DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SECOND EDITION ARTHUR H. NILSON Curved prestressed concrete bridge girders used . highway orade sep- ‘ration, Courtesy of State of Calforia, Department ot Puble Works, JOHN WILEY 6 SONS NewYork * Chichester - Brisbane - Toronlo ~ Singeporeopi ©1017 yD ‘Abii eed Ped enna in Cina ‘Ata teed a ened Se {ey mdvod a Und St Cope 2 Sn nb pee ‘heermsnss Dept, Wy So ay of Coon Cag Pei ate In hl er tind PREFACE ‘Although the frst proposal appl prestessing to concrete was made as ‘arly a6 166, inthe United Stato, was ony a a result of he suc of the renowned French engineer Eugene Freyssinet inthe 1830s that pr ‘vesaed concrete became 2 pracical realty. in Europe, in the period ot ‘2cuta mater shortages folowing World War I Freyesint ana other pioneers demonsvated the remarkable possibilis ofthis new concept of fesign, and set hostage for tho development that was fo take pace tthe fotoming years Largely for economic rather than technical reasons, the evolution of prestested concrete in the Unied States haa been slong. somewhat flerent tines than in Europe. Untl just a few years ago, inerest was ‘mainly In standardized precast and pretensioned units of rlavely short Span, which could be mass-produced with great saving in labor cost Holowcore slabs and single and doubl-T boams wero, and are, widely ‘sed Yor floors, rots, and walls of buildings. For highway bridges, sta ‘are L-beams, T-beams, and box section bears evolved. Precast members ‘ot these types have accounted fo a sgnicant Wacton of al new construc: ‘ion ena undoubtedly wil continue to do 2. However, changing economic conditons and a rapily evolving tech nology are producing important changes In U. S. practice. Construction labor isnot in such short supply. The cost of materials & constanty ‘noreasing. There Is @ serous concern about conservation of resources Improved materiale and more powerful methods of analysis are goneraly valabe. Under these ceumstances, i's natural that engineers shoud ‘uum to more sophisticated designs, such as those developed meanwhile in Europe, which more fully expot the potential of presvessed concrote, CCastin-place fat plato leer, postensioned for hl continu are now ‘common in Buldings. Short to medium span highway brdges, often com Dining vertical grade wih horzontal curvature and superetvaton (Soe ‘rontspace, for example) are used to ensure smooth Wa flow. Segmen- ily east continuous-beam bridges an cable stayed gircers of presiossod concrete have dramatically extended previous span limts.The continued evolution of beth conventional and more innovative ‘ypes of prestesses. concrete consruction has created the need for {nginger who have a tm understanding of undamenta principles, on the fone hand, and the ally Yo create efficient and practeal designs, on the ‘ther. Family wih governing codes and specications is necessary Dut |S not sufficient for present-day pracice. Engineers are needed who can ‘ot eniy be effective in optimizing exsing forme of constuction but iso ‘can_apply fundamental concepts with confidence In new and unusual Stations, 'Thope that this book wil be an effective aid inthe edcaton of such persons. The inital emphasis is placed on fundamontas of behavior. This 'S folowed by presentation and explanation of imporiant code provisions {and design oft procedures, ilustrated by practical exampes. [Although intonded marly as a college textbook for use atthe fourth- ‘or tith-year fvel a special effort has been made to develop a clear ‘settcontaned presentation, so thatthe book may also be used by en ‘ineers in practice who wish To improve thee knowledge ot this raately ‘now field. The material has been cartuly coordinated with codes govern. Ing U.S. practee, partcularly the atest eaton of Bullaing Code Require ‘menis for Reinforced Concrete, published ty the American Concrete "AC! Cade notation ls used as far ax possible. Frequent reerence to tho publation ofthe Prestressed Concrete Instituto and tho PostTensioning Instiute, providing an insight into actual design practoo for the student, and suggesting souroos of practical information. Extonsive reference ists at ho ond ofeach chaptor provide a guide to the iterate {or those whose needs go beyond the coverage ofthis text “The book has grown trom a set of ectre notes tha developed while teaching prestressed concrete fo ov engineering students at Comet Universty over a 30sear period. The arrangement of te material flows ‘that of my loctres. Aor an introduction fo the Base concepts in Chapter 1, and a summary of concrete and stel material properties in Chapter 2, ‘the analysis and design of beams is presente in Chapters 3t0 5, Losees of presrest are considered in Chapter 6. it may be argued thal analysis of tosses shoulé precede beam analysis and design, but | have conclued that, om a pedagogical vewpoint, there's greater advantage to geting on ‘withthe Business of design ear in many practical cases, losses need be ‘Considered in no more detail than in Chaptrs 2 and 4 “The study of defections (Chaptor 8) and the design of slabs (Chapter 40) are fundamental and should be inchised in a fst course of std, However, the teacher may not find time to cover composite beams or continuous mombers (Chapters 7 and 8, respectively). These topics, a well as treatment of aly foaded members (Chapter 11), may be deterred Uni a ater course or taken up through sell-tudy Chapters 12 and 19, which deal respectively with precast construction and applications, have been writen to permit ther assignment as outsice reading, ‘Appendix A contains a varaly of design aids. These are useful in connection with examples and assigned problems, and may increase the Usefulness of the book to the practicing engineer. Append B contains fengineering. dala for certain post tensioning systems. No attempt was ‘made to be encyclopedic, but only to present sufficient detail to peer oalishe proportioning of members in problem assignments. Final, Ap ‘Bendix C provides i conversion factors ané metric auivalerts. ‘The prosenteation ofthis ex is an update and an expansion of the ‘stand Ineues changes in design pilosophy and methodology core: ponding fo changes n current practi. New information is presented on mater, parbcularly relating to high-strength concrete, now in common Use, and’ nowy avalable types of prestressingstov. Inthe chapters on Nexural analysts and design. adaitonal emphass has been placed on pata! prestessing, combining prestressed and non prestressed rein- foceament. These changes, among other things, have resulted in modca- tion of design equations for foxural strength and more elaborate mothods for calculating beam deflections. The reader vill fd moch new material Pertaining 1 prestressed slabs, particularly one-way banded slab construc “Many now design aids have been added. Section properties are given for standard holloweare slabs, and for single- and double-T beams, Used for floore and root. For tidges, secon property tables have been In Clided fr slandard AASHTO |beams, and fr other sections now used by |S numberof state highway departments. Secon properties are aso gwen for voided slabs, box section beams, an single-T beams, such a6 are ‘nidly use for shorter span highway bridges nally wil be noted that mary new problems have been added at ‘he end of each chapter for home assignment ‘R word is inorder relating to units of measurement. Naonwi, there ‘is a movement toward adoption ofthe Inlrmationa Systom (8) of metric Units, although progress In that decton has bean siow. tn. many cases, basic science and engineering science courses are taught using St nis Certain manutacturing Inausties have converted, But ia the construction industry, the familar "English" or “customary” unit are stil almost univer ‘sal although a metic version ofthe ACI Cade is avaiable, the ACI Coge In ‘customary unis 18 te one found In most desig offices, Recognizing tal Users of this text may have become tania with SI units i ropaatory ‘uses, but wil 8900 enter design aces in whieh customary unis preva, TThave proceeded as folows: (1) al graphs and tabulated information of fundamental nature (2. the Table of Chepter 2) are given in ual unt(@) examples are worked in customary unit, but SI equivalents are pro vide in parentheses for input data and key answers: (8) design ss in Appendix A are gven in customary units ony. This appears to be reasonable compromise between encouragemant 10 adopt the superior St {ystem, and rocognion of the probable facts of professional Me over the next 10 f0 20 years ‘Many individuals and several organizations have contibuted to this volume. Partcular thanks ‘are. duo to Professors Dan Branson, avis Darwin, and Manor Tadtos tor tei caret rovew ofthe entire manuscript ‘and their many constructive suggestions. stations an design aids were ‘biained, In many’ cases, wih the cooperation of Dan denny and Goorge Nasser, ofthe Prosiescod Concrete institut, and Cit Feyermuth, of the Post-Tensioning instute, Addonal photograpns were obtained through (Charles Dolan of ABAM Enginears and Davie Goodyear of Aric Grant ad Associations. Final, | would Ike to acknowledge a special debt to my former students, who havo nt only worked through al of the examples and problems found in the text, But have contibuted matrialy tough Classroom interaction tothe evolution of te lecture notes on which this book ie based Ithaca, New York February 1987 Arthur H. Nilson CONTENTS chaptee 2 4 invoducton 4 12 Crampl of Sess Control by Prestessing 13 Equvaert tows 114 Oferoad Behavior and Svenghh inFewe tT 116 PrestesongMemeds "14 1 Ghargesin restore Force 24 18 Conor a8 19 Srmeoabiy, Stengn and Sructual Salty 28 24 lnoducton 8 22 Imorance of High Svengin Stel a4 25 Type esening Seal 36 25 Sires Stain Properties of Stoel 27 Typesotconcte as 25 Concrtein Unis Compression 47 29 Concrete in Unis Teron $1 240 Banal Sueases Concrewe 83 21 Time-Dependent Detomaton of Concrete 54 22 Inreducton 61 32 Notton 62 33 Paral Lose of Presvess Force 62 54 Ela Flurl Soneesn Unoraca Boars 63, 35 Allowabe Pleural Sesees 78 36 Craming oad 76 87 Floral Svengh Araysis 70 ‘38 Flurl Sangh by ACI Cose Equatons 92 39, Paris rectessng) 108 2340 Eat Flexural Stsses Ata Cracking and Srenath ‘ot Panay Presvesseg Sauna 107 442 Flex! Design Sased on Alomable Svesses 28 43. Shape Selection and Flowura Molen) 158chapter @ Chapter 7 44 Sansa Soctons 182 415. Concrete Protcten and spacing of Tendens 163 46 Coes tatancng ax Dosgn Toa) ted 47 worl Gorgn Sond on Pata Prestesnng 172 40 Flew! Crack Cont aay 419. Bona Stese, Tranter Longth, end Development engi tae 4.10 Anchorage Zone Design 100 51 eduction 206 52. Shear and agonal Fenstonia crac Beane 3 Glagoral Cracking Shear at 54 Web Rentoreament tor Snasr "are 55 Shear Design Crore othe AC! Code. 222 58. Example: Denn of ie Aanorsrent fr Shear 57 ‘Tomonin Concrete Stucuras ase 5 Tomson Dengn of Prestressed Conereta 234 59 Torsion Pur Snr aa 50 Example: Beagn of resect Aas for Combinas 5.11 Compression Fes Teor for Sharan Torsion Benge 3st 162 Limp Sum Estates of Losses 287 {83 Dotted Estimation Losses 288 185 Anenorage Sip 268 186 Caste Srenening ofthe Concrete 265 87 Creeper Concrete 266 85 Goncete Shimane 268 {810 Example: Calouaton of Sepa Lossos 270 1811 Eston of Losses y the Time Stop Mehod 274 composrremeams 278 111 ‘yom of Conposte Cnsiucion a8 12 oad Sages a0 175. Seoton Moparts and Eats Far! Sresen 1S orzo! Sher vanser 28a 78 Shearand Bago Terion aan Simple Spans vs Continuity s08 Tendon Pots and Suossing Arangements 302 Elasbe Anal forte Elects of Presvessing 307 Equtaent Loa Anayes. 312 samp ineterminafe Preseseed Beam 18 near ranstornaton ate (Concorde Tendone 321 ConerejeSresses nthe Elste Range 322 Fewral Song 538 (0 Moment Ressibvton ana Lint Anaysis 826 1 Ingeteminte Frames 390 peruecrons 307 93 Invoducton a7 2 ans tor te Cacustions a8 3. koprocnate Method or Detection Cleon 849 54. Retned Cauislons Using incrrantal Tine Seps 386 95 Example Detection Calcuiaions 349 36 Deteclon of Partly Pesvessed Seare 367 ‘Conese Hanbers 36? ‘Mowabe Detcctone 38 102 Oneviay labs "arr 103 SwoWay Stabs With Al Edges Suppore 104 ‘Two-Drectenal Ld Gaancing for Edge Suopored Sines 105 Precteal Anais for Unbalanced Loading 106 Dotecton of TeeWay Sas 3et 107 Pexural Seong of Two-Way Sade 304 108 Exenpe Twoay Walrouppored Sib aoe 10.0 Pretessed Fiat iste Sabe 10,0 Behar ot Fit lates 1013 Panural Sangin of Fat Pats $044 Shear in Fa iter No 1015 Traler of Moments at Comme 428 116 Dotection a Fa Plate aa 10.17 Exar Fat Plate GeronaCheptar 41 AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS 443 111 introduction ata 112 Behavior of Presrests Colne aaa 11.3. Example: Consrueon of stun Interac Diagram aso 1314 Nompresransed Remorcamentin Columns 88 113. Bonar of Sender Cuma ase 118 Praca! onsdrain a! endemess ects 480 118 Exar: Bohevor of Presrensed Concrete Tonson emer aro 119 Dong of Tension Menbers ara 11.10 Example: Oscign a ipesFrame Ts Member 73 1241 wodueton arr 122 Precestitombers for uings 478 123 Conpecton Detaie a 124 Shear Fehon Wats or Cannecton Ossgn 488 125 Brackets nd Cov 500 126 Linsteb Gonsructon 510 127 Stindara Precast srg Sectors S00 128. Segmemtaly Precet Gripe Corsivcton $07 132 Bnogee 510 135 Shels and Foisd Palos 520 135 iar Sorape Towers 520 6. Necles Containment Vessels 52 187 Paveronis ard Sebs on Grade 827 $24 Mat Foundations 528 139. Maine Sroctires 80 {310 Macelanooes Structural Clements 532 13.1 Tower ana ast Bee Aoperdix ] POSETENSIONING HARDWARE 560 ‘Aopendit SICONVERSION FACTORS 58 index 587 BASIC CONCEPTS 4.4 wTRODUCTION Prestresing canbe defined i general tems a the preloading ofa siructire, belo application ofthe service loads, (0 improve it performance in specie ways. Although the pin ls and techniques of prestssing have been appbed 1 stu lures of many types and teal, the most common applicaon iin the design ‘ot srcturalconeee. ‘Concrete is eseataly © compression material. Its sreagth in tension is uch lower than that in compression, and in many eases, indesign, the tensile resistance is discounted aliogeher. The prestessng of concrete, theefore, nat ‘ally volves aplication of«compresive luding, prio o-applying the antic pated service Toads, #9 that fen sreer that otherwise would cesar fe ‘odued or eliminated Ta fect, the original concept of prstessing concrete was 10 introduce saficent sal presompression im hum so that all tnson inthe concrete Was ‘liminated in the member at sence load. However, as knowledge of this Teativety new form of constaction has developed, it has become clea hat hs View is ennecesariy restive, and in present design pace tense sues in the eonerete, ven some ited racking, permite By varying the amount of ‘ompresive presen the number and width of cracks can be Limited to thedesired degre. OF equal importance, the defection of the member may be ‘ontoled. Beams may even be designed to have aero defection at a specie ‘combination of prestess and extemal loading. Inthe sens of improved service Abiiy,soch paral prestresing represents a substan improvement ot only ‘over conventional reinforced conerete construction, but also over the original form of fal pretresig that, wile eliminating tervievlad cracking, often ‘produce troublesome upward camber But i i not only though improved serviceability that pretesing has achieved is positon of importance BY crack apd deletion consol a service loads, preening makes it pole to exploy ecnorscal and tient high tensile strength te enforcement and high strength concrete ‘Crack width in conventional reinforced concete beans te roughly proper tional te the sues inthe ese enforcement, and for this teason std sos ‘ust be limited to vals fr less than could oterwie be uscd. Inpretesed teams, high sel stress isnot accompanied by wide concrete cracks, because such of the stain is pple othe steel before it i anchored woth concrete and before the members oad. Deflection of ordinary seinforced concrete beams is also inked diel to sarees, IF very hiph stress Were pemited, the accompanying high tans in the conerete and stl would inevably produce lage rotations of the cross FIGURE 1.1 Bridge of 180% span over he rer Mame at Luzaney designs by Freyecnet and but 98, FIGURE 12 View of te Lurancy bie sections along. the member, which translate dicey into large detections By [restaning the high stength reinforcement of pevrewot beams, the lage ‘ation and defections that would etherwie occa are avoided In ion, he ‘Ssenialy uneracked concrete member ise, forgiven seton dimensions tian it would be teaching were permitted to he extent piel of reinforced “Thos, i isnot only because of improvement of service load behavior, by contoing caching and deecton, that prestessed concrete i atteactve, but sso because it peat uilination of fice high sengh materials. Smaller and isu members may be ued. Te rato of dead 1 Hve load i reduced, spans tnerean, and the range of application of structural cone greatly extended, “The dramatic improvements in the performance of concrete structures that could he obtained by prestressing were fist rcogize bythe renowaed French ‘nginser Eugene Freyasnet Hi sais ofthe te dependent eects of sink toe and cre of concrete, which began sel a 191, lo him to realize the itoportance of using sel 3 high ial sress to presssconctete members. In [S80 he introduced system for prestzesng using wedge-ancored high suength el cables, a practical arrangement that sila wide us, “The remaable bridge ove the river Marne at Lzancs, France, shown in ‘igs. 1-1 and 12, illstates the innovation and daring tat was to be spies of esatine later design Built in 194, ths very Aa, twocinged poral famesrture has a span of 180 fe and u depth at midspan of only 4.17 fa rato of ‘pan to depth of 43. The hinged supports ofthe brie were provided with ‘justments in orde to compensate forthe elects of srnkage and ereep. The TEshaped bridge segments were prc. The fangs were cast frst and were connected by wires that were lesioned prior o exiting the web y jacking the ‘anges apart. Alter the webs were cast, the jacking force was released, recom pressing the wobs to counteract dlagoaal tes sueses ruling fm loads. Tndividua segments were then asenbled into larger component, which were placed in nal posiion by cablewsys and the ene structure then postien- Sioned. This structure, and Sve other sary identical spans i the same reson, ‘provide dhe model for segmentally press bridges now widely use Presrsing has been applied to great advantage in a wide variety of situations, fe of which are strated by the fllowing photographs Figare 1.3 ‘show the tse of press “doable-T” beams carrying 4 floor with clear spn of bout 20 fe End suppor is provided by the precast L-sceton beam ove the ‘window, also prestesied. Such precast prestressed constuction as been used extensively throughent the United State, "The consracon of bridges by the cantilever method, in which newly ‘completed sepmens are prestressed to completed constuction, silat by Fig 1 The twin span shown under contraction, near Parser four anes of FQURE 14. Twinbogerbge ver conscton ug te serena cast FIGURE 13. Precast prestssed double-T floor beams. FIGURE 1.5 Highway ecesing ia Sutzran, continous over three spans.FIGURE 1.6, sexreially proces postersoned roid tame ‘or the Otmpe {ation n Montreal Photograph courtesy of eg Trudeau and Assoc, Te ‘onten Canasta “The two-lane bridge shown in Fig. 15, ovr the highway between Bern and ‘Laosine in Switzerand, ilostates the lightness and grace often suocated with prestressed concrete sacar. “The hog, segmentlly pret frames shown in Fig. 16, completed forthe 1976 Olympre Games in Montreal usta the versa of pretresed concrete ‘To provide a seme of scale, noe the construction worker atop the ata ofthe farther frame, jst Forward ofthe supporting lee 112. STRESS CONTROL BY PRESTRESSING “Many important feature of prestesing canbe illustrated by 2 simple illus tion, Consider St the plain, untenfrealconeee beam shown in Fig. La. ‘ais single concentatd load atthe enter of is span (The velit of the rember wil he neglected here) Ae the lsd 1 gradually applied Toni lesan stresses are induced. Assuming that the concrete is steed only within is elastic range, the Hetual sess distbuton at midspan wil be liner, 3¢ Ata relatively low lod the ene stress inthe coneet a the botom of he seer wil each te ens strength ofthe atria, and ceac wl orm Since no resin provided spans upward extension of the cack, the member ‘il collapse without farther nee of fad Now consider an otherwise identical Beam, asin Fig. 1h, in which a rgtudinal aval fore P is introduced prior to the vertical fading The ngiadizal prestzesng fore wll produce a wnifrm ail compresve sess = P/Ay where 4 8 the ersten aren of he cones. The force canbe sajsted in magoitinde, so that, when the transverse Toad Q is applied the tpesposition of steses due to P and Q wil est in zero tease sss atthe ‘otto ofthe Beam, a show. Tenile ste in the concrete may Be ciminsted ia this way or reduced to a spected stout Butt woud be mare loi 0 appy the presressing force nar the ttm ‘ofthe beam 0 a5 to compensate more elev for the oad induced tension. A sible design specication, for example, might be to latoduce the maximum empeeson atthe botiom of the member witout causing tension atthe top, ‘nen oly the prestresing fore ats teal shown that, fora rectangle ‘es-sction beam, the coresponding point of applcton of the free a he Wwer ted point of the secon depth, The force P, with the sate vale ts fore, but applied with eccentricity e = 476 relative to the concrete cet, sil produce a lonitdinal compressive ses ition varying ow zero at {htop siface oa maximum valve of. = (P/A,) + (Pee/1.) a he batons, ore fb the cnerete ses a the section centroid, the distance lr omeete centroid to the bottom face ofthe coneete, and, ie the momeat of inertia f the erss section. Tiss shown in Fig... The sess at the bottom ‘il be exactly tie the alse prodaced before by ail prestessing. CConsequeatly, the wansterse lad may ow he twice great Defre, 20. and stl cause o tense ses. Tn fac, thease distbition resulting ‘om the superpeston of load snd prstresing fre in Tig, i ntl to ‘ht of Fig 17, although the loud is we as great, The advantage of ecentsc estressing i obo, The methods hy which conrete members ae prestzessed will be dscssed in some dealin Seton 16 with further details given in Appendix B. For present purposes, ii sufcent to now that one common meth of peesteaing ses Nigh seength ste wires pasting through a conduit embedded in the concrete cum. The tendon i anchored 1 the conerete atone en, abd is ttc a the fa end by a hydra jack that reacts against the concrete. When the desired lemson ithe tendon is oblnned, iti anchord against the concrete at the iscking end a well nd the ack is remeve, The ete elcome ten hy which the force P of Fig 1.7 may be appliedFIGURE 1.7 Ateratvo schemes for pressing a rectangular concrete boom, {@)Pann cancel bar (6) aly prosvossos bean. (c) Eccecaly pest eesod Sam (2) Beam prestossd wi vrsis score (e) Balance aad sage for 1 bean wh varie ecertty. 1 such a system is used, a significant improvement over the arrangement of, ‘i. 1. ore ean be made by using variable escent of prestes force ih cepost to the centroid of the conere section long the length af the member The lad 20 produces a Bending moment that vars inesty along the “pam ftom sero atthe supports to masimum st the contr. Inui, one spect that the Best amangement of prestesing would produce a countermo- ns sting he opposite sens, that would vary these wa. Thi aly nena the preses moments directly proportions to the evens of the endo, measured fom the steel centroid tothe concele centroid. Aca ny the tnd i now ven am escent that vais Heal rom 2ro a he nppors to maximum athe contr ofthe span. Such an areagemeat i Show a "ig 11d. Th sree at sispan ate the sume as before, both whea the load 20 ses and when it does aot. A the supports, where only the press fore acts ‘wi zero eccentricity, «uniform compresive srs is obtained as shown. shouldbe clear that, for each characters load arangemen tee is 2 st” tendon profile in the seas that it prodoes a prestess moment diagram ‘nat eoresponds to that ofthe applied fad. Ie is of farther interest to mote that, {The pretest oanteroment should be made exactly equal and epost to th torent from the lade al slong the span, the rs a beam tht i subject ‘nly fo uniform axial compress atreat throughout for that particular losing. he eam would not only be fe of eracking bu aso (neglecting the nuence ak ‘omerte shrinkage and eee) weal det neither up or dowe when that aad isin place, compared tos unstressl postion. Such a situation would be ‘blained for load of? * 20) =O, ssn i.e, for example. This condition iNtsfened to asthe balanced lod Sage ‘Although this bef dicanson fas ben presented with reference to the ‘mination of flenural esion and contol of ering and deflcion in concrete Iu should he rcopned that pressing may be used eleva Tor many ‘ile reasons, auch a0 reduce or eliminate diagonal tenalle sees in bea Insp teason in gud storage vessels or pipes, tense stresses due to loading Shnkage in pavements, ot fension from te scent louding of columns. The ‘undamental principles are broly applicable and provide design engine with 1 powerful means to improve the performance of stroctures of Many Pes 1 EQUIVALENT LOADS The eect of change in the vertical alignment of a prestesing tendon i 10 roce a transvers verti force onthe cone member. Tit foes, tote ‘th the prestesing fore acting atthe ends ofthe member though te tendon ‘ichorages, maybe looked pen as a system of external ores i sodyng the Mc of prestessing. Fig, 18a, for example, a tendon that spies force Pat the centroid of se concrete section atthe ends fa beam and that has a nifrm Slope at angle 8ro « ————- yg FIGURE 1.8 Equvatnt leads and moments produce by presresing endons between the ends and midipan introdsces the transverse force 2 sin @ a the pin of change ia tendon alignment at midepan. A the anchorages, the vr Eomponcot af the pestesing force ix Pind and the bortaonal component i ‘Peos8. The horizontal components very neatly egal to the free P for the ‘sual small slope angles. The moment diagram forthe beam of Fig. Lai seen to have the same form a that for any eenterlouded spe ops, “The beam of Fig. 18%, with « curved teadon, is sje! to a transese sisted lad from the tendon, a well asthe fores P at cach end. The exact ‘station ofthe Toad depends on the alignment af he tendon. A tendon witha uraboke probe, for example, will produce » uniformly dstibued transverse esl Inds case, dhe moment diagram wil have a parabolic shape, oral Loaded Spl spa beam. Wa straight tendon usd with constant eccenticy , ain Fig. 8c thee ave no teanserse ores onthe concrete Bul the member subject to moment ‘Meat each end well tthe anal force P, and diagram of constant moment rel "The end moment ust lo be accounted or in considering the beam of Fit 1d in whit a parable tendon is sed that doesnot pass through the concrete cngoid at the ends ofthe span. In His cse uiformy dstbated tansere ia and end anchorage fore ate produced, jst asin Fig. 8b. Buin sion, ‘he end moments A= Pecos @ must be soosdeed “The concept of equivalent transverse lading a useful ae, but it mst be syplied ith care, In all of the cares considered ths fr the prof of the het entoid was stright, The conte thus was horizon, conser, an any change in alignment ofthe tendon produced an unbalanced force acting tthe concrete at tat sot, Ifthe beam ais is curved, asin Fige Le and Ty, and the tendon and concrete centroid coincide a al sections, then the Intl frce produce by the stl tan seco is alanced bya relat force Inthe opposte dieton produced bythe trast fom the aiacent concrete, and tno Bending moment rel ‘On the oer hand if the tendon is stipht bu the concrete cnoidal ais us Some other alignment, an Fg 18g, then the aera fore proce by the ace thst ot banca by the lateral fors rom the ste. and ending ‘nomeat i produced a shown Tr may be evident that, fr any srangement of applied loads, tendon rofl canbe selected such that te aguvalent loads cing onthe beam from he "endon ate jst equal an opposite 1 she apple loads. ‘The rest would be 2 ‘Nite of pure compression inthe beam, a cused in somewhat diferent terns athe end of the preceding Secon An advantage af the aqulalnt leading cept tha it lends che designer to slst what is probably the bes tendon Profle for any given load configuration. 1 ie worth emphasizing that aff of the systems shown in Fig. 18 ae ‘eltequiibrating, and thatthe application of prestessing forces produce 20 "exer reactons. Thi is alvays tue for tatstcaly determinate beams, bai fe generally trv for inteminate spans, as will be discussed in Capes 8 1.4 OVERLOAD BEHAVIOR AND STRENGTH IN FLEXURE ‘In descibng the eect of prestessing ia Seton 1.2, it was implied that the team responded ina near elastic way and thatthe principle of superpsion was valid. This requires that the beam remsia uncacked and that both the onerete and stel be sessed only within tha laste anges. This may be theHHVEHAEE TEER Tb Heed d eed aaa: FIGURE 1.9 Prestosues concrete Dem a timate fone lod, (2) Bear wih Factores toa. (b) Baur ores On tha of Bean ‘ase upto approximately the level of sec lad, hati the actual sell-veght of ‘the member plas thse superposed load that may eavnably be expected fo act during the Ife of the member. But should the loads be increased farther, tense stessesresuling rom fexte wil eventually exced the tense steagth of the canerete and cracks wil form. These cracks oot cause fare, Becse ofthe presence ofthese and the loads peal ca be increased wel beyond the racking load without produsiog dite. Eventually with loads increased sil further, ithe the ste rth concrete, ‘or bo, will be stesed into thar nonlinear rngs, The conditon at inciient {aur is represented by Fp. 18, which shows a Beis carrying fotred ad, ‘ual to some multiple ofthe expated sere load. In gang a member, te Imagnitade ofthe lod factor can be elected to provide the dese degce of sates For the oveloaded condition, the beam undoubtedly would bein a partly racked state; a posible pute of eracking is shown in Fig 19. Only the ‘sonetete in compression is considered to be efecive justin the analysis of ‘ordinary reinforced conerete The sel in tension works with the concete in ‘compression to form an iternal foe coupe which resist the moma rom the ‘pple loa, "he coerete stress distribution inthe compression zane a failure can be ond by netbods presented in Chape 3a ean the magnitude of the comprer sive rant C, the tensile fore Tn te ste andthe distance betwen the ‘oo If the interaa eer asm is = then the lina resisting momen is M= c= Te an 1c wll be recopnied that, a the ulkimat load stag, when the beam sa the int of incipient Tare in Dexa, it bebavee very much as an ordity forced coneete beam. The min ference is th the teal used has very hgh ‘uch and requires avery lage stain o achieve high sess evel were te wed witout being prestressed (ad pretaied) in tension, unsccepaby Inge deformation and eacking ofthe beam would rel Through review of this section and the two presiding sections, it wil be ‘ear hat the effets of prstessing have een considered from three pots of ‘ew providing concrete stress conta (Section 12), creating equivalent rane verse lds (Section 13), and providing overload rrength through creating an ‘nti fore eoupl, jus asi onary ceinfred concrete (Seton 18). Each ‘these approaches is usefl in the analyse nd design of prestewed concrete, ‘ol each willbe used in the work that flows It shoud te emphasaad ak ysis based on elastic streses provides no information about member strength Siengthpredition requires development ‘of equations tat acount for both ‘rocking tnd nonlinear mater bebe. On the eter hand. sength analyse ‘eves nothing about steses under normal service fonds, nor doer it provide ‘nformaton about cracking or defections, whereas east seas analy and ‘suivant load analysis wil dos. In mom cases, prestess eects must be sidered at diferent load states, and from dierent pots of view, i he ttl stressed coneete den proses 1.5 PARTIAL PRESTRESSING nly designers of pressed concrete focused on the complete ciminaton of tensile streses in members at normal service Toad. This is defied fal esresing. As experince has boon gned wth pressed onerete conto, tom, it hs besome evden tht slution intermediate betwee fully pressed ‘neste and ordinary telafoced concrete oles many advantage Sich an ‘ntermedate solution, im which conerte tension nnd wal) some Beta ‘rocking is permite a ful service load i termed partial presen Although full presiresing ofl the posbliy of complete elninain of ‘socks af fll service Joa, it may at the sume tine procs member lh syetionably large came, of negalive defection st nee pial loads fe ha ‘he fall value A. smaller amount of presse ouce may’ produce improvedection characteristics at load stages of interest. While cack wil usually form in partially peestesed beams should the epeie fall serace load be applic thse cracks are sll and wil lose completly when the load is reduced. 1s addon to improved defesion characteristics, paral presresing result in significant economy by reducing the amount of presresed rin forcement and by permitting the use ofeoee-section configurations with eval racial advantages compared with those required by fll prestessing even though the amount of pretress force may be seduced through use of partial presressng, beam mus tll have an adequate facoe of safety agains Failure. This wll often require the addition of ordinary reinforcing bats int tension one. Alteratives are to provide the ttl ste! area needed for stent by high strength tendons, but to tres those tendons to less than their fo permitted value, orto lave Some ofthe stands unstressed. Partial prestessng is looked upon with increasing favor io the United States, a if offers the combined advantages of reinforced and prest 1.6 PRESTRESSING METHODS ‘Although many methods have been wed to produce the desired state of precom pression in constete member, al prestesed concrete members canbe placed fone of to categories prtenioned oe paut-enioned. Pretesioned preste {force is released and the force is wansfered by bond from steel o concrete. the cae of posttensoned prestressodconreto members, the endons ar tes fafer the concrete has hardened and achieved sullen strength, By Jack ‘gaint the conerele member ise A. PRETENSIONING “The greater pat of prestressed concrete construction in the United States tensioned. The tendons, usually inthe form of mulipleire stranded he stretched between abutments that area peemanent part of the plant faci fs shown in Fig 10a, The extension ofthe strands is measured, as well a Jacking force ‘With the forms in place, the concrete is cast around the stressed ten igh eacly stengih concrete is ofen wsed, logher with steam cutng tcelerate the hardening ofthe concrete. After slicientsuength i attained, Jacking presure is released. Te strands tend to shorte, but are prevented fe ‘doing 0 Because they are Bonded to the coneree mths way, the prestes fo {s transferred tothe conree by bond, mel near the ends ofthe bea, and m INGURE 110, Metode ol prtensening. (a) Bean wih sgh tron. 2 ‘wth vanble endo ezaty (Longe sesang and casey” °*8™ ‘ves anchorage is needed. Figure 1.11 shows the fackng frame at the end of « “ting bed eng edo pretenson many stl ales sitaeus i was noed in Section 12 that tis often advantageous to vary the endon ‘conti along a beam span. This ean be done when petnsioning by holing ‘kon the strands a intermediate points and holding them up atthe end othe span as shown in Fi 1-108. One Wo, of thre intermediate able epresins ae tensed to obain the desiedprole.These holddown eves remain ‘onbedded in the menber. To minimize (tonal lose of teson itis common acto to stretch the stright cable, then to depress it tothe final pote by ‘sing atay jacks Allowance must be mad, im this case, fr the increase it tension asthe cables forced oof sight sligamentFIGURE 1.11 Jacking frame a en of cating bed used for petensionng many Sands smunaneousy. Pretensioning i well ited to the mass prodvction of beams using the longctne method of prestessng a suggested by Pig 110 In prseat pace lanchorage and jsking abutments my be as moch as 80D ft apart. The strands “re tentoned over tefl length of the cating bed atone time, afer wich 3 fumfer of iadividvl members are cast slong the stressed tendon. When the Jacking foie released, the presuess fore is transferred to each member by ‘ond andthe sands acu free betmeen membas. Although a straight tendon ‘ahow in the sketch, able deprestors ire often ued wit long ine prestessing, x FIGURE 1.12, View of longine presiressing bed showing metal forma and tein tas wth individual members Figure 1.12 sa lew ofa longi pretensionng vpraton, showing th stresed tendons in place in the metal fers Note the lnk down frame in the middle distance; the tendon have ot yet been depress, Pretesioning is a parclal economical metod of pressing, mt only cause the standardaaion of design permits rable selon Aberlse fos, Int abo besause he simultaneous prestresng of many members at once rls tn great saving of labor. Tn addon expensive endhanchrage bandware sontnate,. POST-TENSIONNG ‘Whee pressing by posttnsoning, usually hollow conduits containing the unstressed tendons are placed inthe beam forms, othe desired prof, before pouring the coneret, as shown in Fig. 1.134. The tendons may be bundled Parallel wires, stranded cable or solid ste rods. “The condi wired to siiary beam reinforcement (ansrssd ters) to prevent scedentaldirplacement, andthe concrete poured. When it has gine uficient strength, te concrete beam ils edo provide the action for the fHressing jack a shown in the sketch. Wilh the tendon anchored by special fins the Trend ofthe member, tis stetced, den anchored atthe jacking =) ee FIGURE 1.18, Methods of postonsonng, (2) Beam wih rolow condut om edges in coneraa (0) Holow catia’ beam wah iene Songs (6) Cononucus ab wi Basle cheatned enoors “ul by sila ings ad he jack removed The esion is paged by messing ‘sth the jacking pressure and the elongation of the see. The tendons are nal tensed one Uno ach don may cons of many igure 114 shows a pica arangement for post-tensioning with the tendon ‘adit wired in positon and anchorage tings in place. In Fig. 115. niplstrand tendo, one of the a he bean, being ste Tendons are normally grouted in ther conduits after they ave sessed. A nit pate gout is forced into the conduit stone end Unde igh pressre, and wmping i coatnued wnt the gout appears atthe far ead of the abe. When it Fides, the grout bonds to the tendon and tothe inner wall of the cond Inviting transfer of fore. Although the anchorage tings rsa im pace Nansfor the main prstesing force to the conerets,grouiog improves the \etformance ofthe menter should it be overloaded and increases ts vlimate Menara strength ‘An aliemative method of posttensoning i iusratd in Fig. 1130. A Nwilow cellular concrete beam with Sold end blocks and intermediate’ dr ovlragms i shown. Anchorage tings are provided as efor, but te tendons FIGURE 1.18 Posttonsionad beam under canton showing draped tendon ‘ents and anchorages in poston or Wo ising sl fhe a osrngFIGURE 1.15. Postanioning a beam using mulsl-sran tendons. pss though the void spacer in the member. The dasied cable profile is ‘intact by passing the sel thouph stoves postoned in the intermedi Aliaphragms Tn many case, parca in relatively thin sibs, pose-esining tendons are wrapped with asphaleipregnaed paps or encased in plastic whestbing, 35 shown m Fig 113e. Anchorage and jacking hardware is provide The wrapping prevents the cocrete fom bonding 1 the tel. When the concrete has hardened, the tendons aze stretched and anchor, and the jack removed. Obsiousl, bonding of the tendon by grouting is inpoesble with sch an arrangement Figure 126 shows 2 o-nay lab under constrocion, which wll be pstien Sone ing the sheathed tendons shown in postion, ‘Countless patted systems of postensonng te availble alongwith al necesary hardware Esplict dete of representative stems are ound in ‘Appendix B.A sguant advantage ofall poxc-tesioning Schemes i the ease FIGURE 1.16, Two-way prestessod sib, using unbonded wrapped tendon, wn- "i donation Coury othe ost Tensoning nes wih which the tendon eecentcty canbe varied slog the span to provide the 1.7 CHANGES IN PRESTRESS FORCE ‘he magnitude of prstrssing force ina concrete member i got constant, but ‘ssa diferent vlbes during the fe of the member, Some ofthe changes are instantaneous or nea so, some are time-dependent, and some area Fanci of "he saperimposed lading. ll sch changes must be accounted for inthe desin. Nevlet of timedependen loss, in particular, accounts fr the lack of sucess ofall eayatempts to pestes concrete ‘With the exception of condone at severe overloading, the greatest force tastes dong the jeking operation. The joking force wil be releed to ‘utsequenty aff, For posttensioned member, this Toco is applied as ‘enti drs gon the concrete member, while wih preenioing. the ckng lence eats apni extemal anchorages and dos nt act onthe conceal ‘At the momeot of wansfr of pests fore from the jack to the anchorage uuings that gap the tendo, thee is an immediate reduction in force. Thee Is tcitably asa amount of slip asthe wedges or rps sex terse into the‘teal tendon, nd the shortening ofthe tendon that resis accompanied by loss {intense suai and sues. This is always a factor to consider in pos-enstoned beams. Corresponding slip les oor in preteoning to, bacase temporary fips ae normally ued at the jacking abvtment to hold the strand as Ue ‘Sacre poured, However, beams pretesiond by the log-line method, ip lee spt to be insignificant because of the gest length of eadon oer which the slp is dsuibued "There isan instantaneous srs los because ofthe elastie hortening ofthe concrete ae the preset force i transferred to it. This alvays occurs in Dretcnsoning, but occurs in posttenioning only i tere ze two or more fendone and if they are tensioned sequal. “Another source of imamate los of presuess fre, applying to post.en- sioned members only, tthe friction Between the steel and the conduit through ‘vic passa the tendon i sretcod. The tense fora the jack wl always ‘be lager than that atte far end, where the tendon anchor. This loss ea be ‘minimized by overstotching the Hes slighty if neossay, then racing the Jacking force tthe desired tale. Tn some cas, tends ae jcked from both ‘cade fo minimize fitionl loses, purl when the tendon pte hus Several revere of curvare, "Ata consequene of al intantaneou loses, inching those due o anchor ge lip last thoreeing. and friction, the jacking force Fis veduced te a lower ‘alu P, defined asthe nial present ore "With the passage of ting the sel sess s fre edoced. The change hat ‘aut this eduction oseur rahe apy a fs, butte ate of change of Suess on decreases Aner contant ses lvls appoadhd, but onl tte many ‘months, or even several yeas. "The main cases of Hie dependent loss are shrinkage ofthe concrete and concrete creep under sustained compressive sues Both ofthese produce shorten tng of the mnber, which resus in a redaction in ste san and sts. In ‘ion, he sel experiences «gradual elation of ses ais hla esely feastant strain. The rest of al time-dependent alfents, including cone hviakage and eoep and sel reataton, i that the sal pretess force i radu reduced fo what wl be termed the elie press force "The su of al loses, immediate and tne dependent, may be ofthe onder of, 20 0 5 percent ofthe orginal jacking fore All ses mus be sccountad for is the design of prerened coerce. Tey wil be examined in deal in Chaper 6. ‘Laing of» prestressed beam wil peerallyprodace an ures inst in the tendon As long the member remains utcacte, the icfease isso small that tir ually epeted in. Gespn. Hower, cracking of the concrete 5 ‘accompanied hy an nstantancour increase i sl ste s tho tase fore formerly carried by the concrete i taster tothe sel. ithe loa is creased further, the ember Pehavs much a edinary reafoeed concrete, and the sel vss increases roughly ia proportion tothe load wnt the nosiner range of til Behavior is eached allowed by eventual fae. The tel may seach is te tes tenth at alr, although ts is ot generally 80. © LoaDs: ‘ods that act on stotures can be divided into three broad categories: dead lol, ie faa, and emirommentl loads. Dex load ae xe in oction sod sant in ragnitude throughout thee ofthe structre. Usually the sfelgh Ir stactar the most portant part ofthe dead Toad, This can be aalated ‘uly, based on the dimensions of the siactre and the unit weight of he Intnl, Coneete dest vate from about 90 to 130 pet (14 to 19 KN /m) Tor lnweght concrete and is about 145 pet 23 KN/m) for normal concree. In ‘edsting the dead load of strtral concrete, wally a5 pof (0 KN?) ment inclaed with the weight of the conerete to acount forthe presence "ive loads com chiey of occupancy loads in buildings and trac fads fridges. They maybe eter ally o paral in place o not presenta all and nay eange i oeaton. The minim live lads for which the Boos and oof of Wilding should be desigad sre lly speed in the bing code tht Fnnerns a the sit of consrecton. Representative values of minimum liv loads he sed ina wide variety of buldings are found in Min Desig Load or ‘lng and Other Siractres (Ref. 4 portion of whichis epanted in Table The table gies uniformly dstrbuted Hive Toads for various types of ‘weupunies; these include impact provisions where necessary. These loads are ‘hpetod maria and conierbly exceed average vals. In addon to these ifort’ distributed foods, is recommended that, as an altemative o the tom load Alors be designed to support sey certain concentrate loads if "hes Toads produce a preter stress. Cetin redetons are permitted in Hive lad fox members supporting large areas on the premise that i nt Wel that the vie en would befall foaded a one time ‘Service ive loads Fr highway brides are specie by the American Associ ‘uo of State Highway and Transporation Oficals (AASHTO) in is Standard Sjetcatons for Highway Bridges (Rel 12. For ralway bridges, the Amesican Nay Engineering Asointon (AREA) has published the Manual of Rata ‘nginceing (Ret 13) vironmental loads const mainly of snow lod, wind pres and oa, earthquake load (ce, neta frees cated by earthquake motion) 9 fressures on subsurface partons of structures, lads fom possible ponding of insater 0b at surfaces, and forces caused by temperature diferentals. Like ‘ive fads environmental ons at any given ime ae uncertain bot in magnitude int distibution. Reference 11 contains much information on envioamentl“Table 11 Minimum union coubues v oas creme oa Fenstamcennctooy ° ” ‘iy fon Br el" coun of can Nino Suncast, 2 toa which fen mailed ally depending, for instance, on ll lmao 3 sami eontons 7 Tipe 117 fom the 172 efion of Ref. 11, gives sow loads forthe - mena nia Strand nda befor aaron, Te 182 een « 3 sce gies ch mor etal infomation & ‘ach ogress hs ben made ia recat yas in developing rational eth 8 cw fon prec haruontal rer on ht te owing and samen © ‘ten 11 summais creat ting raring ind fro nd has auch 2 ‘nwmaton peraiiag to earhquae Made at we Release 1A pres ® ed pcobmendtoe fr teal forces rom erie 3 8 The sum ofthe aleulatd dead ond ad the spt or casted ve and a cvoonmenta ea elo the sera ad, his the est xin ot Serene ss ema aera i mazipum lod hat canbe expected to act dig he see ie of he Seeman inate The fae lal oar ad tat srr mut be capable of Beers eee era cng 6 enue an adequate aaa af fy aga colep wml of SESSION ti Semmens mar 0/1 ome ‘hetero ld explained nt towing sso,|L9. SERVICEABILITY, STRENGTH, AND STRUCTURAL SAFETY “To serve its purpose, a structure msl be sevieabe under ordinary condions of tse and mort be sfe apne calla, Servieaist requis that detctions be Suitably smal that cack wid be kept to waa accepuble Limits that ibrations be minimizd, and so on. In addluon, most specications impose Timitations on the stress in the concrete and od. Safety requires thatthe fHrength of the sirsture be adequate to resist oveloading should the loads eualy expected to at be incteoed by crn amount. Tn devgning peesuessod concrete stuctfs, the engineer must consider a number of load stags and must impose ceiin Limiting conditions defining ervceablity and safety. This proce somtineskaown alin sates deen, ‘with specie consideration of eacking limit sae, defection lint state, strength Timi state, and the lie, Ta the United States, the design ofa pressed conrete member usually stare withthe consideration of limit sess in the concrete and ste when the ‘mene is nthe unloaded stage (ember soweight ps prestess) and the fll Service load sage. Tentative member dimensions and pesressing ste ares and force are sleted ised on ste limite imposed hy speciestions tach ab the Buldng Code Reqaroments for Reinfored Concrete (Res. 15 and 18) of the ‘American Concrete Init! For the tal member, cack wd, defections, tnd other seria Hnstcondions are checked nd the desigh modi i recesary, The lima strength ofthe member is then eauated and compared sith strength required to ist hypotbecal overioads. Sion dimensions Drestesing, and otber rnfocemeat may be futher modified to produce the regired margin of sf. The szengh of stature depends om the stength of the mates from shih te made. Minimsr mail sucngths are spied in cram, standa- Uized ways. The proper of concrete and its components, the methods of ‘ining placing and curing to obtain the required quali, andthe methods for Testing are spetfed in documents such as Ref. 13, for example. Inloded y feference in that document are standard ofthe Americn Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) pertaiing wo reinforcing abd pressing steels and concrete "Ten nn ap es io ao eran one ‘Shas Butng Case ogaremern Rand Corr (A 3683 wh sree Tha Coa ann oie aa ta Tower ts pote reat ar nse “nema eurst ond patch seat aren eure a Sones ‘ong! ona eee star coe a hare el tas aa grove tereoy Srercert A seo’ paleaten, Comer on Bay Case Aasmaan ies Cog se) poe ast ean te se Song alka depends on the cate with which the stature is bul that, accuracy with whic the drawings and spciatons of the engage azo td. Member zs may aie rom specfed dimensions, reinforcement may ‘wt of postin, prestesing frce may be impropey applied, © poot sent of the copree may rele in sods An importa part of the nee’ jo is to provide proper supervision of eonsracton, and sighting of ths esponibity has had astro consequences im more then one instance. Ii stvength could be predicted accurately and if loads mere known with equal tsny, hen safety could be assured by proving strength just Barely in excess he eeguirement ofthe lads Bu thee ate many sources of uncer i the ‘otinson of Toads as wel atin analy and design ofthe siroctare and in vtructon. These uncertainties rogues larger sarin of sft. The selection "appropriate safety margin is hot a simple mate, but much progress as ‘wn made i reset years foward rational safety provisions in sgn codes {ets 110 110) "he approach to safety that is found inthe ACI Cade (Ref. 1.5) is as futons, Separate ansderaton is iven to lode and strength. Load factors, line than unity, ae app tothe eased dead fonds and called of wed sence live and envionment loads to obtain fartord loads tht the ‘toner mut ast be capable of sustaining inepient failure. Losd actors tsning to diferent pes of loads vary, depending othe degree of uncer ‘int asecatd ith lads of vans types nd wih he iki of simula ocourrence of diferent loads. he load ators specie in the ACI Code ae summarize in Table 12. The ‘oqured sengih Us caeaat by appjing individual load actors to the “pctv service loads: dead load D, ve load L, wind load W,eathgue load forth pressure uid pressure F impact allowance 1, and envisoamental rivets 7 that may inside setlemen, rep, shrinkage, and temperature change mer ators are sed for Toad Kno with greater cert, for example dead ‘isis compara wi leads of greater vara, for expe, Ive Joa. Fue ‘temo ot lead embinaions such dead ps live lod plas wind Tose, nto coef is inttodced that refit the feprobabity that a xe rely large tive load coincides with at unusally high windstorm. The factors wll, in general way uncrsntie wth which nteral fond ests are vue from external oad in sats a comple sare bihly indeterminate, ist, eiaforced or prestessed concrete sructaren Finally, te Toad factors rish between two situations: (1) where the efete of all sinutaneous ro are adv, of (2) whete the vvious lad eet end to counteract each i sch as when erzomtal orcs ase present i adion wo grit frees In "ase in Table 12, the controling eauation i the ope tat give the largest actor tad eet The required sreagth, should the member be overloaded, ust nt exced a ‘omsrvative evimat ofthe actual strength To obtain that etn, ti nanaTobie 12 Fact a costo aang age reg U abla 13 Strength ecuaton factors inthe ACI Cade ren con Conon Faso oa ET ee tri "noo in Unorsab.1200 400) ‘tnd al om are Seca Cncreton at =0 ‘seat ac ih Rue ooo tonepste ero en caenoconn ons atnauake W=075(140+1.20+1876) hee menace 270 mee ae toprol on, ay devas “yor manber na oe eee 000, a a ‘naymeren macorstsnocay Pressure a a (= 0'=d,),/M not tess than 0.70 ¢ may be bap ‘anne 050 9 Gases tom orto sea Arona sce aA tots atte Pork rand manor, ¢ mabe eee rose Sibernte (Lore ine) bu renee Setter, creep, y=079.40+147=17) sw a teron : 085 Sato noes Sree Staeteicer ting oneomeria an “trengih 8, ig calculated according to the best avaiable information concerning tates and member behavior. That nominal sng ie rodoed by applying # steengih reduction fair $10 obtain what is called the dain strong of the member. "The design strength most be atleast egal to the roel sength ‘aeulated from the fctred lod, that, es2u 2) Equation (12) is stated in general tems. [can be interpreted as applying ithe to Toads acing on a member or to the related intemal ef such a8 moment, shear, and thrust. Tus, in specif terms for + member sujet, 9, to moment, shat, and thrst M2 M, (13) aah (138) or2P, ax) where tems with the subscript are the nomial suengths in exe, shear, and ‘thrust, respectively and tems withthe subscript arte factored lo moment, Seat, and thrust “The sength reduction factors ¢ fund in the ACI Code are summarize in ‘Table 13, These ar given diferent values depending onthe sate of knowledge 4 partcular kinds of member behavior, that is the confidence with which “uta strength ean be ealelted. Ths, the vue for bending higher than ‘hat for shear or beating. Also, values ret the probable importance, for rival of he steuctre, ofthe pariculr member, well the probable Galt ‘nol acieable For both se reason, lower value ned for clumat ‘ha for bea, ‘Provisions in the ACI Code and other specications for steenghrauction ‘core and loa factors af Based to some extent on satis information std sul such a5 summarized in Refs. 17 to 110, but euenly are based 10 4 i larger dice on engnecing experience, intuton, abd judgment REFERENCES 11 Minion Deon Laat for Duns nd Other See, ANSI ASKS, 12 Sundad Spee for Highway Bridger, 10 el, American Asecinton of Ste gros and Transportation Ofte (AASHTO), Washington, D.C, 198 Manual of Rasy Engen, Areican Ratay Expinecing, Avnion (AREA) Wathgton, BC14 Reconmnel Ltr Force Reremens and Commentary, Repo Siogy Coma, Sur Eginees Aston of Caster 1980 15 Ruling Cade Repeat for Retfored Comer, ACL SBS, Ameria Con: rte ate, De 1.5 Canes Bliing Cade Repiroment or Refored Concrete, ACL SAR, ‘Ames Conc last, Dea 198 17 MacGregor, 1G, Mina, $A, and Hlingnond B, “Stati Aba of Resstne of Remforen! and reed Corse Mewes” J ACT Va £8 Nova Mays fae 190 pp 167-16 18 MacGregor, JG, "Land an Restace Factor for Coes Design” J ACT, Vol 0, No 4 Ju-Atgat 198 pp 727 19 MacGregor, JG, "Safety an Lint Sts es for Reifel Cone” Con JG. Bn, Vo, Na 4 196 pp ST 10 Wat, Sey nd Serie Pvs ACL Rag, Cole, Nei sp. Ate BS moons 1 Fare hah (of PL, ile ad manent ‘Sige mig Hom pats pen oe dn ce o eS FE storm Plot be manent gran oo the compo ie of the bem in ach ase Disegard member sel-welght ab dead he eet fies of pees fre a cae ( hough) Fi P12, sh the tenon profile eesti the ‘ene of lacing the nde oh, Died member sleight and Sg ‘tees of pees ses. 1 tte == Geis auRe Pr2 ‘The simple spa eae own in Fig Le presi widh ceo 50 Kp an tendon een a shown (ent cnet be pot creddowd fom he oat seni (9) Wht a th coneee tess a ipsa Sd support ae op a bots of he Dean, feng fram pests orc i ‘ing oe? Find th tenes aud fet o pers fre sad een Seon ang te equtlent lead appou. (0) What sees ret fom the Speponion of poste an sleet o 1 pl (0) Wat concrete reste (Shancd when te ie bed Q 1 kp nodose? (8) Cod 3B! fxs esi crerytere) member be sie for Some va of @ fer the ang and tendon poe swe? TWO MATERIALS 24 INTRODUCTION “The stratus and component member o be considera are ‘composed of concrete, pressed with stl tendoas. Seppe: ental noo-preteeed reinforcement alowed for various Purpose Although the general characteristics ofthe mates vie wellknown « stidens of structural engincering abd practicing engines sm special properties ae af profound sigacance inthe eign of prestesed receded was the falar to consider some of thee special properties ihn! secouted foe lack of sacs of all xl lls to presto coneete. For inp i 84s ony after Feyssinet established the sgnifeance of ne-depen “at trinkage and cep of concrete tat prestressed sutures could be alt “tly The us of high suengih tet for pressings necessary for basic pial cons The mechanical properties ofthis steel, a dilosd by stess-sain ures are ite diferent from thse of the steel wee for ordinary reinorot iret. In addition to the higher strength, the designer must acount for ‘erences in dct, lik of «welldebned ysl pont. and other charter ‘Ordinary bar reinforcment, of the sume type wed for ordinary reiforad ‘omeret strstr al plas an important role in pestresed constriction I is ‘for web enforcement, supplementary Jongitdialrnforceent, and other The concrete used in presiresed members is characterisially of higher tvength than that wed for manfred concrete, Diferenes in slate modula,strsn capacity, and strength must be accounted for in design, and time-depen- ‘Gen characters aun coil importance “The increasing use of lghweight cones in recent yeas has permitted reduction of dead loadsa ate of special sgnifcance in concrete structures, ‘ud has facial handing of lrg precast suctral components. Advances ‘Somcrete technology have feslted in the development of phigh agreate ‘concrete of sueagth comparable to normal density materia. Its deformation) ‘haractrsics.intoding time-dependent effets, mst be fly undestod before ieecan be used with confidens 2.2 IMPORTANCE OF HIGH STRENGTH STEEL “The reason for the lsk of sss of most ety alempts to pretes concrete vas the fllure to employ see aa sfcieny high stew and san. The ‘ine dependent length changes peated by shrinkage and crxp ofthe concrete ‘mpltly elev the sel of sexe The importance of high rit sain nd the corresponding high inal srs in the sel cam be shown by 4 simple sample ‘Shows io Fg. 2.1(0) is short concrete member tht is to be axially prestesed sing ase! endon Inthe unstressed sate, the concrete has length find the untested se has length [ler tnsonag ofthe sel and aster of Tore tothe concrete trough the end anchorages, the length ofthe concrete is shortened fo and the length ofthe steched scl [These values mus, of ‘ours, he ental, a indicated bythe gue twang to —_————_3 pH tacit & ee FIGURE 21 tect shrinkage and crap of concrete in reducing preizes force (Gp Aialyprosvesso concoto mamber (0) Sessin sea ‘tthe concrete experiences 2 svinkage sein ty with the passage of tne and, in aditon, if eld under compression wil ule a crexp tai #,. The "oti length change in the member B= (ent ale co} may esac that it enced the stretch nthe ste hat preachers, “nd complete les of pretese force wil rel. ‘The importance of sbrnkage and rep stan ca be mized by using 2 exy high intl strain ans high nial stress inthe te. The rection in teal ‘wes from thee causes depends only on the unit sirsins in the conerte sone with shrinkage ad cre, and he slate modulus F of he sel he ent tad cy 1s independent ofthe inl sel ses. Tis nformatve o study the rls of caeuations for epresetative ves ‘the various parameters. Suppose fist thatthe member it pretest sing inary reinforcing ste at ah inl sues f, of 30 ks, The moduli of ‘ltt, forall tte sao the se and wil Be taken have as 2.00 he seal Sein i the ste ie he 0 . co Bw ag 13 10 vn the toa steel elongation oJ, 103 10%, o Wt a conservative estimate of the sum of suinkage and erep Strain in the ‘merle is about 090 % 10", and the comesponing length change (e+ Fade = 090% 107%, @ Sc J, and J re nearly the same, tis lear by comparing (2) and (2) that te bined ets of shrinkage and ceep ofthe conerete amor a complet os vt srs in the steel, The elecive tal stress remaining afer tie-dependeat sts would be fe ™ (1.03 ~ 0.0) 10°* 29 « 107 = Abs ‘Alternatively, suppose thatthe peestes were appied wing hgh strength cl at an ial sess of 150 Ks. In hs ease, the nal ssn would be 150 ” Ba00 x10 i)nd the tl ostion eda 517x107, © “The length change resaling fom the shrinkage and erep eflets would be the sme ae before Cen fade = 0.90107, and the efetive el stress, afer sss det shrinkage and reep would be Jue (847 ~ 0.9010"? 29 10? = 124s “The losis about 17 perent of he inal sel stress i his case compare with 7 percent lose when mild teal vas used “The results of thee caealaons are shown paphially by Fig. 215 and ‘usta leary the net in prestessng for sng sel that capable of avery ‘igh nial sts, 29. TVPES OF PRESTRESSING STEEL ‘There are tree comin forms in which steel i used for prestesed concrete tendons coki-rawa fund wires, sanded cable, and alloy sts! bars Grade Clsignation for stand and bars, correspond to tbe minimum tensile strength in si units For the widely used seven-vare sand, two grades ae avalible: Grade 230 (jp. ~ 250k) an Grade 70. The higher strength Grade 270 strand i now ‘mors dey sed thn the lower teenth stand. Por alloy sel bas, two grades [usd the regular Grade 145 not common, bet spel Grade 160 bars ean ‘be erdered The minimam tense suengh for clddrawn wires vais fom 235 10 250k depending on diameter and type A. ROUND WES “The round wites used for postensoned pretest concrete constuction and ccaionaly for pretensoned work ae matufactred to meet the requirements of ASTM Specteston A2l, "Uncoated Sies-Relived Wire for Prestess Concrete The individu wits are manufactured by hotoing te ills nto found rods. After cooling, the rode ae pased though dis to redoee their Giameter tothe gue sta. In he proces of ts drawing operation, cold wark {s done on the se peatly modifying ts mechanical properties and increasing its eng, The ite ae sree reboed afer old drawing by continuous beat tease to produce the presebed mechanical ropes ste 21_Properis of wncostes ‘mn raion roreseves wr (ASTM A 21) sacra coe inom)_“Tipeua Tews __Tyeebh pew ameaey_*_—Raowrag + —aomsocom (0108258) 240,000(1655) 280000(1795) 92.000(1825) 200001380) ‘b2e0te38) 24a000 (1889) 24Bon0 (1665) Y92.000(%525) 102000 (128) bare@on nt aasenocteas) 18800001208) "a ata Sma anatase ype BA wre Wires ae valle four dameters as shown in Table 2.1 andin two type. type BA wie i used fr applications in which col-end deformation is used for chosing purposes (uton anchorage). Type WA is wd for applications in ‘nich the ends ate anchored by wedges and no coldend deformation ofthe wre ‘iavated (wedge anchorage). Examples of tendons with button anchorages, ‘wore common in United Sates practice, are shown in Appendix B ‘Lowrelataion wire, smetines know a sabe wie, ia avaiable 1 ‘wot when itis enable to reduce Jos of prestess (othe minimum (ae Section 20), "Tendons are normaly composed of groups of wires, the number of wires in oct group depending om the particule system used and the magaitade of Iwestes force required Typialpelabicaed potunsoaing tendons may "ost of 8 to 82 individual wires Molipe endo, each composed of groups of ‘STRANDED CABLE Siraned cable is snot slays used for pretension members, and it often ted for posttensioned constuction as well Suapd is manufactured to ASTM Spesifcaion A'dl6, "Uncoated Seven Wie Suess Relieved Stand for Pre ines Conte” Iie abate wih sx wies wound tightly around a seventh lg larger dame, The ich ofthe spr winding is between 12 and 16 ‘isthe nominal diameter of the strand, The same typeof cld-revn stresereteved wire is wodin making stranded ‘abla i used for indvdoal pressing wires. However, the apparent mechan- ‘al properties ae sighay diferent because of the tendency fr the suanded ‘rir t saigten when subjected to tension Because the as of the wes does * coincide withthe diection of tension. Cable is sues-reieved by beat Neamen after standing. Low-elaxation or stabiied stand is widely avalable (sce Seton 26, Strands may be obtained in a sang of sizes from 0250 in, to 0.600 in, stometet a8 shown in Table 22. Two grades are manufactured: Grade 250 and“Table22_ Propane ot uncoated amen wire srasecaheved rang (ASTM A 16) Tema ‘Breaing Tomar are Tm oad Sameer Sengih ‘lavas at eenerion incon) ci in om) ban) Grade 0 2s0(635 000400) 6 2020) rsocuo) Osg75) ——14s00(648) oss a7) 23001547) arses 20,000,800) omer.) 17.000 (78.8) asec — Zrooociz0%) sone.) 20001023) oso0c27 © Seooocieos) §——osaatonvo 0.60 (136) 00 (1528) S4000(2402) 0.6 (199.3) ‘asa00 2082), rade 270 0375(05 —— 23000(1023) * Ooass480 195500870) Sasser — Stooocsr) —Oneaat) 2ese0(1172), esoog27 — 00a OasRT Sereo(tse Gano) susonwor) O17 a0) samo) Grade 270 have minimum uimate strengths of 250000 and 270.000 psi (1720 and TS60 MPs, respectively, bse on the nominal area of the stand In the case of alloy steel bar, the rouired high strength ie obtained by inwoducing certain alloying elements, mainly manganese, sien, and chrom, during the manufacture ofthese. Tn adion cold work te done i nang the bars, further increasing the srengih. After cldretching, the bars ae tee relieved to obtain the roe properties. Bars are manufactured to meot the Fequirements of ASTM Spesication A 723,“ Uacsted High Strength Stel Bar for Presresing Concrete” ‘Allo sel bars ae avalble in diameters ranging tom { in. wo 1f in as Shown in Table 23, and in wo grades, Grade 148 abd Grade 160, conespoadiag to the minimum ultimate strengths of 145,000 and 160000 psi (1000 and 100 MPa), respective. 24 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT Non-presiresed sel has several important applications in prestressed concrete ‘omsruction Although web reinformen for diagonal tensile stress (eo Chapter 5) may be peesteied, gelinanlly i nom pressed bar scl. Sepplementary non-prstssed reinforcement is commonly used in the repon of high heal Tobie 23 Properties of alloy tet bars Neil Nomina roang Tana oad Somer stenotbar senate 10.7% enension ‘erm eo nt) man) maa rade 96251588) oa07oa) 45,000 200) 000178) o7s0(1008) ——aea{aes) ono 285) ‘2.000 (258) ars@oz) gor es) ar. oo0 ET) ‘e000 (347) o0o@s4o) —O7es(so7) sta o004S07) 200 (850) Vres@sse) god ee) tancoyeet) 125,000(578) \aso@i7s) Yaar) reocara2) ‘ea,000(712), Vars@4ss) ——48s(ess) 2180000867) 95,0008) race 160 6251588) oao7qia) ab c00 218) sono 190) 7501008) aaa{aes) Tonos) e2om0 270) ars@225) —Deoveses) S600) 84.000(378) 000540) rasisor) ae o00 561) sto (40, resis) gaa) te8000(708) 3800 (619) 1200175) ‘86000 (672) 72000765) ors) 236000 (1050) 206000226) compressive stress atthe anchorages of posttensoned beams. For both preten- stoned and posttesoned members, it fs common t provide longitu ar stato contr shrinkage and temperate cracking. Ovehanging fangs of T= Sind shaped eros sections are normaly reinforced in both the transverse and \ngtadinal direction wth nontensonod bars Final, ite offen conveiet to ‘nerease the Neral strength of preted beams using supplementary lng ial bc enor ‘Such non-prestresedceinforcing bars, which are ental to those used for inary rnforced concrete consretion, are manoictred to meet the roe: ‘nents of ASTM Specieaion A 615, "Defrmed snd Psi Billet Sts Bas for (Conerete Reinorement""A 616, “Rail Ste Deformot and Pain Bars for ‘Conerete Reinforcement, or A 617, “Axle Sted Defermed nd Pain Bart for ‘Concrete Reinforcement” For apicauons where bending o welding are i= ant. the provisions of Speiicaton A706, “Low-Alloy Sted Deformed Bart ‘Concrete Reinforcement” must be me Bats te avalable so nominal stameters rom 3 to 13, in fn increment, and in two lager zs of about 1 ond 24 in diameter They are generally refered to by number, the number Serespanding to the number of eighth inches the nominal bar ate, for "example, a No.7 ba has nominal diameter of} i "To entity bars that mex the requirements of the ASTM specications, tsingishing marks are ole int the srlce of one side he bast denote(2) the point of origin the producer's ill dsgnation,(b the sire designation by number, (6 the ype of sel for ble steal symbol or ail steel or A for ale sce, and (8) inthe cae of Grade 0 bas either the umber 60 or » single continues longtoinal line through atleast Ave spaces fst trom the ‘ear of the bar sie Tn the cave of bar reinforcement, it is important thit steel and conret ‘eform together, thats tha there bea scien strong boad between te to ‘ters so tha ite o no relative movement can oeut This bondi prewed by the rately lage chemical adhesion that develope at the see concrete inteface, by te atral oaphnes ofthe mil scale on hotoled reinforce, and by closely spaced ibshaped surface deformations with which ars are Themshed to provide high degre of nteriockng of the two mats, Minioush requirements for thse defoomations have boa developed in experiment e- Search and are deserbed in the ASTM spcieatons, Dilerent bar proces use ferent patens to sats these requirements Bars are. produced in diferent strengths. Grade 40, 50, and 60 have specie minim sis strengths of 40,00, 50.0, and 6,000 pl, respectively (G76, 345, and 414 MPs). The preent rend is toward thereof Grade 6 bas {the bars of lowe yield strength may not be commonly avilable. Large diameter ‘ars with 75,00 snd 90,00 psi (S17 and 621 MPa) yield ae availble on special cotde, ltough they Sd lle application n prez coetee member. ‘Apart fom single reinforcing bas, welded wire mesh Is often wsed for reinforcing slabs, beam anges and olhersuracer soch as sels The mesh Consists of longliainal and transverse cld-raen steal wie, at right anes Sele at all pints of itesecion. Mesh avaiable with wie spacing rom in to 12 in and wire diameters from 0080 ia. to 638 ine although all Toble24_Nonpresvesosrentrcoment peated mamas Torso rade or ye stength senate Tee ‘se ps tPa). ery iat tee and ae © ‘oao0 @7e)———70000(485) ‘ool bare o eoaoo,sre) ——000¢e21) al ie bare = ‘saon(see)——_000¢382) ° soaopcare) 000,621) Coldtraun wire ‘oqeotaes) Bn an0(582) Walsed wire mass wi2ena 000,688) Te, 000(817) lager smatlerinen —shco0¢a8e) 79000485) ‘combinations are aot readily avaiable. The ize and spacing of dhe wires may be "he same in both dtstion or ifereat ss asded, The sts wie and the Mite heh mast meet the requirments of ASTM Speciation A 82, "Cald-Deaw Sel Wite fr Concrete Reinforcement,” and A 185," Welded Stel Wie Fabric lo Concrete Reiforcment” “Table 24 ists all commonly availabe reinforcing sts including wire sesh, with information on eld stress and tense strength. Puree information Periaiing te bar sel and mesh wil be found in Appendix A, 25 STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES OF STEEL Most ofthe mechanical properties or steel of interes othe dexen engineer can te rad directly from thee stuen-strain cures. Sach niporant carats porn elas lint, yield oun, sngt, duct, and stain hardens Properties iewmedaely evident Ws iastrative wo compar, in general rms the tense stress-strain carves low oeinary bar taforcemeat and typical prestessing sel, sia Fig 22. The “|= 1GURE 22 Comparative sress- stan cures fo rinforcng see and prestress-‘most sting difereoces ae the much higher proportional csi Limi and Strength available in the round wires and alloy bars ted for pressing, andthe Substantially lower duty. For ockinary reinforcing steel typed bere by Grades 40 and 60, here ia inal laste response upto» sharply dened yield pot beyond which there is a substantial increase in strain without an azompaning incense fn tes, I the load is inctased, this yield plateau is followed by 2 repon of strain ardeiny, during which very nonlinear relation Between sess and stain i obtained Eventually, rupture ofthe mate il occur at aather large tensile sin of about 13 peceat for Grade 0 bars and 20 percent for Grade 40 bars ‘The contrast provided by prestessng sels i striking, They show no ‘wellefned yield sues. The proportion! limit or fund wes (and for sand ‘made up of such wits) is about 20 ks, ve times the yield pot for Grade bars. With ferter leading, the wires show gradu sing but the curve continue ose monotonically wl the te fractures, The fale tess forthe site shown s 250i (1720 MPa), almost for times that for Grade 40 bar but ‘he sirin at fare is only oneid as great Ally bars have characters similat to those of round wire or sian, but the proportional Ht and strength te 30 wo 40 pera les, i jm fy oe ef FIGURE 23 Typca eress-san crestor nonterloned rifting bas. Mote desl stress-strain carves for reinforcing br sel are shown in Fig. 1 he elastic moda forall uch stele about these! 2000 kt (210 00, ‘Mt Although Grades 40 and 60 sel ally show «well dined il pin, ts nots for the higher strength sel. For such case, an equivalent yk i i deine as tha stess at which the ttl strain 0.35 percent, scoring {i ACT Code All grades show’ extensive sain hardening ater the ld se it feaced. Duct as measured bythe tol sain a fate is iia es Toth igh grades. Detaled stesraincrves for typical prestressiag wie, stand, and alloy ate given in Fig 24 For smooth, ound sites, the elastic medals about ‘he same as fr ordinary renforeemeni that, about 28,000 ks (200,00 MPa) ‘se standed eae, the apparent module is somewhat les bout 27,000 ks (1.000 MP), although the strand is manifctred fro the sume wre Ths happens Because the mpealwound iand tens to staihte lighly a thecal vloaded in tension The modulus for ebls embedded in cote may be ose Yo that fr round wees. The artic mods for allay bar aun about 27000 bee oe IGURE 24, Typla oss-sain cuves fr presessing seas(486,000 MPs), the reduction inthis case occating because ofthe presence of Tn the absence ofa welldetined yield sess for pressing sts of all types, it is necesry to adopt arbitrary definitions of yielding. For wire and Stand, the ild sess i dened asthe stress at which ft extension of petent is atsine. Fr allo bars, the iid stress faken as equal othe sess producing an extension of 07 percent. These ales ae shown in Fi. 24 26. STEEL RELAXATION ‘When presen sec ie steed tothe levels ae cso dng nl {ensoung and soviet canis + propery own ean, ‘Relsaon dened theo of sess in se aera held conta tenth (The same tae phenomenon known a cep when defined nts of Gi i engin ofa mca war coin sem) ln preted conces trebers cops ina ole concret a wl ee Eunos Fle! lad case changes in endo gh Howe in eauatg ls ft ‘es sa rel of ela. the ngh ay be consdcred constant. ‘elution i st shrived flonenon, From salle evdcce appears a conte sos nde aout dining ate mst te ‘loaned for inde ems t prokes sean lo of presen ose. “he amount of tation vars depending on the pe a de of il tt he most sient parancer tine thd nena ofthe tial ese “Rnb of th eof any experimental ive gtons some acing nine deat craion tas produced We omaton preestd apical in Fg 2,0 ich fie fl esr # hors te nel ses, a fe he Yields, Te pe sr may Be ae qual he eecne des net in Seon 25 "Te nfrton shown in Fig. 25 may be approxima wth misfactory sceuty by the follow een. bay ; gale} an erg i tthe tae 1, and f/f, 8 nt stan 05 Ref. 2, “Te ests on which Fig. 23 ad, Qi) ate bated were sl ered out 08 round sree ee The else cual appa seseeve Sand and inh hens oie infomation may a Be ape ally sel tem, in he ese of pretensions member te ration los cco etre rea (eater of fost ie cone) shold be sac fram the tal fautin lor pdt forthe Crve se at ewe For example he Ses i be erated tine the wie tenon at ine ad ele "GURE 25, Steet relsaton curs for onary eress-eeved wire and sand time then Eq 21) may be modi a ows fay. (HE os) wo) fie een "he term Jy, may Be taken asthe st stress at release, In sot cates, relation lasses have buen reseed by presuetching, a ‘echnige By which testes nthe sels increase to's level higher th the ‘nlended intial ses, held a that level for sheet pend of time and hen ‘ols tothe intended inl stress, Since the praca lee of initial se is hat 70 percent of the stcgth of the steel i i ao eal to overs by tore than about 15 percent ‘Oa the bass of avallabe evidence (Rel 1) it seat peseeching fl cosets the pressing pid i Inte o ony a few mines. ‘Special low-relatation wie and sean are avallbl, ad their use is becin- ‘ny: ommon, According to ASTM Specieatons AIG and $21, such ee! wil "rib celaxation after 1000 how's aot more than 2 percent when initally ‘eed 70 percent of the spcid nile strength, and not more tan 33 vent when loaded to 80 peceat of the speed tele stength, Relaaton ws fr lowtelaatin wre ad stand an be taken oe about 25 pesca the for normal wie sod send 2.7 TYPES OF CONCRETE "or several easons te concrete used fr prestressed contruction scaracttized loya highr strength than that used for ordinary reinfornd coset I asuallysubjected to higher forces, and an increase in aiy generally Teds to more onomatal eri Use of high srength concrete permits the dimensions of ‘ember ers sections tobe reduced othe minimum Significant saving in dead {ted ves and longer spans become tednialy and economically possible ‘Objectionable defton ad rekig which woul otherwise be sociated wih the ue of slender member at high sires are casi convlled by pressing “There are ober advaniages High suengh conrete has a higher elastic modal than low stengh covert 0 tat los of prestes oc sulin rom ste shotening of the conrete i reduced. resp loss, which re sously froportonl to clase loses ae lower ai. High Bearing sess in he vic) Er endon anchorages for psttessoned embers ae more ely accommodat- ‘and the az of expense anchorage hardware can e reduced. In the ease of pretensoned cements higher bond sng results reduction inte develop ent length fequred i tran presto from the cables othe concrete. Finally, concrete of higher comprenive strength ao has a hgher tense stengi, Sorthat the formation of lect sd agonal tension cack is delayed. The ste ptf prt oes cnn he Une Sass unde eat cotald plant codons. With extemal frm wbraion Tiel av internal vibration ofthe fe concrete ery sigh steagth mies, ‘ub low water-cement ro, can be placed thot danger of vids. Careful Tonvol of mix proportions Sore eal achieved. Stam ewig is often wed, ‘Thich provides ore complete hsdation ofthe cement. As, for prestressed Concrete members east on the job st higher sengh coneee s generally Specied amd more easly obaied,beeause of the more pressely engineered ature of he construction, Workabity of he mit an be matin ven with {he ven low watr-coment ratios need for high strength, tough the use of perp. ie present pace, compresive strength between 4000 and 8000 psi (25 and 35 fa is commonly specie for pressed conrete members altiovgh Strength ar high as 1200 pal (3 MPa) have been used It shoul be em ‘haseed, however, that the lace strength sasoed in the desig caleulatons Td spcied must be atid nth tat, because the clcalted high tees ‘lng frm presree fre realy 60 oat. Spec meston shold be made ofighveight concrete, atte though ase of ight abreat inthe ik The sugreats Used maybe shale, cy, Sieg. or pleut fy ash. They are gh in weight Because ofthe porous, ‘Silla ste ofthe india! aarerate partes, achive in most ass by {hr ov stam formation ts procenang the aggregates i rua) Ks at high {Eperatures Concrete canbe produce, usog these apezates, ith acl mx ‘lg, having uit meh brwexn 90 and 120 pet (and 19 EN/?) compared ‘sth about 145 pef G3 AN/a) for normal density concrete. The stengh of Tighe conte can be made comparable to thao sone ares ence through proper sletion and proportioning of components aad conte ofthe "he design and contol of conte mins and the development of proper vues fr placing and curing ar a highly speilred eld study ad rot "ihn the scope af ths book. Attention here wl be focsed on the enginsing wopstis ofthe esting mater For information on what is ene Know 1 suncrete material schol. the reader Is tefeted to the comprehensive lwatnets consid in Refs 22 and 23, Practical information of grt value ined in publications bythe Porland Cement Associaton (Ret 2.4) and the American Concrete lasttate (Refs. 2 1028), 2.0 CONCRETE IN UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION arc et nly in compen na colin ses of mente, ich oof ses a ppm, Arn, ‘hina somprne seta cune te pny ite Shee ied lado andar oindr pr oh at rbd ao ig! Rare 2 shows pe a eh as far nme weg ce si: of sboat MS gt cbt tm anal compre ee fea sal ete tne sper ob sna 2 aps al. Figo 27 ses wrpoaing curso ghee const with est of 10 po, ‘theres ast rue Tey Sons nt eey sit se porn in nh ss ad's ae sth Pept es ‘to creo te hus xing ima soca ati te nes seth asta tht ngs om ts 0072 0 003 fer ora ‘theorem 0.3 0 00035 er ightwe cones Ret 29.80 Th ihe le asin ach te creoding thigh segs Al ones ‘iow deendag bach are pa ts es Rotor hese ‘cis ofthe ces te ek ae ghlSepenn oe eb ‘ting fp posers olen eng nu on ss ‘inoiner sung dareang ng ai deedg ces ee ‘sine Re. 21) athe se pil Seve unoding pst he Plt ‘yak sess may be pl pay rte hier sagt see “rnrly more be tn iw seg oct: Ardy opt Seca trac ing inn wal mre en oO Thal te empl tt the Satay of he sea cave fe suy conrad oo sch vrai ee Mag te alr etn een the moh of ig de Sud shape te Sec Theron shorn ge 26 and 2a pal ne ee ane ‘ied by prt sandr pcos tbe stale ute dee Sitos my be ould. Pornu, deg ped a eed at sre perish pee sn eae ‘i ASTM SpeciatonC 192, “Stance sd Making and Curing Conrte Test ‘Seine titi nor Tet caso Campeseve Sr olres strain curves for normal density con- Haun 26 ‘ype! cages erase Eee pet Aas rm Re 35 rs ofelely , Gn i) a te pe of te na sai pant ss sa srs he ihre sgh of te Sci! or eons ote sengih ogee 6000 pa, cn be Sigil anus we pal eqn foun ee B.- 3WiE 03) ew, th unit weight of he arn cone in pe and 0 tenth in ss! Eqiation @.3) was obtained by testing stroctural cones with vale of JF tot 90 to 135 po. For nova snd-and-stone concrets with w= 185 pl ay be taken as = 57.0007, 0) For compressive strengths inthe range fram 6000 1 12.000 pi the ACI Code 50 open fr he ale lan ne nensenay tsi aur. i be ef ? 5, GURE 27 Typical compresve sess stra cures for ighwelght concrete ‘iting 100 pe Adept tom Pet B8 * cation overestimates, for both normal weight and lightweight material by ax tics 20 percent Based on eeent recast Cornell Universi Refs 29 ad Wy the following equation is recnomended for normal wep emetic wk {he range om 300101200 pa and for ihre cone oa 30 (oan pt 2, ~ (40,000/72 + 1,00 00) *=) @s) lee terms and nis areas deine previously for the ACI Code equations ‘When compressed in one decton, contests, lke all other mutes ex- ‘ous the distin transverse othe direst of the appliodsuexs The 0 ‘lhe transverse strain othe loaitadial strani town oe Peon ratio. it ‘vega only inthe elastic range, at sree lee than about hal the conte wath In this ange, Poisons a for conerete varies between aboot DTS ad “The strength of concrete vais with ae, the gin strength being rapid ‘ws, then mach slower. Tis valaton of strength is specially impertast tie