Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Authors:
Hua-Li Jian, Dept. of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, Ta Hsueh Road, Tainan
City 70101, Taiwan.
Frode Eika Sandnes, Oslo University College, Faculty of Engineering, Cort Adelers gate 30, N-0254 Oslo, Norway,
frodes@iu.hio.no
Abstract Most engineering disciplines, such as computer engineering, are in constant and rapid change. Technology
and paradigm shifts take place every few years and every major change brings new vocabulary and terms. Apparently, these
changes also affect the engineering education establishments, its educators and its students. The changes do not impose any
serious language problems for the educational institutions of English speaking countries, because new inventions and
advancements are generally published in English-language journals, magazines, conference proceedings and eventually
textbooks. English is the de-facto international engineering language. However, many non-English speaking countries,
including most European, Asian, African and Latin American countries, struggle with these changes from a linguistic point-
of-view. It generally takes time for textbooks written in the local language to appear. More obscure engineering subjects may
never enjoy a textbook written in the local language at all. The low-budget textbooks that do appear frequently use ad-hoc
and poor translations of the new technical terms associated with the new technology, or they simply use the English terms or
some phonetically close adaptations. As a result, English textbooks are frequently used. Consequently, students may fall into
the habit of using an ad-hoc and anglofied terminology. For teachers authoring their own textbooks, lecture notes and
teaching materials, the term-translating job can be overwhelming as it takes time and requires inspiration to find fitting and
meaningful terms. In this paper we discuss how students can serve as an invaluable resource in the process of inventing good
local variations of technical terms - terms that enhance the correct associations founded in the local culture and language.
Experiences from Norwegian engineering education are described.
Index Terms Vocabulary, language for specific purposes, technical writing, translation
PROFESSIONAL TRANSLATION
Translation is a profession in its own right [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Terminology is a sub-topic of translation involving the study and
the collection of terms for LSP (Language for Specific Purposes). It can be divided into three main topics: theory of
terminology, terminology mining and terminology management. The theory of terminology addresses the origin of
terminology, social aspects, evolution, control and standardisation. Terminology mining involves identifying the terminology
from text corpora and terminology management involves the cataloguing and classification of terminology – especially by the
means of computers and databases. The purpose is to assist professional translators, technical writers and information
specialists. These subjects place little emphasis on the creation of terminology. Further, few engineering and science scholars
TERMINOLOGY MINING
Authors of engineering textbooks must pay special attention to the vocabulary used. There are a number of methods that are
used interchangeably. Reference works are obvious and essential tools for authors. These include technical dictionaries and
encyclopaedias [11]. A problem with these works is that only the very established terminology is included, while terms
covering emerging terminologies are absent. These sources of information are therefore of limited value for authors
addressing current technology. Another source of information is governmental language institutes. In Norway, the Norwegian
Language Council [8] is responsible for overlooking the conservation and evolution of the Norwegian language, and subject-
specific wordlists are occasionally posted on their website. However, only very mainstream terms make their way into these
wordlists, and not all entries are useful. For example, the English term “tag”, referring to a mark-up tag as can be found in
HTML documents, is acceptable according to the Language Council. “Tag” is not a Norwegian word while the term
“markør” is a valid alternative.
A valuable source of information is timely published materials such as subject specific newspapers, magazines, and
reports. In particular the Microsoft corporation has done an excellent job in translating their documentation into foreign
languages. Microsoft product documentation is translated by translation experts. During the authoring of a web-technology
textbook in Norwegian [13] the reference documentation for Internet Explorer provided an invaluable source of information,
with ample excellent translated terms. Sadly, many of the technical terms used in this documentation are not known by the
computer experts.
If all this fails, one is forced to invent and introduce brand new terms. Sometimes this is easy, but often it is harder than
it seems. Co-workers and students can provide valuable input.
AN EXAMPLE
Table 1 summarises the results of one attempt at using the “protocol contract” technique in practice. During a lecture in the
course “mobile information systems”, a final-year optional computer science course, seven words were written on the
blackboard. The words in the first column of Table 1 are all central to the syllabus of the course. The terms are all relatively
new and there are no official Norwegian translations. The students were organised into groups of three and four depending on
their seating, and they were asked to discuss and agree upon a set of alternatives. Ten minutes later the results were
summarised in plenary by the teacher, and the students voted for the best alternatives. Column two in Table 1 shows the
suggestions and the terminology chosen by the student majority is underlined. The in-class atmosphere was friendly,
concentrated and the students seemed to enjoy the activity. Certain words were apparently more difficult than others. For
instance, “wearable computing” is originally an awkward and misleading term, and thus received numerous suggestions. The
term “Bluetooth” posed no difficulties, nonetheless some students were surprised to learn about its origin.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has addressed some of the difficulties associated with technological paradigm shifts from a terminology-
translation point of view. Our experience is that the students are a valuable resource for discovering suitable terminology for
use in language for specific purposes. The fact that the students create their own terminology collectively means that they
also are more likely to accept, use and include the new terms into their own vocabulary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the students and faculty at Oslo University College, Norway for participating in the experiments.
REFERENCES
[1] Baker, M. (ed), “The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies”, London/New York: Routledge, 1998
[2] Draskau, J. and Picht, H. “Terminology:an introduction”, Guildford: University of Surrey, 1985
[3] Dubuc, R. “Terminology: A Practical Approach adapted by Elaine Kennedy”, Quebec: Linguatech, 1997
[4] Pearson, J., “Terms in Context”, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co, 1998
[5] Sager, J. “A practical course in terminology processing”, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co, 1990
[6] Sprung, R. (ed), “Translating into Success: Cutting-edge strategies for going multilingual in a global age”, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins
Publishing Co, 1990
[7] Callaway, D. R., “Inisde Servlets 2nd edition – Server Side Programming for the Java Platform”, Addison Wesley, 2001
[8] Norwegian Language Council, http://www.sprakrad.no/
[9] Short Norwegian Computer Science wordlist, Norwegian Language Council, http://www.sprakrad.no/dataord.htm
[10] Elbro, C., ”Snabel a”, Mål og Mæle, vol.20, no.2, 1997, pp. 20-22
[11] Parker, S. P., Licker, M. D.,”McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms 6 edition”, McGraw-Hill, 2002.
[12] Jian, H-L and Sandnes, F. E., “Written group assignments – experiences with collaborative web spaces“, Proceedings of the ICEE International
Conference on Engineering education, Manchester, United Kingdom, August, 2002, paper 0132.
[13] Sandnes, F. E., “Modern application development: thin clients and fat servers”, Tapir Academic Press, 2002.
Suggestive Association
phase (individual) Translation
Logical deduction
Experience,
Foreign term Foreign term time, acceptance
Official local term
TABLE 1
STUDENTS’ TERMINOLOGY DISCOVERED IN-CLASS.
TABLE 2
ENGLISH COMPUTING TERMINOLOGY, OFFICIAL NORWEGIAN TRANSLATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS THAT EMERGED DURING THE INVESTIGATION.
TABLE 3
STATISTICS SHOWING CORRECT RESPONSES. THE COLUMNS LIST THE NUMBER OF CORRECT RESPONSES FOR EACH GROUP (NAMELY DEPARTMENTS OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, MATHEMATICS, SUPPORT AND ONE CLASS OF FINAL-YEAR STUDENTS), AND THE ROWS LIST THE RESULTS
FOR THE INDIVIDUAL TERMS. THE LAST COLUMN AND ROW LIST THE TRENDS FOR EACH GROUP AND EACH TERM RESPECTIVELY. THE NUMBER OF CORRECT
REPLIES ARE GIVEN IN PERCENTAGE IN THE PARANTESIS.
Term Comp. (8/16) Electro (10/15) Math. (6/12) Supp. (2/3) Stud. (10/34) Ovrall. (36/80)
(50%) (67%) (50%) (67%) (29%) (45%)
Checkbox 4(50%) 4(40%) 3(50%) 2(100%) 6(60%) 19(53%)
Cookie 3(37%) 1(10%) 2(33%) 2(100%) 5(50%) 13(36%)
Pop-up menu 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1(10%) 1(2%)
Dead links 3(37%) 2(20%) 1(16%) 1(50%) 6(60%) 13(36%)
Hub 0(0%) 1(10%) 3(50%) 1(50%) 0(0%) 5(13%)
FAQ 5(62%) 3(30%) 3(50%) 2(100%) 9(90%) 22(61%)
Moderated list 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
Form 6(75%) 4(40%) 3(50%) 2(100%) 7(70%) 22(61%)
Offline 3(37%) 4(40%) 2(33%) 0(0%) 2(20%) 11(31%)
Session 1(13%) 1(10%) 0(0%) 1(50%) 3(30%) 6(16%)
Spam 2(25%) 3(30%) 4(66%) 0(0%) 4(40%) 13(36%)
Overall 27(30%) 23(23%) 21(31%) 11(55%) 43(43%) 125(32%)