c) Phase locked loop PLL has emerged as one of the fundamental building blocks in electronics technology.

Applications: FM(frequency modulation) sterio decoders, motor speed controls, tracking filters,frequency synthezised transmitters and receivers, FM demodulators,frequency shift keying (FSK ) decoders, and as generator of local oscillator frequencies in TV and in FM tuners. Operating Principles.

Phase

detector
Fin

Low pass filter

Voltage controlled oscillator

Fo ut

PLL consists of 1)Phase detector 2)low pass filter 3)Voltage controlled oscillator. Phase detector or comparator compares the input frequency fin with the feedback frequency fout .The output of the phase detector is proportional to the phase difference between fin and fout .The output voltage of a phase detector is a dc voltage and therefore is often referred to as the error voltage\.The output of the phase detector is then applied to the low pass filter,which removes the high frequency noise and produces a dc level.This dc level, in turn is the input to the voltage controlled oscillator (vco).The filter also helps in establishing the dynamic characteristics of the PLL circuit .The output frequency of the VCO is directly proportional to the input dc level. The vco frequency is compared with the input frequencies and adjusted until it is equal to the input frequencies.In short ,the phase-locked loop goes through three states:free running,capture and phase lock. Before the input is applied ,the phase locked loop os in the free running state.Once the input frequency is applied ,the vco frequency starts to change and the phase-locked loop is said to be in the capture mode. The vco frequency continues to change until it equals the input frequency , and the PLL is then in the Phase locked state.When Phase locked, the loop tracks any change in the input frequency through its repetitive action.

Closed loop timing system may be built around either a delay-locked loop(DLL) or a phase locked loop(PLL).

A delay locked loop varies the phase of a reference clock,r,to align it with a data or clock signal ,D .A phase comparator is used to detect the phase difference, , between D and r.A filtered version of this phase difference is used to control the delay of a variable delay line.

In the phase locked loop the local clock is generated by a vco.The output of the vco is optionally passed through a variable delay line to adjust its phase to give the local clock, out.A frequency and phase detector measure the frequency difference nd phase difference between out and a reference data or clock signal,D.The outputs of this detector are filtered a=and used to adjust both the frequency of the vco and the delay of variable delay line. Voltage -Controlled Oscillators Vco takes a contol input Vf and produces a periodic signal with frequency F=fc+kfvf Fc-center frequency of the vco Kf-gain Frequency Comparator Faster lock and more stable operation are achieved by using a phase comparator and a frequency comparator or a combined phase frequency comparator.

The top two traces shows that the loop with the phase comparator takes almost 5micro second to lock because its phase comparator gives a positive output only slightly more often than it gives a negative output.The bottom two traces show that the loop with the phase-frequency comparator locks in less than 1micro second because its phase comparator always gives a positive output as long as there is a frequency difference. Loop Dynamics and Loop Filter A loop filter, with a zero as well as apole, is uaually required to stabilize the loop.

The vco has a gain of kf and integrates the frequency,f, to give phase .The phase detector has gain kp, and the loop filter has transfer function H(S).The overall transfer function of the loop from a phase disturbance e(s),to the output phase, (s) is given by

If a simple low pass filter ,H(s)=a/(s+a), is used for the loop filter,the transfer function becomeswhere

Where k-kfkp.The denominator has roots at

Which is overdamped only for low loop gain,a>4k,so that the unity-gain frequency is reached before the pole of the low-pass filter. To allow high loop gain, a zero is added to the low