrer{rae refer to [rffa: te] ccrr'narbcfi Ha' roBopltr o reform [itfc:m] peq'opu'', v PvtryvvLtL'L]'vvs.v retorm lrl'fc:ml n peQopua; u pe$opMrrpoBarb reformer [n'fc:me] n PeQoPuaroP refugee [,iefiufii:] z 6erneq, 6exeneq refuse [n'fiu:z] u orxa3brBarbca BHoBb ;a;; tiigtt"i, rroJr)^rlrrb o6parno'ctrurarbupzo6pec reeard [rr'qo:d] u paccMarprrBarb'
'1

remark [n'mo:k] n BaMeqaufiei u cAeJrarb saMerrarrrde remarkable [n'mo :kabl] o aarvre'rare.nsnrrfi remember [n'membe] u uouultrb, BcrIoMrrHaTb remembrance [rr'membrens] n rraMETb, BocrroMragagr4e remind [n'marnd] u HanoMlrHarb remote [n'mout] o ot4antlnnrrfi

remove [n'mu:v] u y6rapatr renaissance [rr'nersens] n peueccaHc renewal [n'njual] n o6trosneune rent [rent] z penta; u 6parb r{auporcar, cguMarb
( rcaapmupy

reorganize [rI'c:genaz] u peoprarrrrooBarb repair [rt'pee] u qurrr{Tb' peMorrrrrpoBaTb replace [n'plers] u [epeMerrlarb, saMenffTb reply [n'plat] n orBer; u orBerlarb report [rI'pc:t] n AoKJIaA; u AoKJraAbIBarb, coo6rqarr reporter [n'pc:te] z penoPrtiP

reporting [rr'pc:trq] n sanfiTvtfi peuoprdpcnrrM

TEJIEM

represent [,repn'zent] u npeAcraBJrflTb, 6srts upeAcraBn

AeJroM
-

reject [n'd3ekt] u orKaabrBarbc'fi rejoice [rr'd3crs] u PaAoBarbc'E reiatedln'lertrd]: be related rrMerb orr{ourenlle'
poAcrBeHHbrM

relations [rr'lelJnz].n orHotueuuff relationship [rr'lerJnJrp] n otnoruerrr4n

relieve [rili:v] u o6ner''rats religion [rr'hd3en] n pertttvrfi' religious [rr'hd3es] a perultvtoBrrbrrr reload [n'loud] u BHoBb Harpy]rcarb remain [rr'mern] u ocraBarbcn remains [n'mernz] n ocrarrclt
446

representation [,repnzen'tedn] n rpeAcTaBl'rrerrLcrBo representative [,reprr'zentatrv] z upeAcraBlrreJrb reptile ['reptarl] n perrraJrtrff , npecMbrnarouleecff republic [rfp,r,bhk] z pecuy6.nnrca republican [rr'prrbhke.n] a pecny6nurcanocuft reputation [,repju'terjn] t penyraqrrn rescue ['reskju:]-u cuacarb; n cnacelrrle research [n'se:tJ] u ]rccJreAoBarb; n rrccJreAoBaglre residence ['readans] n pesvAerrqr'rfi resign [rr'zaIn] u yxoArlTb B orcraBKy resignation [,rezlg'neIJn] n yxoA B orcraBrcy resistance [rr'zrstens] n conporrrBJleHl'Ie resort [rr'zc:t] n Kypopr , respect [n'spekt] n yBa)rceuuei v yBatrcaTb respected'[u'spektrd] pp yBarraeMblfi responsibility [rrs,pcnsr'bIhtI] n orloTorlonuoerb
447

responsible [rrs'pcnsrbl] a orBercrBennrrfi rest [rest] tl. orAbrx the rest ocraJrbnoe, ocraJrbHble restaurant ['restrol] n pecropan restoration-J,restaii"rjnl, p-""ta"puql4a, Boccran,

restore [n'stc:] u BoccranaBJlrBarb . restrictibn [ristrrkJn] n orpannqenr{e result [n'zrrlt] n peayJrbrar; u rrMerb pesyasratour',,, retain [n'tem] u coxpanflTb, yAepxcrrBarb ij retire [rr'tare] u yAaJrnrbctr or AeJr retreat [n'tri:t] u orcryrarbi n orcryrJrerrue reunion [n'ju:nren] n BoccoeAr4neur,re revenge [n'venft] n Mecrb reverse [n've:s] u nepeBepnyrb revive [rr'varv] u oxcrlBrrrb, Beprryrb K ]rcrdgnrl revolt [rr'voult] u Bo:ccrarb; n Boccranlre revolution [,reve'lu:Jn] z .peBoJrroq.n,ff revolutiott""y 1,reve;lu:Jnerl a peBorlloquonnrrfi;
peBoJrroquoHep

JICHT{E

return [n'te:n]

nz

in return BsaMerr

axtu.recxufi
EEI{E

oauufi, neoriicannsrfi
uJroxa.E uoroAa (aerperraa, KapyceJrb

rich [rrtJ] a 6orar:';rir ridden [rrdn] cm. ride ride [rard] (rode, ridden) u exarb, exarb BepxoM ridge [nfi] z Kpnnc, xpe6er right lrattf a upaurrfi; n rpaBo rightly ['rartlr] adu npannJrbno, rro npaBy right-wing ['rart'wn1] a npaarrfi (o rroJrr{rrrtrec$ ring [nq] (rang, rung) u BBoHrrrb riot'['raretf n 6ynr rioter ['rarete] n 6yxronrqrarc
448

revolutionize [,rive'lu:Jnarz] u revolve [rr'voulv] u Bparrlarbcfl reward [rr'wc:d] n HarpaAa ribbon ['uben] n rreula

e6uas JroAKa

u
4.ff BJIaCTb, riJIeHbI KOpOJIeB_

4nuncenura)

449

rule [ru:l] u y[paBJrflTbi n rrpaBJreurle' rrpaBrlJro ruler ['ru:la] n upaBlrreJrb ruling class ['ru:lrr1'klo:s] npanaulnfi rnacc run [rnn] (ran, run) u 6eram run races ['rrrn'rersrz] 6erarr Ha[eperor{Kr, rung [rnr1] caa. ring rural ['ru:rel] a ce:ntct<lait
rush [rnJ] u Mqarbca rye [rar] n potrcb

scatter ['sketa] u pae6pacbrBarb scene [si:n] n crleHa scenery ['si:nerr] n orpyrrarorqzfi Br{A, TearpaJrbnaff
science ['salans] n lnayna scientific [,saran'fifik] o nayrnsrft scientist ['sarentrst] n 5nrdnrrfi scooter ['sku:te] n MoropoJrJrep scrub [skrnb] u crcpecrr4 scurvy ['ske:vr] n quura sea [si:] tL Mope seaman ['si:man] lz MopffK search [se:tJ] n; in search of s uozcnax sea-robber ['si:,rcbe] n rvropcxofi paa6ofinzx seashore ['si:Jc:] tx Mopcnoft 6eper seat [si:t] n Mecro, Mecrorpe6rrnanr,re secondary education ['selenderr,edju'kerJn] cpeArree o6paeonauze secret ['si:krt] z cerper; a cercpernrrfi sect [sekt] n cercra secure [se'kjue] a 6eaonacnrrfi; u o6eeouacurr seem [si:m] u Kaaarbcfl seize [si:z] u cxBarrrrb seldom ['seldam] adu pegxo selection [sr'lekJn] z or6op self-confident ['selfkcnfident] a yBepenusrfi s ce6e self-government.['self g,rvenment] cannoyrpaBJreHr.re selfishness ['selfiJnrs] z ero.ueu self-made man ['selfmerd'men] rreJroBeK, go6untrl;mirca yc[exa cBoraMlr co6ctseuHbrMtr crtJraMr4 self-respect ['self rr'spekt] n yBarrcenrae rc ce6e sell [sel] (sold, sold) u npoAaBarb semi-circle ['semr'se:kl] n roJryrpyr send [send] (sent, sent) u nocbrJrarb sender ['sende] n ror, KTo nocbrJraer
451

scholar ['skcle] z yvdnsrfi

AeKOpaqrrff

sacred ['serkrrd] a caaulennsrfi sacrifice ['sekrlfars] n lrceprBa; u trprlrrocr4rb saddle [saedl] n ceqrro safe [serfl a 6eaonacsbrfi safety ['selftr] n 6esonacnocrb sail [serl] u rrJraBarb sailor ['seIle] n MoPflK

saint [sernt] n cr,srofr' sale [serl] n PacrpoAarrca

salesman ['serlzmen] n roproBeq' upoAaBeq salt [sc:lt] n colrb salute [se'lu:t] u orAaBarb caJrror sandals ['srndelz] n cala4alrlnvr sandy ['srendr] o uec'ranrrfi sang [srq] ctw. sing sank [sreqk] c.re. sink satirical [se'trnkel] a carlaplz.vecrcnfi satisfied ['sretlsfard] pp yryoBrrernopdnnrrfi sauerkraut ['sauekraut] n rcnclaff Kanycra save [sew] u cnacatr save money ['serv'mnnt] rconurb AeHbrrl scale [skerl] n ;lr.acvtr.a6 scarce [skees] a Pegxvrir scare [skee] u ryrarb scarlet ['sko:ht] a alnr;ttr
450

senior ['si:nre] a crapnfirvr sense [sens] n rryBcrBo sent [sent] cz. send settt"ttce ['sentans] n upeAJroxceur4e ; v Epl{roBaprrBarb
Tb
VT

shin ship ship

u
e

rl

'rl rcopa6necrpor-

eniinnrtft
beSHO

\,

serpent ['se:Pant] n sMea servant ['se:vent] n cJryra serve [se:v] u cJryltcllTb service ['se:vls] n er.Ytx6a set [set] (set, set) u ycranaBJruBarb set out ['set'aut] orrrpaBJlfiTbcfi set up ['set'rrp] ycrar{aBJlrrBarb u-y"rpa"Barbca, o6ocnosHBarbca' ."ttr"
SaceJLfiTb' IloceJlff Tbcff settlement ['sethnant] n nocdlon' saceJlenrre

MafaBLIHa

irltr]

settler ['setle] n rocerrerreq

severe [sr'vre] o caraPenufi

JrrrSaqr4a

) u rPacur' Kaqarb' Apo)fiarb

Pnrrfi, uoctrr4nrrft
AOJIff

nuir

sickness ['srknrs] n 6o.neanr side [sard] n 6orc, cropoua side by side ['sard bar'sard] 6ox-o.6eH sigh [saI] u BoAbrxarb sight [saIt] n BnA, Bpenrae sightseer ['sart.si:e] n ror, Kro ocMafpnFe*
MEqATEJIbIIOCTIT

HHF

t.rr

!il

] z onqeroAcrBo rrbfl ruKypa

KpbrBaTbcff

faTb
452

sign [sarn] n uo4nracbrBarb signal turret ['slgnal't,rret] crnrna.nsHFF EgE| significance [srg'nrfikens] n BHarreH*E silent ['sarlent] d MoJrlraJrIanHfi, rnrEl silver ['srlve] n cepe6po similar ['srrnrle] o roxox(rrfi, rarofi f,
{?1

similarly ['srmrleh] adu uoxo'tclrM

o6paaowr

simple [srmPl] 4 rrpocro sin [sln] n rpex since [srns] PreP c sincerity [srn'srentt] n ucrpeHuocrb sinful ['srnful] o rpexoBnbrn sing tsiql (sang, sung) u rlerb. o4rarounu# single [srrgl] " "ii"Zl"euurtfi' vtqrv Ko Ar{y' ro ti"t-fttttiisank, sunk) u roHyrb'

site [sart] n Mecro' Mecronaxo]+cAerr]re pacrorro*ceu

)Karbcfi

rito.t"a

['srtjuertr{l pp ;il;i""' l.srtju'etJnj n pacttono)$euue' cr4ryaqlrn size Isarz] n "PaBMeP tf."1.ft tstetJi n cnertl' na6pocox skilful ['skrlful] a vrcwycubrvL skilfullY ['skrlfuh] adu ucxYcno skills [skrlz] n :u.aBbrrvr' yMeHr4s sky [skar] n se6o slave [slerv] n Pa6 tl".n"ry ['slervarr] n Pa6crno sledge [slerft] n calr'vr Meruo*

snow [snou] n cuer so that ['sou 6at] TaK qro, rarc .rro6rr soap [soup] z uruo so-called ['sou'kc:ld] a Tar' nasrrsaevrrrfi social ['souJel] 4 corl]raJrrHufi social work ['souJel'we:k] o6qecrBeunaff pa6ora society [se'saratr] n o6rqecrno socks tsckjl n Hocnu soft [scft] a u,srrcufi soil [scll] n roqBa solar system ['soule'srstem] conue'ruas cncreMa sold [sould] car. sell

;iffitd ;.!-1'tli'ptt1 .ba3l cna;r*r'ft cr courrbrlr

sleePY ['sli:Pl]

sleeve [sli:v] tx PYKaB slogan ['slougen] n JroBYr{r

soldier ['souldge] n coJrAar sole [soul] n roAorrrBa solitary ['schtarr] a og:a:r'oxlatrt solution [sa'lu:Jn] n perrenuTe solve [sclv] u peurarb son [s,rn] n cbrr song [sc4] n recr{ff sorfow ['scrou] n uerraJrb sound [saund] n BByK source [sc:s] n rrcrotrnr4x, racrox percrr south [sau0] n ror south-east ['sauOi:st] n roro-nocrox southern ['s,r6en] o roxcnrrfi southernmost ['srr6enmoust] a camrrft roxnrrft southwards ['sau0wadzf adu K Iory south-westerly ['sau0'westeh] a rcro-3ara4ntrfi sovereign ['scveren] n coBepen sparsely populated ['spo:sh.pcpju'lertrd] peAno Baceniinnrrft sparrow ['sprerou] n uopo6efi
speak [spi:k] (spoke, spoken) u paoroBapnnarb speaker ['spi:ke] n Bbrcryrrarcuqnir, crrrrep (a uapaarrleu'rtt) spear [spra] z rourti special ['speJal] o creqna.nrnrrfi

411

stage [sterft] n cqena; u craBlrrb rra cqene star [sto:] n aBeBAa starling ['sto:lr4] n crBopeq start [sto:t] n crapT, HaqaJro, orrpaBJreHrre

starvation [sto:'verJn] n ro.rro4 starve [sto:v] u roJroAarb state [stert] u saffBJrsrb; n rocyAapcrBo statement ['stertment] n aaannenrie

statesman ['stertsman] rocy4apcrBeHHblfi gearelr

spices ['sPaIsrz] n rpsrrocrrr spinner ['sprne] n rrpfi'Eerrlbrrlrrrc spinster ['sPrnste] n crapafi AeBa

spoon [sPu:n] n JrorfiKa spot [sPct] n uarno' Mecro ;;;dd [spred] (spread, spread) u pacnpocrpaunrb' upocTr{parbcE sp"ead [spred] n rpora)rcilnnoctr square [skwee] n rJroulagb squire [skware] z crcnafiP squirrel ['skwlrel] n 6enxa stable [sterbl] n KoHIourHa pa6ornurcoa

station [stedn] n cra*\ws statue ['stetju] n crarya status ['stertes] n craryc stay [ster] u ocraBarsca, upe6brBarb steadily ['sterdrh] adu upovno, railp4o, ycrofi'rltgo steal [sti:l] (stole, stolen) u BopoBarb steam [sti:m] n rap steam-engine ['sti:m'endgtn] n rapoBa,ff Marrrr4ua steel [sti:l] n cra:r'b steep [sti:p] a rcpytofi steeply ['sti:pL] adu xpyro step [step] n ruar, crynenbxa still [strl] a ruxwit; adu r,ce er4| stockings ['stckrqz] n vylrnrt stole [stoul] c.rve. steal stolen ['stoulan] c.,ru. steal stone [stoun] n KaMerrb store [stc:] n crcJra,4; u Barracarb, cnJraAbrBarb storm [stc:m] n 6ypa
stove [stouv] n reub straight [strert] a rpaMo

strait

tt"tt tttotfl ri rutat, KoJrJIeKrtrn

456

[strert] n rporrrrB strange [strerndg] o ctpannrrfi strangely ['strerndghi adu crpanHo stranger ['strernd3e] n HesnaxoMeq strategy ['stretad3r] n crparerllfi straw [strc:] n coJroMa
41't

stream [stri:m] n rorox, py.reft strength [streq0] n cwa strengthen ['Stre40an] u ycu.nlrBarb stretch [stred] u rpocrlrparbc,fl, rrpor,flrr4Barbcff strict [stnkt] a crporufr strictly ['strrkth] adu crporo strike [strark] (struck, struck) u yAapnrb strike [strark] z sa6acrosra striker ['strarke] n aa6acroBrrl?rx strong [strc4] a cwnrlar,rir strongly ['strc4h] adu clz.nsr'o struck [strnk] c"n. strike structure ['strnktJe] n crpyrcrypa struggle [str,rgl] n 6opr6a stubborn ['st,rban] a yrpflMbrft, ynopnsrfi study ['stndr] u r4gyrlarb style [starl] n crvrrrb
subdivide [.s,rbdr'vard] u no4paoAerrsrb subject ['s,rbd3rkt] tx rpeAMer, reMa submarine [,srrbme'ri:nf n roABoAHaff JroAKa submit [seb'mIt] u roArrtrgffrbcfl suburb ['snba:b] n rpuropoA suburban [s,rb'e:ben] a upkrlopoAnrrfi succeed [se'ksi:d] u rpeycreBarb success [se'kses] n ycnex successful [se'ksesful] o ycuerrrrrurfi successfully [se'kse sfuhf adu ycreruHo
succession [sa'kseJn] z HacneAoBaHr4e successor [se'kseJe] n [ocJreAoBareJrb, sudden [sldn] o snesauHrrfi suffer ['_snfa] u crpaAarb sugar ['.|uga] n caxap suggest [se'dgest] u rpeArrararb suit [sju:t] n rcocrrcM; u noAxoAr{rb suitable ['sju:tabl] o rroAxoA ar4:r.ilr sun [snn] n coJrHqe
458

sung [s,rq] cn. sing sunk [srrqk] cn. sink sunny ['snnl] a conne.rnrrfi
superintendent
SLIpaTeJIb
[ . sj upenn'tendent]

n yupaRJrs

rc u1n

ii,

na

4-

suppress [se'pres] u noAaBJrfrb supreme [sju'pri:m] a srrcrrrnft sure [Jua] a: be sure 6rrrr yBepennbtM surface ['sa:fis] n rroBepxHocrb surgeon ['se:d3en] n xupypr surprise [se'prarz] n crcpnpus, yA]r6JtoHEi u y/lltHlnt't,r, surprised [se'prarzd] pp y p.r4BJrdHuarft surprisingly [se'praruryltl adu y pual{t'fl BHn surrender [se'renda] u cAaBarbcfi; n 6ARqE surround [se'raund] u oKpyrrcarb

superior [sju'prerre] a nr;rcntui1 flpeBocxolllr rr1u i.l supervision [,sj upe'vryn'l n na6nro4euue supplement ['s,tplmant] n AoroJruer{r4o, rl)nJtol(onHo supplies [se'plarz] n sarracb1 cna6xceuue, trpnln(it,r support [se'pc:t] u rroAAepxcuBarb supporter [se'pc:te] n rroMorqnux, cropoltHntc

HacJreAHLrK

sweep [swi:p] u Mecr?r, cMerBTt, sweetheart ['swi:tho:t] n noanrl6nexgafr swift [swrft] a 6rrcrpufi swing [swrr1] n :r,a-v.eilvr switch on ['swrtJ'cn] u ux"rrrovarr, sword [sc:d] Ft rrrfiara, Merr sympathetically [.srmpo'Octrkolll adu eoqyEfaEHnrr sympathize ['srmpeO avf u coqyuotHFef h

surroundings [se'raundr4z] n orcpyn(EH survival [se'varvel] z Bbr]rcr,rBaHr0 surviving [se'varvrn] o ocranruufieg H tdHFhtE swamp [swcmp] n 6onoro

synthesizer [.srnOe'sarze] n cfi r!r,eBHTop system ['srstem] n cracreMa

41tr

T tactics ['tektrks] n rar'Tvr"a tailor ['terle] n uoptnofi take [terk] (took, taken) u 6parr take care ['terk'kea] aa6otzrrcs take off ['terk'cfl cHrrMarb take part in ['terk'po:t In] npuru{Marb } racrr4e taken [teftn] cn. lake ' talented ['trelantrd] a raJranTJrusbrft tall [tc:l] a sl;rcoxuir task [ta:sk] z sa4a.Ia, aarqaurre taste [terst] u upo6oaarbi n BKyc taught ltc:tl cn. teach

than [6ren] adu qervr ii{ theatre ['Oreta] n rearp ,l* theme [Oi:m] n reMa theory ['Oren] n reoprrn 'ri therefore ['6eefc:] adu uoerovry $ rd thick [0rk] o rorcrrrft, rycrofi thief [Oi:fl n nop
ud

thin [0rn] o ronrcrafi,

t!in\

thought [Oc:t] cz. think thoughtfully ['Oc:tfuhf adu BaAyMtruBo thoughts [Oc:ts] n :lrbrcrr:a, paaAyMbg threat [Oret] n yrpooa threaten [0retn] u yrpo]rcarb threw [Oru:] c"n. throw team [ti:m] n KoMaHAa throne [Oroun] n rpon tea-party ['ti:,po:tr] n '+,aefivrrvre through [Oru:] prep c:r"Boob, qepe3 tear [tee] (tore, torn) u pBarb throughout [Oru'aut] aq, HacKBoBb, rroBceMecr*o tear apart ['tear e'po:t] paoopBarb Ha Kycrr4 throw [Orou] (threw, thrown) u 6pocarr texnoJrorrrff technologT [tek'nclaftl] n throw off ['0rou'cfl c6pacrrsari a teenager ['ti:n,erdgal n rmnefig*cep (vra.nrvurc un{ thrown [0roun] c.le. throw AeBoqKa B Boopacre or 13 4o 19 .rret) :l{ thunder ['Omde] n rpoM .il thus [dzrs] adu rax, raKilM o6paeou temperate ['tempnt] a. yurepennrrfi z reMreparypa temperature ['temprrtJe] t", tide [tard] n npvJrvrB, orJr]rB temple [templ] n xpaM d ties [taz] n cBs.sn tend [tend] u ctpennrrbc,fl, r4Merb renAeHrlnro tight [talt] a recnrrfi, nlrornrrfi tense [tens] o Harrpff)r(dnnufi r tin [trn] z oJroBo n Harpff)KeHrre tension [tencn] 1 tiny ['tarnr] a rcporueunrrft tent [tent] n rraJrarKa , tip [trp] z KoHrruK , tireless ['tarahs] o neycrannrrft term [ta:m] n repMrrrr terrible ['tenbl] o yxacnrrfi , title [tanl] n rvrryrr, HaBBaHrae territory ['tentarr] n repprrropua toast [toust] n rocr terror ['tere] n yfitae, reppop toga ['touga] n roFa test [test] n trcrrl;rrafinei u tTcrrbrrblBarb tolerance ['tclerans] n reprruMocrb
460
461

[Oqk] (thought, thought) u AyMarb thinker ['0r4ke] n MbrcJrrrreJrb though [dou] adu xora

ncu4rcufi

tolerant ['tclerant] a repnnwrrrfi tomb [tu:m] z rpo6nrzqa took [tuk] cu. take tool [tu:l] n LTHcrpyMeHr top [tcp] n Bepx, Beprrr{Ha, Bepxymra tore [tc:] cm. tear torn [tc:n] cn. tear totalltoulll a nonnb.rft, secr total length ['toutl'leq0] o6u1aa Arrla.na touch [tntJ] u rporarb tour [tua] fl Typ, roeBAKa tourist ['tuenst] n ryplrcr towards [te'wc:dz] prep fio HarpaBrrenuro towel [tauel] n rroJroreHqe tower [taue] n 6annns. town [taun] n ropoA townsfolk ['taunzfouk] z ropomane

traveller ['trrevele] n rryrernecrBenHnx

townspeople ['taunzpi:pl] n ropo)rcaHe trade [trerd] n roproBJrff, peMecJro; u roproBarb trade unions ['trerdJu:nranz] upoQcoroabr trader ['trerde] n roproBeq tradesman ['trerdzman] z roproBerl tradition [tre'drJn] n. rpa1vrwts. traditionally Itra'dd n ahf a du rpaArrrlr{ourro traffic ['trrefik] n Aopo]Kuoe ABrr)rceHr{e tragic ['tradgrk] a rparrqecr<lair train [trern] u rpeur{poBarb, o6yvarr trained [trernd] pp rpeurrponauxrrfi , o6yvennsrfi transform [trrens'fc:m] u rpancQopMrrpoBarb translate [trcns'lert] u repeBoArlrb translation [trens'lerJn] n repeBoA transmit [fenz'rut] u [epeAaBarb rro pa4r{o, renenr,r4enrarl I transport ['transpc:t] n rpancropr transport [trrens'pc:t] u repeBoBr(Tb trap [trrp] z "nonymrca, KarrKaH; u JroBrtrb t I travel ['traval] u rryreruecrBoBarb
462

treacherously ['tretJeresh] adu npegareJrbcxr,r treason [tri:zn] n rocyAapcrBeHHaff noMerra treasure ['tre3e] n coxpoBr4rrle treat [tri:t] u o6parqatcn c treatment ['tri:tment] z o6paqeuue, JreqeHne treaty ['tri:tl] n AoroBop trench [trentJ] n rpanrrrefl trend [trend] n HarrpaBJrenr4e trial [traral] z cy4 triangle ['tralrerlgl] n rpeyroJrbHrrx tribe [trarb] n rrrreMn triumph ['trarem{l z rpuyvre triumphant [trar'lmfant] a uo6e4onocnrrfi troops [tru:ps] n softcxa trouble [tr,rbl] n 6ega, xrrorrorbr trousers f'trauzezl n 6prcxn truly ['tru:h] adu nepyo, rorrcrnue trumpeter ['trrrmprte] z ropnucr try [trar] u rrbrrarbcff tuneless ['tju:nhs] a HeMeJro4u.rnrrfi tunic ['tju:ruk] n rynuna, py6axa tunnel [t,rnl] n ryunerrb turkey ['ta:kl] n un1etrrr<a turn [te:n] u uonopaqriBarb; n noBopor, orrepeAb turn down ['te:n'daun] ornepruyrb

turn into ['ta:n rnte] rpeBparr4Tbcff turnip ['ta:nrp] n pena tutor ['tju:te] n BocurrrareJrb
twice [twars] adu gr,awgrr type [tarp] n rvrrt typical ['trprkel] a r:nrru.ntrrir

U unable [,,rn'erbl] a He B cocroanrarr

uncertainty [,nn'se:tentr] z HeyBepenHocrb

461

UT

u u

t, undergone)

neY4o6xrrfi

u roABqi

unite [iu'nart] u o6regunrrrbca united [iu'nartrd] pp o6l'legnnEnnsrfi

rarbc,fi undergone [,rrnde'gcrrf cn. undergo undergraduate [,,rnde'gredjutt] n cryAenr

underground railway
*CeJIeBHaA

Kypca Kypca

universal_Uunr've:sel] a yuznepcanrnsrft nceo6rqzft , universe [Juruve:s] n scenetuas university ffuru've:s ftrl n yHr4Bepcrrer unknown [,,rn'noun] pp rrer4aBecrurrfi
,

un
un

[,rt nde'graund'rerlwer]'no4eennng

oTIUtIgTe oT

understand [,rrnde'strend] (understood, understood)'

IIOT{IIMATb

AOpOra

-'i
i

un

rr,

HeBaMyrrcH,fl,E

unplanned [.rrn'plandl pp HeoarrJranrrpoBannbrfi,

understanding [,^nda'staendrq] n uorrrtManl4e ) understood [,rrnde'stu :dl cn. understand undertake [,lnde'telk] (undertook, undertaken)' undertaken [,,rnde'terkn] cutt. undertake undertook [.rrnde'tuk] c.rr. undertake E"ev-D vvvu!.! v."' wgll! underwent [,,rnda'wentl cm. undergo lll,lllEl' Lrl\uss pp ueolpaaosaHubrfi uneducateil[.rrnedju'kertrd] unemployed [,nrum'plcrd] a 6eepadotnrrfi unemployment [,nrum'plcrment] z 6eepa6orr{qa
npeAEpPIHrrMaTb

nJranosrrfi unpoprr_lar [,nn'pcpjuls] a HenorryJr,ffpHufi unreal [,nn'nel] a nepeansnrrfi unskilful [,nn'skrlful] a Heyrrnenrrfi, nexnanu$LTTIH_ poaanHsrfi

ane_

';
,i

unwillingly

[,nn'wrl nltf adu rreoxorno unwise [,rrn'waz] a nepaay*rnrrfi upland ['zrplend] n BooBbrrrreHuocrb upper class [',rpe'klo:s] sbrcurufi KJracc upright ['lprart] a BeprlrKa.rrrxsrfi uprising [,rp'razrq] n Boccraurre upstairs_[',rpsteez] adu naaepxy, HaBepx upstart ['a,psto:t] n BbrcKoqra upwards [',rpwedz] adu nnepx urban ['e:ben] a ropo4crcoft use [u:z] u rrrcrroJrbgoBarb use [u:s] n noJrboa useful [ju:sful] a no.negnrrft

valley ['vreh] n
464

v
EoJtu:na 465

value ['velju] n qerrHocrb varied ['veerld] o paanoo6pasnrrfi variety [va'raratr] n paenoo6paarle various ['vearlas] a pas.nnunrrfi vassal ['vasal] n Baccar vault [vc:lt] n cBoA, cKJreIr vegetables ['ved3etebl,zf n oBoulra vegetation [,ved3r'terJn] n pacrl{reJrbuocrb' velvet'['velvet] z 6aPxat verse [ve:s] .n crvrxz, crrlxorBoperrr4e vertically ['ve:tIkeh] adu neprnxaJrbno veto ['vi:tou] n Bero; u HaJroxcrrrb Bero victoiious [vrk'tc:rjas] o no6e4onocnrrfi
t
--------d L -

,1

view [vju:] n'BBIJr.EA, Torrxa opeHufl villa ['vIle] n r.vrrrrra village ['vrhft] n AePeBHE .villager ['vrhd3e] n AepeBeHcxnit lrcrrrerrb violent ['varalent] a cratrst+;rtrt virtuous ['ve:tjues] a 4o6po4etearxrrfi visit ['vrzlt'l n nwsnr; u troceqarb' HauocrlTb

victory ['vrkterl] n no6ega

warlike ['wc:lark] a BoltncrBennrrfi warm [wc:m] a rilnnrrfi warmth [wc:mO] n rerrJro warn [wc:n] u rpeAytrperrcAarb warrior ['wcrra] n Boytr warship [wc:Jrp] rL Boenrrbrfi rcopa6nr wash [wcJ] u vrrrrr(ca) waste [werst] u rparurb Bpff wastes [wersts] z or6pocrr wasteful ['werstful] a pacror{r4renrnxfi watch [*cd] u na6.nro4ar6, crreAr,rrb water ['wc:to] n r,o4a waterfall ['wc:tefc:l] n BoAoraA watermill ['wc:temrl] n uo4anaff MeJrbnrrqa water supply ['wcte se'plar] BoAorpoBoA waterway ['wctawer] n ro4nrrft rryrb wave [werv] n BoJrHa way [wer] n rryrb, cnoco6 weak [wi:k] a c:na6rrir
weaken ['wi:ken] u ocna6nsrr weakening ['wi:kenn1] z oc;ra6nenrae wealth [wel0] z 6orarcrso wealthy ['wel0r] a 6orarl;rir, Baxcnroeurrfi weapon ['wepen] n opy)rcrde wear [wee] (wore, worn) u Hocnrb wear away ['weer e'wer] r{BHarur{Barbcfi weasel [wi:zl] z ropnocrafi weather ['we6e] n roroAa weaver ['wi:ve] n rna.+. welcome ['welkam] u rprrBercrBoBarb well [wel] n KoJIoAerI well [wel] adu: as well as rar ,Ke KaK n well-being ['wel'bi rr1f n 6 lnarococro,Eulre west [west] n sarraq western ['westen] a eaua4nrrfi westward ['westwed] adu x sarraAy
:

Br,faerr

vivid ['vrvId] a

apxlaf,r

volcanic [vcl'kanrk] 4 ByJrKaHu'recrcrafi volume ['vc:lju:m] rt roM vote [vout] u ronocoBarb voter ['vouta] n roJrocyrcr\Yrir voting ['voutrq] n roJrocoBanrle voyage ['vcud3] n Mopcrcoe rryreruecrBlte
wage [werft] (a war) u Becrn (eoilnY ) wages ['weldgrz] n saprrJrara waist [welst] n ralrufi wandering ['wcndenrl) n exnraHra,ff war [wc:] n r,oiru.a warehouse ['weehaus] z crcaa4
466

467

wet [wet] a morprrfi, crrpoft wharf [wc:fl n aepQr wheat [wi:t] n rrrueu?rqa wheel [wi:l] n KoJreco whereas ['weerez] adu rorqa xax wherever ['weer'eve] adv rge 6rr nu; KyAa 6sr nn whole [houl] a Becb, qe.nufi wide [ward] a rrtupoxuir. widely ['wardh] adu utmpoxo widespread ['wardspred] a pacupocrpandnnrrfi wife [wufl n ,rcena

worn [wc:n] cM. wear worry ['wnrr] u 6ecuororrrbca, BoJruoBarbcff worship ['wa:Jrp] u rorcJrorrffTbcff, ornpaBJrffrr 6orocnynurcaxbfi Uer{Hocrrr wound [wu:nd] n panai u paHnrb wounded ['wu:ndrd] pp paven:'l'ilr wreath [ri:O] z BeHoK wreck [rek] u paapyruarb wrestling ['reslrrl] n croprkrBnaa 6opr6a written [rrtn] a uucrvrennrrfi wrong [rcq] o HerpaBrrJrrnrrfi
'ICeHI4e worthless ['we:0hs] o HurrcyAbrruHrrfi, ne uueroulufi

wild [warldl a gmxlailr will [wtl] n Boln willingly ['wrhqh] adu oxorso win [wrn] (won, won) u BblnrpbrBarb wind [wmd] n Berep windmill ['wrndmtl] n Berpffrras MeJrburrqa winner Iwrna] z no6e4nte.nr wish [*r.|] u HceJlarb; rt )rceJlanne
yBoArrTb

yard [o:d] n ABop youth [iu:O] z rcrrocrb youthful [ju:Oful] o ronrrfi

zone lzoun] z aona

withdraw [wr6'drc:] (withdrew, withdrawn) u srraecrll,

withdrawn [wI6'drc :nf cn. withdraw withdrew [wr6'dru:] c*e. withdraw wolf [wulfl n noar won [wnnf cn. win

wonder ['wrrnde] n qyAo wonderful ['wnndaful] a uygecHufi wood [wud] n rrec, AepeBo wooden [wudn] a gepenannsrfi woodland ['wudlend] n Jrecracroe Mecro wool [wu:l] n ilepcrb woollen ['wu:lsn] a urepctanofi worn [wc:] cz. wear workhouse ['we:khaus] n pa6otnrrfi 4ovr workshop ['we:kJcp] n Macrepcxaa, qex world [we:ld] n :nnvp
468
469

GogepxaHue
SECTION ONE. GENERAL INFORMATION ........ 3 gHAprER 1. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY ........... 3 .......... 3 Part 1. Geographical Position. . Pafi2. Nature. ......... f .......!........... 6 Part 3. Coasts. .........7 Part 4. Relief. .... I Part 5. Climate. ..........10 Part 6. Inland Waters. .........I2 Part 7. Vegetation. .........

Part 8. Animal Life. .......15 Part 9. Mineral Resources. ..... Economy ....15 Part 10. ......18 CHAPTER REVIEW ..... OF THE COUNTRY19 CIIAPTER 2. COMPOSITION ...19 Part 1. England. .....20. Part 2. Scotland. ................2L Part 3. Wales. Part 4. Northern lreland. ......23 cHAprER REVIEW ......... CHAPTER 3. POLITICAL SYSTEM ..........,.24 ...25 Part 1. The Constitution. Pafi 2. Three Branches of Government. ......26 .......31 Part 3. Political Parties. 4. The British C-ommonwealth of Nations. ...32 Part ........34 cHAprER REVIEW ......... HISTORY .........36 SECTION TWO. UNIT ONE. THE EARLY DAYS OF BRITAIN....36 ....36 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT BRITONS ...36 1. The Ancient Population. Part ........38 Parl 2. Who were the Britons?.. ........40 Part 3. Their Religion.
470
;, t,

CHAPTER REVTEW ......:..........41 CHAPTER 2. THE ROMANS ..............42 Part 1. The Coming of the Romans. .,..,.....42 Part 2. The Revolt of Queen Boadicea ...............45 Part 3. Britain under the Romans.... .......48 Part 4. Hadrian's Wall. ........51 Part 5. Roman Towns. ...........52 CHAPTER REVTEW ....... ............56 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND .........57 Part 1. The Invasion by Anglo-Saxons. ..............57 Part 2. Christianity...... ..............61 Part 3. The Raids of the Danes. Uniting the Country. .... .......63 Pafi 4. Alfred the Great .,.64 Part 5. England after Alfred the Great's Reign. .66 CHAPTER REVIEW...... ...67

UNIT REVIEW .....68 UNIT TWO. MEDIEVAL BRITAIN ... ........69 CHAPTER 4. ENGLAND AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST... ........70 Part 1. William the Conqueror. ...........70 Part 2. English Kings of the 11th and 12th Centuries ...75 Part 3. Education. The First Universities. .........77 Part 4. A Medieval Town .......81 CHAPTER REVIEW..... CHAPTER 5. WARS ABROAD AND AT HOME..85 Part 1. England in the 14th century. ................85 Part 2. The Hundred Years' 'War. ....87 Part 3. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 ..........89 Part 4. The War of the Roses. ..........91 CHAPTER REVTEW ......... ....93 UNIT REVIEW .....94
471

UNIT THREE. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY ....95 .....95 CHAPTER 6. THE NEW MONARCHY .. .....95 Part 1. HenrY VII. .... ........"97 Part 2. HenrY VIII. Part 3. The Protestant-Catholic Struggle. . 100 ..... t02 Part 4. Elizabeth I..... ............ 104 CHAPTER REVIEW .... POWER CHAPTER 7. GAINING .. 105 AND EXPANDING .... ....... 105 Part 1. The New Foreign Policy ..... 109 and Ireland. . Part 2. Wales Part 3. England and Scotland......... ....... 110 ..... 111 Part 4. A Scottish King for England. .. ..LLz CHAPTER REVIEW..... AND SOCIETY .. 113 CHAPTER 8. GOVERNMENT Part 1. Tudor Parliaments...... Parl 2. Changes in the Life of People. ..... 115 ..... 116 Part 3. EconomY ...... 118 Part 4. The Problem of the Poor. .... 119 Life. Part 5. Domestic .-.., Lzt Part 6. Language and Culture. .. ... L23 CHAPTER REVIEW ..... ..,...I24 UNIT REVIEW ..... T25 UNIT FOUR. THE STUARTS..... 9. THE CROWN CHAPTER .. L25 AND PARLIAMENT . ...L25 Part 1. James I. .... ..... L27 Part 2. Religious Disagreement. . ...I29 Part 3. The Civil War. .... 130 REVIEW... CHAPTER CHAPTER 10. REPUBLICAN .... 131 AND RESTORATION BRITAIN ... 131 Part 1. Republic in Britain. ..
472

...... 163 ....... 163 ...... 164 CHAPTER REVIEW... .... 166 CHAPTER 14. THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION .167 Part 1. Industrial Revolution. . ...,.... L67 Part 2. Society and Religion. ... ... 169 Part 3. Revoiution in France.... ,.....I72 Part 4. The War with Napoleon. .....173 CHAPTER REVIEW ... ... L75 UNIT REVIEW ...176 UNIT SIX. THE AGE OF POWER AND PROSPERITY. .I77 CHAPTER 15. BRITAIN IN THE FIRST HALF ...,..... L77 OF THE 19th CENTURY
473

UNIT REVIEW UNIT FIVE. BRITAIN IN THE 18TH CENTURY.... CHAPTER 12. CHANGES IN POLITICAL Part 1. Politics and Money. ... Part 2. Developing Public Opinion. Part 3" Ireland. Part 4. Scotland. CHAPTER REVIEW ... CHAPTER 13. LIFE IN TOTWN AND IN THE COUNTRYSIDE Part 1. Life in Towns. Parl 2. Life in the Countryside.

CHAPTER REVIEW . L4O CHAPTER 11. THE 17th CENTURY SOCIETY . T4T Part 1. Reconsidering Religious Dogmas..... .....I4L Part 2. Revolution in Scientific Thinking. ....... 143 Part 3. Life in the Stuart Age. .....I45 CHAPTER REVIEW ... ...., T49

Part 2. Restoration....... Part 3. Foreign Relations

.......... 135 ... 139

.... 150

....... 151 LIFE 152 .152 ..157 ... 160 .... 160 ... L62

Part 1. Britain's International Policy. ............. 1 Paft 2. The Situation at Home. ............'.......,.. 1 Part 3. Reforming the Parliamentary System. .. 1 ..... 1 Part 4. Workers' Revolts. ....-..... 1 Part 3. Robert Peel's Reforms. ............... 1 CHAPTER REVIEW.........
CHAPTER 16. THE YEARS oF SELF-CONFIDENCE ................ 1 .........-.....-. 1 Part 1. Industrial Power. ...... 1 Part 2. The Rise of the Middle Class. Part 3. Life in Towns. ........ 1 Pafi 4. Population and Politics. Part 5. The British Empire. ..........................- 1 ....------.2 Part 6. Ireland. CIIAPTER REVIEW ... CHAPTER 17. THE END OF AN AGE Part 1. Social and Economic Improvements. ..... Part 2. Sport. Part 3. Changes in Thinking. ........ Part 4. The Storm Clouds of War. CHAPTER REVIEW ......... .....27 UNIT REVIEW ..........27 UNIT SEVEN. THE 2OTH CENTURY.... CIIAPTER 18. THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS AFTER-EFFECTS ........................ 2 1 .........-.- 21 Part 1. The first World War. ..-.2t Part 2. The Rise of the Labour Party. .....-.-.2t Part 3. Ireland. Part 4. Disappointment and Depression. ......--..2t ...............22 CIIAPTER REVIEW......... 19. THE SECOND WORLD WAR ,...22 CHAPTER Part 1. The First Period of the War. ...............22 .........22 Pafi 2. Alone against the Nazis
474

Part 3. The Mistakes of Germany and Japan. The End of the War. .............224 CIIAPTER REVIEW ... .......226 CIIAPTER 20. THE AGE OF UNCERTAINTY ..227 Part 1. The United Nations .......227 Part 2. A Change of Britain's Role on the International Arena. ...... .....228 Part 3. The Welfare State. .....229 Part 4. A Popular Monarchy. ........ ....233 Part 5. The Loss of Empire .....234 Part 6. The Situation in Northern Ireland. .......296 Part 7. The Years of Discontent. .............237 Part 8. Margaret Thatcher. ..24O Part 9. Britain Today. Ties with the Past and Thoughts of the Future........... .............243 CHAPTER REVIEW ... .....245 ...........246 UNIT REVTEW SECTION THREE. PRESENT-DAY BRITAIN ...247 CHAPTER 1. BRITISH OR ENGLISH? ............247 Part 1. The British Isles. ............247 Part 2. Great Britain. .........248 Part 3. The United Kingdom.......... ...249 Part 4. Forming the Nation. .... .....25I Part 5. Language ..252 Part 6. Immigrants in Britain. ..........253 Part 7. The Union Jack. ............. ......254 CHAPTER REVIEW ... ....255 CHAPTER 2. HOW THEY LIVE ........256 Part 1. The Way of Life. .....256 Part 2. Education .....257 Part 3. Culture, Leisure, Entertainment. .........259 Part 4. Sport. ...........263 Part 5. Young People's Groups. .........265
475

CHAPTER REVIEW...... SECTION FOUR. FAMOUS BRITONS King Alfred the Great Queen Elizabeth I.....

Part 6. Holidays. Paft 7. Traditions. .... ......27 CHAPTER REVIEW...... CHAPTER 3. LONDON Part 1. The City. Part 2. The East End. .. Part 3. The West End. . Part 4. Westminster. .... Part 5 Royal London. Part 6. Knightsbridge. CHAPTER REVIEW.... CHAPTER 4. PI,ACES TO SEE IN BRITAIN .... Part 1. Stonehenge. .. Pafi 2. The Lake District. Part 3. Canterbury. ... Part 4. Windsor Castle. Part 5. Hampton Court Palace. Part 6. Oxford. Part 7. Cambridge. .... Part 8. Liverpool and the Beatles. ...........8

Horatio

George Gordon

Nelson Byron

Winston Churchill ...........868 Agatha Christie ...87O Margaret Thatcher ....;........ ........828 SUPPLEMENT. The British Monarchs (List) List of proper names......... .... BZ8 List of geographical names ...... ....... B8g English-Russian vocabulary ...... ..... Bg0

Queen Victoria Charles Dickens ....... Florence Nightingale ..... Captain Robert Scott Ernest Rutherford.........

Walter Scott

.,...947 ..949 .......3bb .....587 ............ 860

.. 868 ....... 966

.......3
......
3

Isaac Newton Bonnie Prince Charlie James Cook James Watt Robert Burns

;...Sd
.........381
.... S4 .... Bfl
477

476

..........8{

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rea./Qarc:

(sii) ziz-s+-so,
(8r2) 320-84-79

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Epounnqxan, 44

e-mail: karo@peterstar.ru
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AHIAITtrICI<I,IiT

fl3bIK
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rer./Qarc: (095)
www.karo.spb.ru

964-02-L0,

(oe5) e64-08-46
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Pognlrcxar rr MerrKootrToBar roproBnf, n Camr- Ilerep6ypre:

Maragun <Orrpman KHtlra], Ilomooponcruir np., 47

rer./Qaxc: (812) 540-86-27

(8121 540-4r-9L
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