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Definitions
Quality
Inspection:
Inspection deals with verification of products to ensure that product produced meet
specified requirements. Main purpose of Inspection is to segregate good products from
bad.
Inspection may at receiving stage, in process stages and final stage
Inspection may be inspection with instruments , testing , visual
Inspection may be 100 %, sampling or Audit . extent of inspection depends on cost and
risk of bad products being accepted.
Quality Control
Quality control covers activities that are performed to ensure that product meet
requirements. These include right selection of materials, Statistical process control,
calibration of instruments, verification of tooling, setup inspections. Quality control
activities cover inspection also.
Statistical Quality Control
Statistical Quality control deals with the application of statistical techniques for control of
processes to produce quality products and also for inspection
If a batch of products is produced, none individual items are not identical. There will
always be very small differences. Some times, these differences are apparent only when
measurements are taken with high accuracy instruments.
Variation in the process is minimum when only chance causes are present. Also the
distribution ( frequency diagram)out put exhibits normal curve.
Distribution pattern
(only common causes are present)
Average
Process Variation
variation in a process is the total variation that can be expected from the process when
very large quantities are produced.
Variation in the process is be computed based on the output values of a batch. Normally
the batch should be more 100 components .i.e. there should be at least 100 readings to
calculate the process variation.
Histogram or frequency diagram is drawn to make sure that only chance causes are
present. In other wards the process is under control (statistical control)
Suppose N readins are taken, then
Standard deviation ( sigma) ( σ ) is calculated from the formula
Average
Process variation (6 σ)
The out put of a process has two properties. Process average and process variation (6
sigma)
Out put of a process should meet process requirements.
Requirements are given in specifications or Drawings. A typical specification has a mean
and Tolerance.
Example: Length to be 100.0 +0.6mm means product is acceptable if the length is 100.0
or 100.6mm.
Alternatively specification can be given as 100.0/100.6. This gives the lower and upper
specification limits.
Two process measurements are normally made to indicate the capability of the process to
meet requirements. Namely:
• Process capability Cp
• Process capability index Cpk
Example:
100.3
Specn. mean
100.4
Process average
Process variation
(6 σ)=0.3
100.0
LSL 100.6
USL
Tolerance =0.6
If the process capability index is equal to 1.33 , the process is considered acceptable.
More than 1.33 is desirable. This can take up variations in process average without
producing rejects on the long run.
Control charts
Control charts were developed by Walter Shewhart in 1920.
The chart is based on the principle that the variability of a process is minimum when the
process is running under chance causes (common causes) only. Trial batches are
produced and process variation ( 6 sigma)is established . Control charts are prepared with
control limits calculated on sample sizes . Sample sizes could be 2 to up to 9 . At fixed
intervals ( eg, 30 min, one hr, 4 hrs based on production quantity) samples are taken and
sample averages are plotted on the chart.
Any change in the above indicates presence assignable/ special causes (out of statistical
control). The process is stopped and actions are taken to eliminate the causes of variation.
UCL
Mean
LCL
Time
Construction of X bar –R chart
Sample A2 D3 D4
size
2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
Step 11- check for Homogeneity. Repeat the process till all reading are homogeneous.
In the example , All 24 subgroups are with in control limits.
X-bar chart
UCL = 6.67
Mean =4.99
LCL = 3.31
R chart
UCL = 4.21
Mean =1.64
LCL = 0
• X-R chart ( mean -Range chart) - constant sample size – most popular
• X-MR chart ( mean – moving range chart)- for single value per batch
• Median- range ( middle value –range chart) – for easy calculations
• X-S chart ( mean –standard deviation chart – for large sample sizes
Mean = p-bar
LCL
Acceptance sampling
100 % Inspection is costly and time consuming when quantity to be inspected is large.
Sampling inspection is the best way of estimating the quality of incoming or outgoing
lots.
Acceptance sampling involves taking a random sample from the lot and by inspection of
the sample and after inspection to determine whether to accept the lot or not.
The sampling plans are based on average outgoing quality levels required on the long
run. Based on the these quality levels sample sizes are determined and given in statistical
tables. IS 2500 is a standard which gives such a table.
Depending on the average outgoing quality levels the tables gives values for lot size,
sample size, quantity of defectives that is acceptable.
There is always a risk of rejecting good lots and risk of accepting bad lots in any
sampling plan.
The probability o accepting bad lots is called consumer’s risk . bad lot are defined by
LTPD value ( lot tolerance percent defective) and The probability o rejecting good lots is
called producer’s risk. Good lots are defined by Acceptable quality levels ( AQL)
The graph which gives the characteristics of the sampling plan indicating producers risk
and consumers risk is known as OC curve
0.95
OC curve
Probabality
of
acceptance
0.10
AQL=0.1 LTPD=0.5
Average Outgoing Quality level (AOQL) is the percent defectives after lots are accepted
and replacement of all defective items on rejected lots.
Single sampling
Sample is taken only once. If the no. of defects are more than acceptable then the lot is
rejected and 100 % inspection is carried out.
Double sampling
Depending on the number of defectives in the first sample , second sample is drawn and
decision is taken. Therte will be an acceptance number c1 and a rejection number c2
fixed during the first sampling. If the value is between this , second sample is taken
Sequential sampling
Allows more samples to be drawn based on number of defectives in the previous sample
.until the lot is accepted or rejected
Quality Circles
Quality circle (QC) is a small group of people who carry out quality improvement
activities within their work area. The group may consist of 3 to 5 person normally.
Features of Quality circles are:
1. QC activities performed by operating level employees.
2. Voluntary participation
3. Small group of persons in the same work area or doing similar type of work
4. Identify, define and solve problems related to work area
5. QC members meet regularly( every week for an hour in normal)
6. Leads to improved performance I the work area
7. motivates and enriches work life
8. Nature of the problems are of such that they can be solved by themselves with
little help form management
9. Good work is recognized by management
Quality circles originated in Japan and has spread to other countries. Some of the
organisations in India which have very active QC circles are BHEL, BEL, Canara Bank,
Indian airlines, Apollo Hospital.
Quality Circle Forum of India ( QCFI), a Non-profit national body , Promotes Quality
circle movement in India. It has more than 2500 members and more than 25 chapters in
various locations in India. QCFI organises Quality circle conventions. QC presentations
by circle members and awards are a part of the convention.
Implementation of QCs
Top management must inform their decision to all employees about the implementation
of QC program
Steering committee to be formed with members from various departments
Steering committee should define:
• Goals of QC program
• Long rage plan for programs
• Select facilitator and commit resources
• Encourage and provide resources for QC meetings
• Participate in QC presentations
Facilitator: Facilitator forms the link between top management and QCs. Some of the
duties of facilitator are:
• Co-ordination of training activities for members.
• To get support from top management and steering committee
• To provide resources.
Circle leader: Circle leader is the leader of the circle and must:
Inform status of activities to management
conduct meetings regularly
Monitor circle activities with regard to plan
Maintain enthusiasm and motivate members
Circle members: Circle members must participate actively in meetings and discussions.
They should develop a good attitude towards Quality, productivity and improvements.
TQM-Fundamental concepts
Commitment
Commitment to TQM by top management is essential. Promotion of this
concept at all levels and all activities of the organization is fundamental for
success. Every one should be aware of his/her customers (internal and
external)
Customer satisfaction
Understanding customer needs and expectations and striving to meet them
should be the key objective
Quality losses
Quality looses are losses caused by the failure to utilize most effectively the
potential of human, financial and material resources in a process.
• loss of customer satisfaction
• Loss of opportunity to add more value to customers,
organization and society
• Loss due to waste or misuse of resources
•
Participation by all
Abilities of all members in the organization should be fully and effectively
utilized.
Process measurements
Process measurements to be applied to all organization activities
Continuous improvements
The means of improvement to people and processes performance need to be
Continually sought and monitored.
Problem identification
Provision for identification and resolution of potential and existing problem son a
continuing basis is essential
Alignment of corporate objectives and individual attitude
Removal of prejudices and restrictive approvals that inhibit effectiveness of the
organization needs continuous attention
Personal accountability
Recognition of individual responsibility and authority should be accepted by all
Personal development
There should be continuous appraisal, training and development of individuals at all
levels
TQM- implementation
1. Policy and strategy of the organization
Mission
Establish mission statement, corporate objectives, strategy for achieving these
objectives and a business plan.
Leadership and commitment
Have visible and sustained commitment starting from chief executive and
extending to every member.
Divisional objectives
Establish objectives for each level of organization with roles and responsibilities
Organization structure
Establish effective organization structure
Management system
Establish, audit and keep under review an effective management system
Information system
Establish a planned information system through out the organization
Effect Quantum leap/ break through Bench marking, Six sigma initiatives
improvements Business process re-engineering
Total productive maintenance(TPM)
Lean manufacturing
Participation by all employees Suggestion schemes
5S House keeping
Quality circles
Quality teams
Improve product quality Quality function deployment
Design of Experiments
Organizational barriers
These consist of lack of senior management commitment, unwilling ness and non-
involvement of middle level management. Staff treating themselves as experts and
not amenable to suggestions from line people..
Behavioral barriers
These may be also called as attitudinal barriers. Artificial organizational structures,
negative attitude to changes and improvements, dislike because of previous
experiences arte some of the factors.