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7-layer OSI MODEL The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is developed by ISO in 1984 to provide a reference model

for the complex aspects related to network communication. It divides the different functions and services provided by network hardware and software in 7 layers. This facilitates modular engineering, simplifies teaching and learning network technologies, helps to isolate problems and allows vendors to focus on just the layer(s) in which their hardware or software is implemented and be able to create products that are compatible, standardized and interoperable. The diagram below shows the 7 layers of the OSI Model, to remember them in the correct order a common mnemonic is often used: All People Seem To NeedData Processing.

Host A

Host B

The Application, Presentation and Session layer are known as the Upper Layer and are implemented in software. The Transport and Network layer are mainly concerned with protocols for delivery and routing of packets to a destination and are implemented in software as well. The Data Link is implemented in hard- and software and the Physical layer is implemented in hardware only, hence its name. These last two layers define LAN and WAN specifications. A more detailed description of each layer follows below, but here's what basically happens when data passes from Host A to Host B: 1. the Application, Presentation and Session layer take user input and converts it into data, 2. the Transport layer adds a segment header converting the data into segments, 3. the Network layer adds a network header and converts the segments into packets , 4. the Data Link layer adds a frame header converting the packets into frames, 5. the MAC sublayer layer converts the frames into a bits which the Physical layer can put on the wire. The steps are known as the 5 steps of data encapsulation. When the bits stream arrives at the destination, the Physical layer takes it of the wire and converts it into frames, each layer will remove their corresponding header while the data flows up the OSI model until it is converted back to data and presented to the user, this is known as decapsulation. APPLICATION

The Application layer provides network services directly to the user's application such as a web browser, email software and Windows Explorer. This layer is said to be "closest to the user". Protocols that operate on this layer include: TELNET, HTTP, FTP, TFTP, SMTP, NTP, SNMP, EDI. PRESENTATION This layer 'represents' the data in a particular format to the Application layer. It defines encryption, compression, conversion and other coding functions. Specifications defined at this layer include: GIF, TIFF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME, and ASCII. SESSION Establishes, maintains and terminates end-to-end connections (sessions) between two applications on two network nodes. It controls the dialogue between the source and destination node, which node can send when and how long. Also provides error reporting for the Application, Presentation and Session layer. Protocols/API's that operate on this layer include: RPC, SQL, NETBIOS. TRANSPORT This layer converts the data received from the upper layers into segments. The Transport layer is responsible for end-to-end (also called source-to-destination) delivery of entire messages. Provides end-to-end connectivity, it allows data to be transferred reliably and sequencing to guarantee that it will be delivered in the same order that it was sent. Provides services such as error checking and flow control (software). Protocols that operate on this layer: TCP, UDP, NETBEUI, SPX. These protocols are either connectionless or connection-oriented: Connection-oriented means that a connection (a virtual link) must be established before data can be exchanged. This can guarantee that data will arrive, and in the same order it was sent. It guarantees delivery by sending acknowledgements back to the source when messages are received. TCP is an example of an connection-oriented transport protocol. A common example of connection-oriented communication is a telephone call: you call, the 'destination' picks up the phone and acknowledges and you start talking (sending data). When a message or a piece of it doesn't arrive, you say: "What!?" and the sender will retransmit the data. Connectionless is the opposite of connection-oriented; the sender does not establish a connection before it sends data, it just sends without guaranteeing delivery. UDP is an example of an connectionless transport protocol. NETWORK This layer converts the segments from the Transport layer into packets (or datagrams) and is responsible for path determination, routing, and the delivery of these individual packets across multiple networks without guaranteed delivery. The network layer treats

these packets independently, without recognizing any relationship between those packets, it relies on upper layers for reliable delivery and sequencing. Also this layer is is responsible for logical addressing (also known as network addressing or Layer 3 addressing) for example IP addresses Examples of protocols defined at this layer: IP, IPX, AppleTalk, ICMP, RIP, OSPF, BGP, IGRP, EIGRP, NLSP, ARP, RARP, X.25 Devices that operate on this layer: Routers, Layer 3 Switches. Network layer addresses Also known as Layer 3 or Logical addresses. These type of addresses are protocoldependent, for example if the network protocol is IP, IP addressing will be used which is made up of a network part and a host part and needs a subnet mask to determine the boundaries of these parts. An example of an IP address is: 172.16.0.1 and a subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 Another example is Novell's IPX addressing, which uses a combination of a hexadecimal network address + the layer 2 MAC address to form a network layer address, for example" 46.0010E342A8BC DATA LINK The Data Links provides transparent network services to the Network layer so the Network layer can be ignorant about the physical network topology and and provides access to the physical networking media. Responsible for reassambling bits taken of the wire by the Physical layer to frames, makes sure they are in the correct order and requests retransmission of frames in case an error occurs. Provides error checking by adding a CRC to the frame, and flow control. Examples of devices that operate on this layer are switches, bridges, WAPs, and NICs. IEEE 802 Data Link sub layers Around the same time the OSI model was developed, the IEEE developed the 802standards such as 802.5 Token Ring and 802.11 for wireless networks. Both organizations exchanged information during the development which resulted in two compatible standards. The IEEE 802 standards define physical network components such as cabling and network interfaces, and correspond to the Data Link and/or Physical layer of the OSI model. The IEEE refined the standards and divided the Data Link layer into two sublayers: the LLC and the MAC sub layer. - LLC sublayer LLC is short for Logical Link Control. The Logical Link Control is the upper sublayer of the Data Link layer. LLC masks the underlying network technology by hiding their differences hence providing a single interface to the network layer. The LLC sublayer uses Source Service Access Points (SSAPs) and Destination Service Access Points (DSAPs) to help the lower layers communicate to the Network layer protocols acting as an intermediate between the different network protocols (IPX, TCP/IP, etc.) and the different network types (Ethernet, Token Ring, etc.) This layer is also responsible for frames sequencing and acknowledgements. The LLC sublayer is defined in the IEEE standard 802.2. - MAC sublayer The Media Access Control layer takes care of physical addressing and allows upper layers access to the physical media, handles frame addressing, error checking. This layer

controls and communicates directly with the physical network media through the network interface card. It converts the frames into bits to pass them on to the Physical layer who puts them on the wire (and vice versa) IEEE LAN standards such as 802.3, 802.4, 802.5 and 802.10 define standards for the MAC sublayer as well as the Physical layer. Other standards on this layer include: X.25 and Frame Relay Data Link layer addresses Also known as layer 2 addresses, BIAs (Burned-in Address), physical address and most commonly referred to as MAC address. This is a fixed address programmed into a NIC or a router interface for example. 00-10-E3-42-A8-BC is an example of a MAC address. The first 6 hexadecimal digits (3 bytes) specify the vendor/manufacturer of the NIC, the other 6 digits (3 bytes) define the host. The layer 2 broadcast address is FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF. PHYSICAL This layer communicates directly with the physical media, it is responsible for activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical link. It handles a raw bits stream and places it on the wire to be picked up by the Physical layer at the receiving node. It defines electrical and optical signaling, voltage levels, data transmission rates and distances as well as mechanical specifications such as cable lengths and connectors, the amount of pins and their function. Devices that operate on this layer: HUBs/concentrators, repeaters, NICs, and LAN and WAN interfaces such as RS-232, OC-3, BRI, V.24, V.35, X.25 and Frame Relay. TCP/IP stack vs. the DoD Model TCP/IP operation is defined in its own model: the DoD model. DoD is short for Department of Defense, who desgined TCP/IP for ArpaNet. ALthough they are similar, in contrary to the 7-layer OSI model the DoD model has 4 layers. Each DoD layer and its functions corresponds to 1 or more OSI layers and their functions, which is represented in the image below:

For the CCNA exam you don't need to know the DoD model in detail, but if you know the OSI model and the related DoD layers you can easily identify the layer at which a certain protocol or standard is specified, for example: Process/Application: Telnet, FTP, SMTP, HTTP, SNMP, etc. Host To Host: TCP UDP Internet: IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP, BootP, etc.

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Current related exam objectives for the CCNA exam. Troubleshooting - Utilize the OSI model as a guide for systematic network troubleshooting

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model


Related Terms

OSI The OSI Reference Model - Understanding Layers router(Sponsored) Logical Link Control layer Understanding The Data Link Layer routing switch dual layer layer Modbus protocol X.400 modeling switch layered defense PDU By: Posted: 09-24-2010 , Last Updated: 10-08-2010 The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy. The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

Application (Layer 7)
Sponsored Take an interactive tour:: The IBM SmartCloud gives your business the IT resources it needs. This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network softwareservices. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,congestion control and packet sequencing.

Data Link (Layer 2)


At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls framesynchronization, flow control and error checking.

Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. This article describes and explains them, beginning with the 'lowest' in the hierarchy (the physical) and proceeding to the 'highest' (the application). The layers are stacked this way:

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

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PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:

Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:

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What signal state represents a binary 1 How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts How the receiving station delimits a frame

Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:

Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium? How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for? Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling. Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:

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What physical medium options can be used How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a given physical medium

DATA LINK LAYER


The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer provides:

Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes. Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are available. Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially. Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt. Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries. Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity. Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical medium.

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NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:

Routing: routes frames among networks. Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up. Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station. Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses. Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.

Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software residing in the subnet intermediate systems can recognize them and use them to route data to the destination address. This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data transmission and intermediate switching technologies used to connect systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the intervening communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in the communication subnet).

In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not the destination station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many intermediate systems. Back to the top

TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers. The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery. The transport layer provides:

Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message. Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments. Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are available. Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions (see session layer).

Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame. The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to recognize message boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.

End-to-end layers
Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent nodes, the transport layer and the layers above are true "source to destination" or end-to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of the underlying communications facility. Transport layer software (and software above it) on the source station carries on a conversation with similar software on the destination station by using message headers and control messages. Back to the top

SESSION LAYER
The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations. It provides:

Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session. Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the network, performing security, name recognition, logging, and so on.

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PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station. The presentation layer provides:

Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC. Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on. Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network. Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

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APPLICATION LAYER

The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:

Resource sharing and device redirection Remote file access Remote printer access Inter-process communication Network management Directory services Electronic messaging (such as mail) Network virtual terminals

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