ANTENNA SYSTEM Antenna A structure that is generally a metallic object, often a wire or group of wires, used to convert high

h frequency signals into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. A device whose function is to radiate electromagnetic energy and intercept electromagnetic radiation. A metallic conductor system capable of radiating and receiving electromagnetic waves. Used to interface a transmitter to free space or free space to receiver A passive reciprocal device Basic Consideration: Maximum Power Transfer Source Impedance: 70 (coax) and 300 (twin lead) Load Impedance: 377 (atmosphere) T=1/f =c/f Where: T-period, sec f-frequency, Hz C-light velocity, m/s -wavelength, m General Characteristics of Antenna Radiation Pattern A line drawn to join points in space which have equal field intensity due to the source. Is a polar diagram or graph representing field strength or power densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna Absolute Radiation Pattern if the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of electric field strength and for power density Relative Radiation Pattern if it plots field strength or power density with respect to the value at a reference point Factors which determine the radiation pattern of an antenna. Antenna length Power losses Terminations at its end, if any Thickness of the antenna wire Radiation Pattern 1. Radiation pattern are taken in the horizontal plane (from the top) 2. Radiation pattern are taken in the vertical plane (from the side)

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA SYSTEM Two Kinds of Lobe: Major Lobe - the direction of maximum radiation. Minor Lobe - the direction of minimum radiation. Several Lobes Front Lobe the primary lobe Side Lobe lobes adjacent to the front lobe Back Lobe the lobe which direction is exactly opposite the front lobe Front-to-back ratio ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power Front-to-side ratio ratio of front lobe power to side lobe power Line of shoot the line bisecting the major lobe or pointing from the center of the antenna in the direction of maximum radiation Relative Field Strength dB=20 log ( / max) Relative Power Density dB=20 log (Pd / Pd max) Omnidirectional Antenna Antenna that radiates energy equally in all directions The radiation pattern is simply a circle No front, back and side lobe Radiation Field 1. Near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna (inductive field) 2. Far field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance (radiation filed) Antenna Resistance 2 Components A. Radiation Resistance, Rr The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at the feed point; ac resistance. Not all the power supplied are radiated some of it is converted to heat and dissipated Rr=P/i2 Where: Rr-radiation resistance, ohms P- power radiated by the antenna, Watts i-antenna current at its feedpoint

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA SYSTEM

B. Resistance Due to actual losses in the antenna, Rd Power may be dissipated as a result of (1) antenna and ground resistance, (2)corona effect or discharge, (3) losses in imperfect dielectric very near the antenna and (4)eddy current induced in metallic objects within the induction field of the antenna. Antenna Efficiency Is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of power radiated and power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power. =Rr/(Rr+Re) or =Pr/(Pr+Pd) Where: -antenna efficiency=1, for lossless antenna, unitless Rr -Radiation resistance, ohms Re-Effective antenna resistance. ohms Pr-Power radiated by the antenna, watts Pd-Power dissipated by the antenna, watts Directive Gain The ratio of the power density in a particular direction of one antenna to the power density that would be radiated by an omnidirectional antenna (isotropic source), assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power. D=Pd/(Pd ref) Where: D- directive gain, unitless Pdr Power density at same point with a given antenna (w/m2) Pd ref-Power density at the same point with a reference antenna (w/m2) Isotropic antenna A standard reference antenna, radiating equally in all directions, so that its radiation pattern is spherical. Gain: Hertzian Dipole Antenna 1.5:1 (1.76 dB) Half-wave Dipole Antenna 1.64:1 (2.15 dB) Note: a. The longer the antenna, the higher the directive gain. b. Nonresonant antennas have higher directive gain than resonant antenna. c. The directive gain of all practical antennas is greater than unity. Directivity The maximum directive gain and the gain in the direction of one of the major lobes of the radiation pattern.

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ANTENNA SYSTEM Power Gain Ratio of the power which must be fed to the directive antenna to develop the same field strength at the same distance in its direction of maximum radiation to the power that must be radiated by an isotropic antenna to develop certain field strength at a certain distance. Is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna used (that is, antenna efficiency is taken into account). It is the given antenna and the reference antenna have the same input power and that the reference antenna is lossless (=100%) For lossless antenna: Ap=D Ap= D Where: Ap =power gain, unitless D=maximum directive gain, unitless =antenna efficiency=1, for lossless antenna, unitless Effective Isotropic Radiated Power Is defined as an equivalent transmit power. ERP(Effective Radiated Power) is equivalent power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given point as another antenna. EIRP= PrAt Where: EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, watts Pr=total radiated power, watts At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless EIRP (dBm)= 10 log (PrAt/0.001) Where: EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power Pr=total radiated power, watts At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless EIRP= PinAp Where: EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, watts Pin=total power input, watts Ap= power gain, unitless

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ANTENNA SYSTEM Received Power Density The captured power density by a receiving antenna. C= PdAr Pd= (PtAt/4r2) Where: C=Received Power density, watts/m2 Pd= Power density at given point with a given antenna (w/m2) At=transmit antenna directive gain, unitless Ar=received antenna directive gain, unitless Pt=power transmitted by transmitter anatenna, w r=distance between the transmitter and the receiver, m Beamwidth Degree of concentration of the antennas radiation The angular separation between the two half-power points on the power density radiation pattern. The angular separation between the two 3-dB down points on the field strength radiation pattern of the antenna. Is the measure of a unilateral antennas directional properties of directivity. It is measured from the radiation pattern as the angle between the two points on either side of maximum radiation where the field strength drops 3dB. (Measured in halfpower point or -3dB point) = 70 fB Where: -beamwidth, f-frequency, Hz B-parabola antenna diameter, ft Bandwidth Operating frequency range of the antenna. Refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory and is generally taken between the half power points. Polarization Space orientation of the waves that the antenna radiates. Refers to the direction in space of the electric vector of the EM wave radiated from an antenna and is parallel to the antenna itself.

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ANTENNA SYSTEM Antenna Input Impedance Impedance at the feedpoint that represents an ac load to the transmission line. Feedpoint is the point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected Zin= Ein/Iin Where: Zin= input impedance, ohms Ein=antenna input voltage, volts Iin= antenna input current, amperes Zin= Re+Rr Where: Zin= input impedance, ohms Rr=radiation resistance, ohms Re= effective resistance, ohms Field Strength (Field Intensity) A quantity which is inversely proportional to the distance from the source, hence, it is proportional to the square root of power density. The field strength of the antennas radiation, at a given point in space, is equal to the amount of voltage induces in a wire antenna 1m long, located at that given point. Aperture (of a unidirectional) antenna The portion of plane surface near the antenna, perpendicular to the direction of maximum radiation through which the major path of the radiation passes. Radiated Waves/Incident Waves When these are in phase; SWR is best, but when these out of phase, SWR is very poor.

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA SYSTEM

Types of Antennas Basic Antenna Types Hertzian- the half wave antenna Marconi- the grounded antenna Elementary Doublet A theoretical antenna shorter than a wavelength used as a standard to which all other antenna characteristics can be compared. It is considered electrically short compared to one-half wavelength. Note: The impedance varies along the length of the antenna, being highest where the current is lowest and lowest where the current is highest. At the center of a half-wave antenna, the impedance is approximately 73 and increases to about 2500 at either end. To achieve maximum power transfer, this antenna must be connected to a 72 transmission lines.
= 60 le I sin /r Where: =wavelength, m le=antenna length, m I= dipole current, Amp (rms) r=distance from the dipole, m =magnitude of field strength, V/m =angle of axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation or angle between the axis of the antenna and direction of radiation, degree P d rel=2/120 = 30 (le I sin )2/(r)2 Where: P d rel=relative power density, w/m2 =wavelength, m le=antenna length, m I= dipole current, Amp (rms) r=distance from the dipole, m =magnitude of field strength, V/m =angle of axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation or angle between the axis of the antenna and direction of radiation, degree

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal

ANTENNA SYSTEM

Half Wave Dipole Most widely used antennas at frequency above 2MHz Also known as Hertzian antenna It is a resonant antenna A dipole with the total length of the 2 wire as a half wavelength Standing waves of voltage and current exists along a resonant antenna Z= 73 to 2500 ohms and Rr=68 and 70 ohms Dipole - an antenna made up of 2 wires bent at 90 to each other so as to be in the same line and signal is fed at the center. Ground Effect on a Half-wave Dipole In earth atmosphere, wave propagation is affected by antenna orientation, atmospheric absorption and ground effects such as reflection. Grounded Antenna A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long mounted vertically with lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network. Also known as Marconi antenna Mounted directly on earths surface, the actual antenna and its image combine and produce exactly the same as the standing waves patterns as those of /2 ungrounded or Hertzian antenna. To reduce power losses since there is high current flow through ground, the ground should be a good conductor, such as rich, loamy soil. If the ground is poor conductor such as sandy or rocky terrain, an artificial ground plane system made of heavy wires spread out radially below the antenna may be required. Another way of artificially improving the conductivity of a ground area below the antenna is a counterpoise. Counterpoise is a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected above the ground.

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ANTENNA SYSTEM

Directional HF Antennas Dipole Arrays A. Antenna Array a radiating system consisting of individual radiators or elements placed close together so as to be within each others induction field. Driven Element - element of an array connected to the output of the transmitter. Parasitic Element - radiation not directly connected to the output of the transmitter. Receives energy through the induction field of a driven element. Two types of Parasitic Elements: 1. Reflector- a parasitic element longer than the driven element and close to it reduces signal strength in its own direction and increases it in the opposite direction. 2. Director- a parasitic element shorter than the driven one from which it receives energy; tends to increase radiation in its own direction. B. Broadside Array a simplest which consists of a number of dipoles of equal size, equally spaced along a straight line with all dipoles fed into the same phase from the source. Typical antenna length: 2 to 10/s Typical Spacing : /2 or /4 Number of Elements: dozens C. End Fire Array a physical arrangement is the same as the broadside array although the magnitude of the current in each element is still the same as in every other element, there is now a phase difference between these currents.

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ANTENNA SYSTEM

Non-resonant Antennas Rhombic Antenna a very interesting and widely used antenna array especially for point to point working; consist of non resonant elements arranged differently; planar rhombus Length of equal radiators: 2 to 8s Angle of tilt : 40 to 75 Rt: 800 Rin: 650 to 700 Non-resonant Antenna One in which there are no standing waves and radiation pattern is directional. Standing waves are suppressed by the use of a correct termination to ensure that no power is reflected, so that only a forward traveling wave will exist. Resonant Antenna Standing waves exist, caused by the presence of both a reflected traveling waves and the forward wave. Special Purpose Antenna 1. Folded Dipole A single antenna which consists of 2 or 3 elements, one is fed directly and the other coupled conductively at the ends. 2. Yagi-Uda Antenna An array consist of a driven element and one or more parasitic elements arranged collinearly and close together. 3. Log-periodic Antenna Main feature is frequency independence for both radiation resistance and pattern Bandwidths of 10:1 are achievable with ease Directive gains obtainable are low to moderate Radiation patterns: uni-and bi-directional Dipoles or other basic elements are arranged in some form of constant angle array in which the active part of the antenna effectively moves from one end to the other as the operating frequency changed.
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ANTENNA SYSTEM R1/R2=R2/R3=R3/R4==11/l2=l2/l3=l3/l4 Where: R-resistance, ohms l-current, Amperes -design ratio (<1) Typically 0.7 when =30

4. Loop Antenna A single turn coil carrying RF current Used for direction finding because it do not radiate in a direction at right angles to the plane of the loop. For portable domestic receivers 5. Phased Array Groups of antennas connected to the one transmitter or receiver, whose radiation beam can be adjusted electronically without any physically moving parts Used in radars 6. Helical Antenna A broadband VHF and UHF which is used when it is desired to provide circular polarization characteristics. Consists of a loosely would helix backed up by a ground plane, which is simply a screen made of chicken wire. Mode of Radiation: a. Normal (Perpendicular) radiation is in a direction at right angles to the axis of the helix. b. Axial produces a broadband, fairly directional radiation in the axial direction. 7. Discone Antenna Combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity. A ground plane antenna evolved from the vertical dipole and having a similar radiation pattern. Characterized by an enormous bandwidth for both input impedance and radiation pattern. A constant angle, low gain antenna, but it is omnidirectional.

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ANTENNA SYSTEM

Often employed as a VHF and UHF receiving and transmitting antenna especially at airports where communication must be maintained with aircraft that come from any direction. UHF & Microwave Antennas 1. Parabolic Antenna Works in principle of a parabola. Parabola- a plane curve defined as the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the another point (called focus) plus its distance from a straight line (directrix) is constant. All waves coming from the source and reflected by the parabola will have traveled the same distance by the time it reach the directrix, no matter from what point on the parabola it will be reflected. Properties of Paraboloid Reflectors: Beamwidth
=70/D Where: =wavelength, m =beamwidth between half power points, degrees o=2, beamwidth between nulls, degrees D-mouth diameter, m

Gain of the Parabolic Antenna The gain of an antenna using a paraboloid reflector is influenced by the aperture ratio (=D/) and the uniformity of the illumination. Effective Radiated Power The product of power fed to the antenna and its power gain.
Ap=(D/)2 Where: =wavelength, m Ap=power gain, unitless D=mouth diameter,m = efficiency of the antenna, unitless

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ANTENNA SYSTEM Perp=Pt *Ap Where: Perp=effective radiated power, w Ap=power gain, unitless Pt=power at the transmitter, w

Feed Mechanism 1. Center feed 2. Horn feed 3. Cassegrain feed 2. Horn Antennas Ideal as primary feed antennas for parabolic reflectors and lenses. a. Sectoral Horn flares out in one direction only. b. Pyramidal Horn flares out in both directions and has shape of a truncated pyramid. c. Conical Horn logical termination for a circular waveguide 3. Lens Antennas Used as a collimator of frequencies in excess of 3 GHz and works in the same way as glass lens in optics. Other Elementary Antenna 1. Long wire Antenna 2. Whip Antenna

Engr. Marlyn Q. Camingal