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030322-F1221402-TE-MEM-001-version 0
030322-F1221402-TE-MEM-001-version 0
Memo Técnico
Memo Técnico
Estado Revisión
3 de marzo David
0 Final David Evans Raúl Ortiz
2022 Evans
TABLA DE CONTENIDO
1 INTRODUCCIÓN ............................................................................................................................... 1
2 DISMINUCIÓN DE LOS NIVELES DEL LAGO Y CAUDALES ESTIMADOS
DE INFILTRACIÓN – LAGUNA SANTA ANA BAJA ........................................................................................... 1
3 ENTORNO GEOLÓGICO..................................................................................................................... 2
4 RESULTADOS DE LA PRUEBA CON TRAZADOR .................................................................................... 2
5 CONCEPTOS DE KARSTIFICACIÓN Y FLUJO DE AGUA
SUBTERRÁNEA ...................................................................................................................................... 3
6 DRENAJE DE MINA, BALANCE DE AGUA DE MINA Y POSIBLES
EFECTOS HIDRÁULICOS .......................................................................................................................... 4
7 MECANISMOS DEL SUMIDERO ........................................................................................................... 5
8 MEDIDAS CONCEPTUALES DE MITIGACIÓN DE SUMIDEROS ................................................................. 6
9 CASOS RELACIONADOS CON EL RIESGO KÁRSTICO EN
RESERVORIOS ....................................................................................................................................... 7
10 ANÁLISIS DEL MODO Y EFECTOS DE FALLAS (FMEA) - RIESGO A
LARGO PLAZO RELACIONADO CON LA ACTIVACIÓN DEL SUMIDERO............................................................. 9
11 RECOMENDACIONES.......................................................................................................................11
11.1 Recomendaciones del modelo conceptual ....................................................................................11
11.2 Recomendaciones para la modelación numérica .......................................................................... 12
12 RECOMENDACIONES............................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
13 LIMITACIONES ............................................................................................................................... 13
TABLAS
Tabla 1 Casos históricos con altas filtraciones desde las presas en ambientes con calizas kársticas y reducción de
filtraciones luego de medidas de remediación (Milanovic, 2005) ................................................................ 8
Tabla 2 Ubicación de perforaciones ............................................................................................................ 13
FIGURAS
Figura 1 Vista del espejo de agua en la laguna Santa Ana Baja en setiembre (izquierda) y noviembre (derecha) 2020
(Amphos 21, 2020) ...................................................................................................................... 14
Figura 2 Ubicación de sumideros en la base de la laguna Santa Ana Baja (Amphos 21, 2020).................................. 14
Figura 3 Sumidero Principal (F1 en Figura 1) (Amphos 21, 2020)....................................................................... 14
Figura 4 Comparación entre el nivel de agua de la laguna Santa Ana Baja registrado y calculado (Amphos 21, 2020).... 15
Figura 5 Grafica de variacion de cota de espejo de agua – Laguna Santa Ana Baja (Dic. 2020-Dic.2021).................... 15
Figura 6 Geología – regional y local en la laguna Santa Ana Baja ...................................................................... 16
Figura 7 Tomografía eléctrica – 1) lado norte de la laguna Santa Ana Baja a lo largo de dolinas (línea TGE-300); 2)
Costado este de la laguna Santa Ana Baja (línea TGE-200) ................................................................. 17
Figura 8 Resultados de la prueba con trazador y direcciones de flujo interpretadas ................................................ 18
Figura 9 Dos tipos fundamentales de karst en el contexto de zonas diagenéticas y regímenes de flujo de agua
subterránea (de Klimchouk, 2015). .................................................................................................. 19
Figura 10 Distribución de fallas y grupos kársticos hipógenos inferidos ............................................................... 19
Figura 11 Grupos de características negativas que pueden representar sistemas kársticos hipógenos relictos ............. 20
Figura 12 Registro de bombeo en Catuva y Flor de Loto; así como descargas en la bocamina Shucshapa .................. 21
Figura 13 Área conceptual de efecto hidráulico por drenaje de mina (~23 km2) ..................................................... 21
Figura 14 Modelo de recarga y descarga para labores mineras subterráneas ....................................................... 22
Figura 15 Mecanismo de formación de sumideros en suelos cohesivos y granulares sobre caliza kárstica .................. 23
Figura 16 Explosión del revestimiento causada por presiones artesianas en la base kárstica que provocó la falla de
relaveras y reservorios ............................................................................................................... 24
Figura 17 Relación entre la precipitación total mensual, el nivel de la laguna Santa Ana Baja y el nivel freático según el
piezómetro RA-AMP-19-08 .......................................................................................................... 25
Figura 18 Condiciones inferidas de la formación del sumidero debajo de la laguna Santa Ana Baja ........................... 25
Figura 19 Medidas conceptuales de mitigación .............................................................................................. 26
Figura 20 Clasificación de probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos y consecuencias................................................ 27
Figura 21 Resultados AMEF...................................................................................................................... 28
Figura 22 Resumen de AMEF relacionado con los posibles modos de falla identificados ......................................... 28
Figura 23 Líneas geofísicas y ubicación de perforaciones ................................................................................ 29
Figura 24 Ubicación de perforaciones.......................................................................................................... 30
Figura 24 Ubicación de perforaciones con geología ........................................................................................ 31
ANEXOS
1 INTRODUCCIÓN
DHI Perú SAC (DHI) contrató los servicios de FloSolutions S.A.C. (FloSolutions) para evaluar el entorno
hidrogeológico y las posibles causas de la rápida disminución de los niveles de agua en la Laguna Santa
Ana Baja, (Figuras 1 y 2), ubicada en la propiedad de Compañía Minera Raura (CMR), y brindar medidas
conceptuales de mitigación para los sumideros. El siguiente memorándum resume la información obtenida
de este estudio. La información revisada incluyó imágenes satelitales, datos climáticos, informes geológicos,
hidrogeológicos y geofísicos, datos de batimetría para la Laguna Santa Ana Baja, resultados del estudio con
trazador colorante y mapeo de ingresos de agua en la mina subterránea.
Después de que el lago se secó hasta su base (aproximadamente 4618,6 msnm) en octubre del 2020, el
nivel del agua en el lago se elevó 9 m durante la siguiente temporada de lluvias hasta su elevación máxima
de 4628 msnm en abril del 2021, aproximadamente 2-3 m más que los niveles del lago registrados en años
anteriores. Después de abril del 2021, los niveles del lago descendieron con relativa rapidez hasta que el
lago se secó nuevamente en octubre del 2021 (Figura 5). El volumen de agua perdida durante este período
de cinco meses fue de aproximadamente 825 000 m3, lo que equivale a un caudal de drenaje de
aproximadamente 63 L/s. Este caudal de infiltración estimado excluye cualquier ingreso adicional aguas
arriba a la laguna Santa Ana Baja desde la laguna Santa Ana Alta. La laguna Santa Ana Baja permanece
seca, aunque es posible que ocurra un aumento similar en los niveles del lago durante la temporada de
lluvias de 2022.
Cuando el lago se secó a fines de 2020, se observaron tres sumideros en los sedimentos fangosos del lago
cerca del borde norte del lago (ver Figuras 2 y 3). Con base en los resultados de geofísica, los sumideros y
los sedimentos lacustres se encuentran sobre por lo menos 35 m de depósitos de morrenas glaciales que
se supone que se encuentra sobre la caliza Jumasha, con base en datos geológicos y geofísicos (Figura
7).
Amphos21 fue contratado por CMR en el año 2020 para evaluar los motivos de la rápida disminución de los
niveles del lago y el secado final del lago. También se le pidió a Amphos21 que desarrollara un balance de
agua del lago para cuantificar las pérdidas por infiltración. Amphos21 concluyó que los caudales de pérdidas
por infiltración estaban entre 15 y 30 L/s y que la disminución del nivel del lago estaba directamente
relacionada con una precipitación inferior a la normal el año 2020. FloSolutions no está de acuerdo con las
conclusiones de Amphos21 relacionadas con el descenso repentino del nivel del lago o sus estimaciones de
caudales de infiltración basadas en cálculos simples utilizando cambios de volumen del lago a lo largo del
tiempo.
3 ENTORNO GEOLÓGICO
En la margen derecha (oeste) de la quebrada Santa Ana, afloran rocas intrusivas compuestas en su mayor
parte por granodiorita con fracturamiento intenso, dicha litología fue confirmada en el sondaje DH-04. Este
cuerpo ha generado una aureola de skarn inmediato al contacto litológico con los paquetes calcáreos. En
la margen izquierda (este) se exponen las rocas margosas carbonatadas de la formación Celendín, el
contacto se encuentra definido por el sistema de fallas Raura de rumbo NO-SE. Al sureste, afloran las rocas
carbonatadas de la formación Jumasha III, la cual presenta sectores marmolizados inmediatos a la aureola
de skarn. Con base en la información geológica y la ubicación de los sumideros en el lado norte del lago, es
poco probable que la Laguna Santa Ana Baja esté ubicada principalmente sobre intrusivos, como sugiere
Amphos21; más bien, se presume que el Jumasha III se extiende por debajo de la Laguna Santa Ana Baja
al menos hasta las ubicaciones de los sumideros en el lado norte del lago. La unidad Jumasha III tiene el
contenido de carbonato más alto con 92 % y el contenido de MgCO3 más bajo de las cuatro unidades dentro
de Jumasha; por lo tanto, la karstificación puede desarrollarse mejor dentro de esta unidad en comparación
con otras unidades de la Formación Jumasha.
El fallamiento local con patrón NO-SE es importante en el sector debido a que es gobernado por los sistemas
Falla Raura y Falla Oblicua, cuya intersección es inferida por debajo de la laguna Santa Ana Baja; asimismo,
localmente se cuenta con sistemas conjugados de fallas E-O. En la Figura 6 se muestra el mapa geológico
local en el entorno de la laguna Santa Ana Baja. Además de estas dos fallas, la Falla Matapaloma se muestra
en todos los planos de niveles de la mina entre 4442 m (nivel 440) y 4634 m (nivel 630), la cual se extiende
al noreste de la mina subterránea debajo de la Laguna Santa Ana Baja (Figura 6). Esta falla y el contacto
entre el intrusivo y la caliza podrían ser los responsables del transporte del agua desde los sumideros hasta
la mina subterránea. Esto se sustenta en el estudio con trazador que muestra las concentraciones elevadas
de colorante en una zona de falla en el sector minero Torre de Cristal que tuvo un caudal de 91 L/s.
La inyección del trazador se realizó el 21 de octubre de 2021 luego de haber concluido con el cambio de
captadores de la línea base (Ronda 0), esta última se llevó previamente a cabo el 07 y 08 de octubre con la
finalidad de detectar una posible presencia del trazador en el medio. El ensayo de trazadores contempló 5
rondas de control o ciclos de monitoreo a partir de la inyección del trazador, con una duración total de 74
días. Luego de 4 días de ser inyectado, dicho trazador fue detectado en 08 puntos del nivel 590, 380 y 300
y también en el piezómetro ubicado aguas abajo en la Laguna Caballococha (ver Figura 6).
El flujo subterráneo en el sector de Santa Ana Baja presenta dos direcciones. Una principal y natural con
descarga hacia la laguna Caballococha, y otra preferencial a través de estructuras que se interconectan con
las labores del nivel 380 hacia el suroeste en el sector Torre de Cristal con un aporte de 91 L/s. Como se
indicó anteriormente, la falla Matapaloma, que parece tener una buena correlación con el ingreso de flujo
principal en Torre de Cristal, puede ser responsable del transporte del agua del lago a la mina subterránea.
El trazador sulforhodamina detectado en otros niveles y sectores de la mina subterránea en bajas
concentraciones tiene un nivel de confianza bajo y podría atribuirse a la circulación del agua de la mina en
las labores mineras después de la descarga inicial del trazador en la zona de falla en Torre de Cristal.
alteran fuertemente con la formación de skarn y mármol, y generan un sistema hidrotermal. Cuando el
magma llega a la corteza poco profunda, la presión reducida permite que los volátiles confinados en la lava
escapen de manera rápida, a veces explosiva. Los principales volátiles son el vapor de agua y el CO2, pero
también son comunes otros gases, como SO2, H2S, Cl2, N2, He, Ar y Rn. Esto da un amplio potencial para
la disolución de las rocas huésped, en particular los carbonatos, por los fluidos agresivos que escapan de la
zona de intrusión. Además, se produce una gran cantidad de CO2 y ácido carbónico durante la formación
del skarn, lo que aumenta aún más la agresividad de los fluidos hacia las calizas (Figura 9).
Basándonos en el examen de las imágenes de Google Earth y en el análisis de la información geológica
disponible, llegamos a la conclusión preliminar de que la karstificación epigénica tiene una importancia
menor en el área de Raura, pero las características kársticas hipógenas relictas están presentes en grupos
altamente localizados. Dichos grupos pueden haber influido considerablemente en la topografía de la
superficie actual, siendo precursores de la erosión glacial localmente mejorada y la formación de cuencas
cerradas. Tienden a estar próximas a las intrusiones ígneas y alineadas a lo largo de las fallas y sus
intersecciones (Figuras 10 y 11). La falla Raura y su continuación sur-sureste parece desempeñar un papel
en el control de la distribución de los grupos kársticos hipógenos, así como en las fallas con tendencia WWN-
SSE.
La zona del lago de Santa Ana Baja puede representar uno de estos grupos kársticos hipogénicos,
predispuestos por la intersección de tres fallas. Estos conductos subverticales bajo el fondo del lago, en gran
parte rellenos de sedimentos, permanecieron inactivos bajo condiciones naturales de zona freática y
gradientes hidráulicos bastante bajos. Los conductos subverticales hipogénicos relictos no ayudan a la salida
lateral de agua subterránea de la zona freática; ésta se produce a través de fracturas. Los elevados
gradientes hidráulicos impuestos por la mina cercana provocaron la reactivación de algunos conductos
hipógenos, el establecimiento de un flujo preferencial entre el lago y algunos puntos de la mina, la tubificación
de sedimentos en los conductos y, finalmente, la formación de un sumidero de colapso en los sedimentos
del fondo del lago, secando el lago.
4. Disolución. El aumento de los gradientes hidráulicos verticales entre los lagos y la mina
subterránea aumenta la velocidad de disolución de la caliza. La cinética de disolución demuestra
que, para un embalse con 100 m de altura, las aberturas de fractura en la cimentación pueden
ensancharse 1 mm por año en la caliza, lo que conduce a caudales de filtración excesivas en sólo
25 años para la caliza.
6. Carga excesiva. Los sumideros de colapso, formados por la rotura de la roca sobre una cavidad,
son raros en paisajes kársticos naturales, pero pueden ser inducidos por una carga excesiva
impuesta por el peso de los residuos sobre la caliza que recubre una caverna. El potencial de
colapso depende de la profundidad y el tamaño de la caverna, y es insignificante cuando el grosor
del techo de la caverna es mayor que su anchura. Es poco probable que este mecanismo sea
significativo en la Laguna Santa Ana Baja.
Los sumideros parecen haberse formado durante un largo período de tiempo debido a la tubificación de
sedimentos en la caliza kárstica subyacente (se asume que es Jumasha III según los mapas geológicos de
Raura). La tubificación se define como el desarrollo progresivo de la erosión interna por filtraciones,
apareciendo aguas abajo como un punto de descarga de agua o, en este caso, descargando a la caliza
kárstica subyacente. No es raro que la tubificación tome décadas según los estudios de casos en reservorios
de agua construidos en entornos kársticos. La tubificación de los suelos hacia la caliza kárstica subyacente
ocurrió durante décadas debido al drenaje de la mina, disminuyendo los niveles freáticos y piezométricos,
con el subsecuente incremento de los gradientes hidráulicos verticales entre el lago y los acuíferos
subyacentes (la diferencia de altitud entre el fondo del lago y el nivel de la mina 4380 es aproximadamente
240 m). El incremento en los gradientes verticales y la naturaleza hidráulicamente bien conectada de la
caliza kárstica con los sedimentos glaciares suprayacentes es evidente en el piezómetro RA-AMP-19-08,
ubicado aproximadamente a 150 m al norte de la Laguna Santa Ana Baja (Figura 17).
Algunos conductos hipógenos subverticales pueden tener una conexión hidráulica mejorada con las galerías
de la mina a través de fracturas más grandes, como las del punto TR-4380-07. La conexión hidráulica
preferente puede establecerse a través de los conductos hipógenos y las fracturas más grandes, lo que
conduce a un caudal de flujo elevado y al lavado del relleno de sedimentos de los conductos a través de
tubificación (Figura 18, diagrama superior). Este proceso puede ser inicialmente lento, moderado por la
menor conductividad de las fracturas en comparación con los conductos kársticos. El vaciado de los
conductos kársticos debajo de la morrena y de los sedimentos del lago provocó su asentamiento/tubificación
en el espacio kárstico y la formación de cavidades en el suelo por encima de los conductos. En algún
momento, colapsaron y se abrieron sumideros en el fondo del lago, lo que provocó un drenaje y secado
relativamente rápido del lago (Figura 18, diagrama inferior). La conexión principal del sumidero SUM-01 y
la mina se extiende hasta el punto TR-4380-07, como lo sugiere la prueba con trazador colorante. El hecho
de que el descenso de los niveles de agua de la laguna Santa Ana Baja en octubre-diciembre de 2020 se
prolongue un poco en el tiempo atestigua que la ruta de flujo preferencial entre la laguna y la mina es la
combinación de elementos de conductos y fracturas.
El rellenado de la zona de suelo tubificado con un filtro agregado inverso (roca gruesa en el fondo y roca
fina en la superficie) debería ser el primer enfoque para tapar el sumidero existente en la laguna Santa Ana
Baja. Este diseño permite que el agua del subsuelo que se mueve en la interfaz suelo/roca drene hacia el
sistema kárstico. Cabe señalar que cuando hay una infiltración descendente considerable, el bloqueo de la
filtración descendente en un punto podría agravar el desmoronamiento, la erosión y la actividad de nuevos
sumideros (Figura 19).
Actualmente se desconoce el volumen estimado del embudo del sumidero que se sellará y es difícil de
determinar con base en la información existente. El filtro graduado agregado inverso consiste en colocar
rocas / bloques más anchos que aproximadamente la mitad del ancho de la abertura de la garganta en la
fractura agrandada por la disolución para arquearse a través de la abertura inferior. En el caso del sumidero
principal de Santa Ana Baja, se desconoce el tamaño de la abertura kárstica en la caliza subyacente. No
está claro si el material agregado de gran diámetro pasará a la base del material glacial. Como tal, puede
ser apropiado comenzar con un tamaño de agregado del orden de 10-20 cm. Desmonte de la mina podría
usarse siempre que no cree problemas de drenaje ácido de roca (DAR). Los materiales de las capas
sucesivas tienen un tamaño más fino que la capa subyacente, pero lo suficientemente grueso como para no
pasar a través de los espacios intersticiales de la capa de agregado que se encuentra debajo. Los pocos
metros superiores del sumidero deben rellenarse con suelos arcillosos compactados y cubrirse con un tejido
geotextil adecuado. La superficie podría sellarse con un revestimiento de geomembrana o una cubierta de
concreto para reducir aún más la infiltración de la laguna en el sumidero sellado. El costo de mitigar el
sumidero podría ser del orden de $20 000 a $40 000, dependiendo del volumen del vacío a rellenar, el área
de la geomembrana final o la cubierta de concreto.
Si el relleno del vacío en la cobertura glaciar es difícil debido al colapso o la naturaleza irregular del vacío,
se recomienda el relleno con hormigón autocompactante de baja movilidad. En este caso, el costo de mitigar
el sumidero podría incrementarse (Figure 19).
Tabla 1 Casos históricos con altas filtraciones desde las presas en ambientes con calizas kársticas y
reducción de filtraciones luego de medidas de remediación (Milanovic, 2005)
condiciones futuras de operación de la mina relacionadas con la profundización de la mina. Por lo tanto, la
confianza en las estimaciones de riesgo puede variar de baja a alta. La confianza en los datos y conceptos
se estima en el proceso AMEF utilizando un sistema de clasificación de tres intervalos de confianza: baja,
media y alta. Cuando hay poca confianza en un valor de evaluación de alto riesgo, esto indica claramente
la necesidad de evaluar más a fondo el riesgo para predecir de manera más confiable el riesgo y las medidas
de mitigación para reducir dicho riesgo. En algunos casos, la confianza en la formación de sumideros
adicionales puede ser alta, incluso sin necesidad de datos adicionales.
Los resultados del AMEF se proporcionan en la Figura 21 y Figura 22. A continuación se presenta el análisis
de los resultados.
Análisis de los Riesgos
El equipo revisor considera que la mitigación del sumidero principal tiene un alto riesgo de falla considerando
el espesor de la cobertura (~35 m) y la dificultad de acceder a la roca para sellar correctamente los conductos
kársticos. Existe una alta probabilidad de que, si el sumidero existente se llena con concreto, se formará otro
sumidero inmediatamente adyacente o dentro del mismo conducto debido a la falta de un sello adecuado.
Por lo general, se recomienda el relleno con un filtro inverso como método de mitigación para los sumideros
en tierra, pero no se recomienda en lagos o reservorios.
Es poco probable que la mitigación de un sumidero sea una solución a largo plazo para reducir el riesgo de
pérdidas del lago debido a la alta probabilidad de que una base kárstica se extienda por debajo de la
cobertura glaciar y el lago. Existe una alta probabilidad de que se activen sumideros adicionales en los
cimientos del lago con el tiempo a medida que aumentan los niveles de agua en el lago y continúa
produciéndose tubificación de sedimento glacial. Los otros dos sumideros menos desarrollados ubicados al
este del sumidero principal pueden ser los siguientes en activarse. Además, es probable que se formen otros
sumideros en otras áreas del lago con tubificación a través de los suelos en diferentes etapas de desarrollo.
Aunque el sumidero SUM-1 puede estar más conectado hidráulicamente a la laguna Caballococha en
comparación con la mina subterránea, según los registros de ingresos de agua a la mina, podría ocurrir lo
contrario con futuros sumideros. La activación de rutas de flujo preferenciales por lavado de sedimentos en
conductos kársticos y fracturas conectadas es impredecible, así como la conductancia de la tubería kárstica
y la conexión hidráulica con el lago. Debido a esto, no podemos descartar la posibilidad de caudales de flujo
más altos hacia las labores subterráneas de la mina cuando se formen sumideros adicionales.
El cono de descenso del agua subterránea relacionado con el drenaje de la mina subterránea fácilmente
podría extenderse hasta la laguna Caballococha, que se encuentra a solo 500 m al este de Santa Ana Baja.
De ser así, existe cierto riesgo que se formen sumideros en la base de la Laguna Caballococha. Existe
información limitada para respaldar la evaluación de riesgos. Aunque existe la posibilidad de que el cono de
descenso se extienda más hacia el este hasta la relavera, la cual también se encuentra sobre la misma base
kárstica. El descenso podría ser amortiguado por la laguna Caballococha. Los riesgos geológicos kársticos
relacionados con el TSF y su espejo de agua deben evaluarse por separado.
Revestir toda la base del lago es otra consideración posible para reducir la infiltración; sin embargo, existe
una alta probabilidad de que se sigan formando sumideros en los sedimentos cuaternarios, lo que provocaría
la falla del revestimiento de geomembrana. Por ello, no se recomienda el revestimiento.
A pesar de las investigaciones muy exhaustivas y, a menudo, que consumen mucho tiempo, incluidos los
métodos de investigación más actualizados, la aceptación del riesgo cuando se realizan trabajos de
ingeniería en áreas kársticas es inevitable. El componente de riesgo es imposible de eliminar incluso con
programas de investigación extremadamente detallados. En algunos casos, puede reducirse a un nivel
aceptable pero nunca eliminarse por completo.
11 RECOMENDACIONES
11.1 Recomendaciones del modelo conceptual
Se presentan recomendaciones para el trabajo del nivel de factibilidad para tratar los vacíos de datos y
mejorar la comprensión hidrogeológica de la Laguna Santa Ana Baja y las posibles conexiones kársticas
con la mina subterránea y la Laguna Caballococha:
• Se recomienda geofísica (tomografía de resistividad eléctrica) en todo el fondo del lago para evaluar
el espesor de la cobertura glacial, el contacto entre la caliza y el intrusivo, zonas de fallas que cruzan
el lago y la karstificación de la caliza subyacente. El espaciamiento inicial entre las líneas de la
cuadrícula debe ser de aproximadamente 50 m con un espaciamiento más estrecho a lo largo de la
línea de sumideros (Figura 23). Las anomalías de alta resistividad, potencialmente indicativas de
conductos llenos de aire, deben cotejarse con estudios de microgravedad y las anomalías de baja
resistividad, potencialmente indicativas de vacíos kársticos llenos de agua o suelo, deben cotejarse
con estudios de potencial espontáneo. La longitud total de las líneas de tomografía es de
aproximadamente 7 km. El estudio geofísico tendría que realizarse durante la estación seca,
después de que se seque el lago. Es posible que sea necesario construir caminos de acceso antes
de realizar el estudio debido a los sedimentos blandos del fondo del lago. También se requiere
tomografía de resistividad en cada una de las ubicaciones de perforación que se muestran en la
Figuras 24 y 25.
• Se debe realizar una prueba cuantitativa de trazador colorante en el sumidero principal para
determinar las velocidades de viaje reales hacia la mina subterránea y la Laguna Caballococha.
Esto se llevaría a cabo utilizando fluorómetros de campo instalados en los dos puntos de descarga
del socavón.
• Se requerirán modificaciones significativas a los modelos conceptuales con base en los hallazgos
del estudio.
Profundidad Tipo de
Perforación Este (m) Norte (m) Descripción
(m) piezómetro
Sumidero principal; contacto entre
DH-1 308475 8844857 100 Cuerda vibrante
Celendín y Jumasha; 35 m glacial.
Sumidero secundario; contacto
DH-2 308572 8844869 100 Cuerda vibrante entre Celendin y Jumasha; 35m
glacial.
Sumidero secundario; contacto
DH-3 308623 8844872 100 Cuerda vibrante entre Celendín y Jumasha; 35 m
glacial.
Falla Matapaloma; entre laguna
Casagrande
DH-4 308231 8844588 150 Santa Ana Baja y labores mineras
(tubería PVC)
subterráneas.
Falla Oblicua junto a laguna
Casagrande
DH-5 309053.5621 8844515.535 100 Caballococha; dentro de Jumasha
(tubería PVC)
III.
Extremo sur de la laguna
Casagrande
DH-6 309540 8844063 100 Caballococha dentro de la unidad
(tubería PVC)
Jumasha III.
Zona de falla principal junto a la
Casagrande Laguna Puyhuancocha,
DH-7 309582.142 8843798.136 150
(tubería PVC) conectándola con Falla Raura /
mina subterránea.
Zona de falla principal junto a la
Casagrande Laguna Puyhuancocha,
DH-8 309603.0386 8843558.251 100
(tubería PVC) conectándola con la Falla Raura /
mina subterránea.
Se instalarán piezómetros
Casagrande inmediatamente al norte de la
DH-9 308474 8844884 130
(tubería PVC) laguna en depósitos glaciares y
karst.
Falla Raura; inmediatamente al
Casagrande oeste de la laguna Santa Ana en
DH-10 308178 8845156 100
(tubería PVC) la zona de contacto entre Ce y el
intrusivo.
Casagrande Junto al depósito de relaves en la
DH-11 310171 8845288 100
(tubería PVC) unidad Jumasha II.
12 LIMITACIONES
Los juicios profesionales se presentan en este informe técnico. Estos se basan en parte en la evaluación de
la información técnica recopilada, nuestra experiencia con proyectos similares y nuestra comprensión de las
características del proyecto. Los resultados, la interpretación de los datos, las recomendaciones, las
opiniones profesionales y las conclusiones que se presentan en este documento se encuentran dentro de
los límites prescritos por la información disponible en el momento en que se preparó este documento y están
sujetos a cambios.
Figura 1 Vista del espejo de agua en la laguna Santa Ana Baja en setiembre (izquierda) y noviembre
(derecha) 2020 (Amphos 21, 2020)
Figura 7 Tomografía eléctrica – 1) lado norte de la laguna Santa Ana Baja a lo largo de dolinas (línea TGE-
300); 2) Costado este de la laguna Santa Ana Baja (línea TGE-200)
Figura 9 Dos tipos fundamentales de karst en el contexto de zonas diagenéticas y regímenes de flujo de agua
subterránea (de Klimchouk, 2015).
Figura 11 Grupos de características negativas que pueden representar sistemas kársticos hipógenos relictos
Figura 12 Registro de bombeo en Catuva y Flor de Loto; así como descargas en la bocamina Shucshapa
Figura 15 Mecanismo de formación de sumideros en suelos cohesivos y granulares sobre caliza kárstica
Figura 16 Explosión del revestimiento causada por presiones artesianas en la base kárstica que provocó la
falla de relaveras y reservorios
Figura 17 Relación entre la precipitación total mensual, el nivel de la laguna Santa Ana Baja y el nivel freático
según el piezómetro RA-AMP-19-08
Extrema (>$10 M) Impacto catastrófico Incapaz de cumplir El clamor y las Se esperan No probable (NP) <0.01% <0.1% Probabilidad de
en el hábitat manifestaciones locales, víctimas
con las obligaciones o Probabilidad de ocurrencia
(irreversible y grande) expectativas internacionales y de ONG mortales o ocurrencia
dan como resultado una múltiples
reglamentarias; cierre
gran devaluación de las víctimas
o restricción severa de
las operaciones. acciones: restricciones mortales.
severas de 'licencia para
practicar'; grandes pagos
Alta ($1 - $10 M) Impacto significativo Regularmente (más de Activismo local,i Probabilidad de Baja (B) 0.01 – 0.1% 0.1 - 1%
e irreversible en el una vez al año) o internacional o de ONG lesión o probabilidad de probabilidad de
hábitat o impacto incumplen que tiene como resultado discapacidad ocurrencia ocurrencia
grande y reversible. severamente las impactos políticos y grave: o algún
obligaciones o financieros en la "licencia potencial de
expectativas para hacer negocios" de fatalidad
regulatorias: grandes la empresa y en cambios
multas crecientes y importantes en los
pérdida de confianza procedimientos o
Moderada ($0.1 - $1 Impacto significativo Ocasionalmente Atención ocasional local, Tiempo perdido Moderada (M) 0.1 - 1% 1 - 10% probabilidad de
M) y reversible en el (menos de uno por internacional y de ONG o probabilidad de probabilidad de ocurrencia
hábitat año) o incumple que requiere cambios lesiones: o algún ocurrencia
moderadamente las menores de procedimiento potencial de
obligaciones o y relaciones públicas y lesiones graves;
expectativas comunicaciones o pequeño riesgo
lt i lt d di i l d f t lid d
Baja ($0.01 - 0.1 M) Impacto menor en el Superar rara vez o Atención poco frecuente Se requieren Alta (A) 1 - 10% 10 - 50% probabilidad
hábitat marginalmente las local, internacional y de primeros probabilidad de de ocurrencia
obligaciones o ONG atendida por auxilios; o ocurrencia
expectativas relaciones públicas y pequeño riesgo
reglamentarias. Cierta comunicaciones normales. de lesiones
pérdida de tolerancia graves.
regulatoria, aumento
Insignificante Sin impacto medible dNoiexceder
f las No hay atención Sin preocupación Esperado (E) >10% probabilidad >50% probabilidad de
(<$0.01 M) obligaciones o local/internacional/ONG de ocurrencia ocurrencia
expectativas
reglamentarias.
<
Figura21ResultadosAMEF
F1221402-TE-MEM-001-0 28 Marzo,2022
Peligro kárstico asociado con la laguna Santa Ana Baja – Raura
Memo Técnico
ANEXOS
Anexo I: Proceso de karstificación
Technical Memo
Revision
Elaborate Approved
Revision Date Description Review by:
by: by:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 KARSTIFICATION PROCESSES............................................................................................................. 1
2 HYPOGENЕ KARSTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. 2
3 PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF KARST DEVELOPMENT IN THE RAURA AREA .......................................... 6
4 SINKHOLE MECHANISMS .................................................................................................................... 9
FIGURES
Figure 1 Two fundamental types of karst in the context of diagenetic zones and groundwater flow regimes ......................... 2
Figure 2 Examples of rift-like karst conduits from various regions .......................................................................................... 5
Figure 3 Hypogene karst shafts documented in Jumasha limestones in the vicinity of a magmatic intrusion located in
some 100 km NNW of the Raura area....................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 Clusters of negative features that may represent relict hypogene karst systems ..................................................... 8
Figure 5 Distribution of faults and inferred hypogene karst clusters. ...................................................................................... 9
Figure 6 Mechanisms of sinkhole formation beneath ponds. ................................................................................................ 10
Figure 7 Inferred conditions of the sinkhole formation beneath Laguna Santa Ana Baja. ...................................................... 11
Figure 8 Sinkhole SUM-01 at the bottom of Santa Ana Baja lagoon (a), sinkhole formed beneath the flooded plane in the
North Cape, South Africa (b), and photos of rift-like caves in the same area. ........................................................ 12
1 KARSTIFICATION PROCESSES
Karst is a fluid flow system (geohydrodynamic system) with a permeability structure evolved as a
consequence of dissolutional enlargement of initial preferential flow pathways, dominated by interconnected
voids and conduits, and organized to facilitate the circulation of fluid in the downgradient direction due to the
positive feedback between flow and conduit growth (Klimchouk, 2015).
Karstification is viewed as a dynamic hydrogeological process of self–organization of the permeability
structure in soluble rocks, a mechanism of the specific evolution of the groundwater flow system. It results
from interaction between groundwater and its environment, determined by the various components and
attributes of the two systems seeking equilibration. Geochemical mechanisms that cause the dissolution
effect on the host rocks under varied P–T conditions are numerous. Karstification is the creation and evolution
of organized permeability structures on the macroscale (>ca. 5–15mm) due to dissolutional enlargement of
an earlier porosity; dispersed dissolution on the pore scale that occurs during diagenesis is not considered
as karstification. To cause karstification development, the dissolution effect of disequilibria has to accumulate
over sufficiently long periods of time and to concentrate within relatively small rock volumes or areas.
Two fundamental types of karst, epigene and hypogene, differentiate mainly due to distinct hydrodynamic
characteristics of the respective groundwater flow systems: (1) of hydraulically open (unconfined), near–
surface systems, and (2) of confined stratiform aquifer systems, or cross–formational fracture–vein systems,
of varying depths and degrees of confinement. The distinctiveness of these types of karst arises due to
fundamental differences in boundary conditions, lithological, structural and geochemical conditions and
hydrodynamic regimes of groundwater (fluid) flow and speleogenesis (Fig. 1), as well as due to differences
in the evolutionary trajectories of corresponding karst systems. They differ in many characteristics, notably
in relationships with the surface, hydrogeologic behavior, spatial distribution, geomorphic expression,
characteristics of void–conduit systems (their patterns, morphology, sediments, mineralogy, inhabitant biota,
etc.), groundwater quality, and related resources and hazards.
Epigene karst is inalienably related to the exposed surface and the meteoric recharge that comes from it,
either diffused authogenic or concentrated allogenic. Dissolution of carbonate rocks occurs mainly due to
carbonic acid generated by reactions with soil CO2.The erosion base level ultimately controls the
development of karst. Karstification commences either immediately after deposition and early exposure, or
when combined action of uplift and denudation brings a buried soluble formation back to a shallow subsurface
and re–exposure. Characteristic geomorphic and hydrologic features, such as dolines (sinkholes), sinking
streams, and caves are well represented in epigene karst.
Epigene karstification, directly related to the infiltration of meteoric water, is predominantly associated with
local flow systems and/or recharge regimes of intermediate to regional meteoric flow systems. Epigene caves
form along paths (connected fractures and/or pores) where the greatest flow occurs between recharge points
at the surface and discharge points in topographic lows. The types of recharge, the relationships of recharge
and discharge points and the initial percolation patterns are controlled by the geomorphic settings and
distribution of primary porosity and fractures. The amount of recharge also depends on climate. The positive
feedback loop between discharge and the rate of conduit growth is fully operational in epigene speleogenesis,
which leads to the competitive development of conduits, progressive concentration of flow, and domination
of branching cave patterns. Epigene conduit systems favor lateral flow and respective porosity diminishes
with depth.
Hypogene karst evolves without direct genetic linkage with the surface, being originally represented
exclusively by void–conduit systems at depth. When a hypogenically karstified rock formation is brought to
the shallow subsurface by uplift and denudation, hypogene void–conduit systems are commonly relict (i.e.,
already decoupled from the original cave–forming environment). They can be intercepted by the denudation
surface and become expressed in the landscape. In some cases, parts of hypogene systems can be
integrated into the contemporary flow systems and overprinted by epigene karstification, but the degree of
their integration commonly remains limited due to the mismatch of their spatial organization to the shallow
flow system.
Figure 1 Two fundamental types of karst in the context of diagenetic zones and groundwater flow regimes
Figure 1. Two fundamental types of karst in the context of diagenetic zones and groundwater flow regimes
(from Klimchouk, 2015). The diagram is out of scale and the vertical dimension is greatly exaggerated. ES –
epigene speleogenesis (karstification); HS – hypogene speleogenesis (karstification). 1 – meteoric,
topography–driven regime: a – local systems (unconfined), b – regional and subregional systems (confined);
2 – expulsion (exfiltration, basinal) regime, commonly overpressured, driven by compaction and tectonic
compression: a – in newly deposited sediments, b – in older rocks; 3 – interfaces between groundwater
regimes and systems: a – meteoric/compactional regimes, b – local/regional-subregional meteoric systems;
4 – poorly permeable beds (only few are shown on the diagram); 5 – meteoric flow paths; 6 – basinal flow
paths; 7 – enhanced cross-formational communication; 8 – intense gas inputs; 9 – temperature and gradient
anomaly: positive, negative; 10 – redox conditions: oxidizing, reducing.
2 HYPOGENЕ KARSTIFICATION
Hypogene karstification is defined as the formation of solution–enlarged permeability structures (void–conduit
systems) by upwelling fluids that recharge the cavernous zone from hydrostratigraphically lower units,
whereas fluids originate from distant, estranged (by low–permeability beds or strata), or internal sources,
independent of recharge from the overlying or immediately adjacent surface (Klimchouk, 2019).
Hypogene karstification occurs where the ascending flow of reactive fluids is structurally and/or
stratigraphically focused and where dissolution–inducing disequilibrium conditions are strong or supported
for a sufficiently long time, —mainly in zones of discharge and/or interaction of fluid flow systems and regimes
of different nature, depth, and scales (Figure 1).
The fundamental feature of hypogene karstification is that it is mainly driven by transverse fluid flow across
boundaries between different strata, diagenetic zones and layered aquifers, whereas the boundaries
commonly coincide with major contrasts in water chemistry, gas composition and temperature (Klimchouk,
2007). This causes disequilibrium conditions and supports diverse mineral reactions, including those of
dissolution with the spatially concentrated effects. The processes and mechanisms that can potentially cause
the aggressiveness and dissolution in deep-seated settings are varied and include:
Carbonic acid dissolution, where CO2 is produced at depth mainly by prograde metamorphism and
devolatilization reactions, thermal degradation and oxidation of deep-seated organic compounds by mineral
oxidants, and by some other reactions.
Dissolution by cooling thermal water can occur along ascending flowpaths, even at constant CO2 levels. In
a closed system, the solubility of calcite increases with decreasing temperature, so that more calcite can be
dissolved.
Mixing of waters of contrasting chemistry, particularly those differing in CO2 or H2S content or salinity, can
renew or enhance solutional aggressiveness to carbonates due to the concavity of the solubility curves. The
effect is widely referred to in the karst literature as “mixing corrosion.”
Dissolution by sulfuric acid, a very strong speleogenetic agent (Palmer, 2013), commonly occurs in shallower
conditions where H2S-bearing waters rise to interact with oxygenated shallower groundwater.
Organic acids generated in great quantities during the maturation of organic matter in the mesogenetic
environment can significantly enhance the solubility of carbonates and therefore be a powerful agency for
hypogenic karstification (Palmer, 2007).
Dissolution of evaporites is a simple dissociation of the ions and diffusional mass transport from the mineral
surface into the solution. The solubility of gypsum increases significantly (up to three to six times) with the
presence of other salts in the solution. Gypsum dissolution can be rejuvenated by the reduction of sulfates,
which removes sulfate ions from the solution and allows more sulfates to dissolve, and by dedolomitization,
which generates further dissolutional capacity with respect to gypsum because Ca2+ is removed from
solution and the sulfate ions react with Mg.
Dissolution in mixed carbonate/sulfate strata is a specific synergetic process, more complex than in each
lithology alone. In a mixed system, up to 1.5 times more gypsum can dissolve, and up to 7 times more
dolomite, compared to the solubilities of gypsum and dolomite alone (Palmer, 2007). The effect increases
with salinity of water.
There is mounting evidence suggesting that more than one process could be involved in many studied cases
of hypogene karst, operating either in combination or sequentially in time. The assessment of the dissolution
potential and processes to drive hypogene speleogenesis at great depths or in the vicinity of intrusive bodies
is a challenging and open research area. Although solubilities of many rock-forming minerals in brines vary
in a complex manner with changes in P-T conditions, pH, and fluid composition, they are commonly much
higher in the deep settings than at ambient conditions, suggesting a possibility of enhanced dissolution of
various rocks. The supercritical fluids are believed to be very effective corrosive and metasomatizing agents.
Where a multicomponent endogenous gas-vapor fluid rises through permeable zones, down along the
pressure and temperature gradients, complex processes of phase transformations and geochemical
evolution occur, with the formation at different levels of alkaline solutions and strong acids, such as HCl and
H2SO4, which causes the vertical zoning of specific environments aggressive to different lithologies
(Klimchouk, 2019).
According to hydrogeological environments in which ascending flow occurs, hypogene karstification is
classified into four types (Klimchouk, 2017), among which endogenous karstification is the most relevant for
the Raura area. Endogenous hypogene karstification is related to the upwelling cross-formational flow from
the lower hydrodynamic zone and deep endogenic fluid sources. It commonly localized along fluid-conducting
faults and fracture zones (fracture-vein fluid systems) and occurs at substantial depth. Hypogene
karstification of the endogenous type occurs in varied geodynamic settings. It is common for regions of the
extensional tectonic regime, especially for intracontinental rift basins, as well as for active margins and
collision fold-thrust regions. Two subtypes are distinguished: (a) related to magmatogenic degassing
(magmatogenic hypogene karst) and (b) related to other endogenous volatiles (“cold” degassing).
Hypogene caves demonstrate a variety of patterns, classified and characterized in Klimchouk (2019). Among
recognized patterns, two are likely to occur in the settings of the Raura area: vertical rift-like (linear) and
shaft-like (rounded in plan section) conduits, and isolated chambers.
Rift-like conduits are fractures substantially enlarged by dissolution. They can combine in small clusters
according to the pattern of guiding fractures. Their notable characteristic is that they have terminations
pinching out or abruptly ended in every lateral direction. Rift-like passages have typical dimensions of several
meters to several tens of meters in height and length, and the widths vary from a few centimeters to several
meters. Rift-like passages can be observed directly when intercepted by the lowering surface, exposed in
cliffs, or encountered by underground mines (Figure 2).
Rounded shafts are also common (Figure 3). They may have circular or oval cross-section, cross-dimensions
varying from a few meters to decameters and depth from several meters to a few hundred meters. Individual
shafts in different horizons may combine into stair-like systems, often including rift-like elements. Chambers
commonly form at the bottom of a soluble formation where the localized input of aggressive fluid occurs, and
as side cavities or “bulges” along fluid-conducting faults and fractures. Their dimensions vary in a wide range,
commonly from several meters to a hundred meters, although huge chambers are known with lateral and
vertical dimensions up to several hundred meters and volumes up to a few millions m3.
Distribution of hypogene karst features in area is commonly uneven. Subvertical conduits tend to occur in
clusters, whereas most of the area can be non-karstified.
Hypogene karstification is largely independent of climate, but the overprint by epigene karstification upon the
exposure strongly depends on climate. The epigene reworking is particularly strong in regions of moderate
and high runoff. In arid and semiarid regions, epigene karstification and surface karst morphologies are
normally subdued due to limited infiltration and short supply of CO2 and organic acids, but hypogene features
are often abundant in the subsurface, resulting in a strong contrast in the degree of karstification between
the surface and subsurface. The common views that hypogene karst is peculiar to arid climates and less
common in humid regions is, thus, a misconception. In reality, it is just better preserved and more readily
recognizable in arid regions, but can be overprinted by the epigene processes in shallow subsurface in humid
karst regions.
Figure 2. Examples of rift-like karst conduits from various regions. a and b – karstic rifts in the Waterways
Formation exposed in the Hammerstone Quarry, Alberta, Canada (from Broughton, 2021); c – rift-like conduit
in the Upper Jurassic (Malm) limestone quarry, Franconian Alb, Germany (from Homuth et al., 2011); d – rift-
like conduit of Dragon Breeze cave in Neo-Proterozoic dolomites, Namibia (photo: Namibian ground water
systems); e – rift-like channel of Azra-3 cave in Jurassic limestones, Morocco (from Audra, 2015), an arrow
points to a human figure for scale); g and h – rift-like conduits in karst shaft systems documented in Jumasha
limestones in the vicinity of a magmatic intrusion located in some 100 km NNW of the Raura area.
Figure 3 Hypogene karst shafts documented in Jumasha limestones in the vicinity of a magmatic intrusion
located in some 100 km NNW of the Raura area.
allows the volatiles confined in the lava to escape in a rapid, sometimes explosive manner. The main volatiles
are water vapor and CO2, but other gases are also common, like SO2, H2S, Cl2, N2, He, Ar, and Rn. This
provides an ample potential for dissolution of the host rocks, particularly carbonates, by aggressive fluids
escaping the intrusion zone. In addition, large amount of CO2 and carbonic acid are produced during the
skarn formation, further enhancing the aggressiveness of the fluids to limestones.
Fluids escaping the skarn zone can enlarge existing discontinuities in limestones to form ascending rift-like
and shaft-like (rounded) vertical conduit systems that may also locally include chambers. The formation of
hypogene void-conduit systems occurs at depth and this type of hypogene karstification normally is not
manifested at the surface. However, exhumation of relict hypogene karst systems when the host formation
is uplifted and exposed can create particular landscape features, which commonly have a clustered
distribution. Their morphology will depend on the size and morphologies of cavities at the level of surface
interception and geomorphological agencies at play. They may include closed basins with cross dimensions
from a few meters to a few hundred meters, surface corridors and slot-like canyons, and openings of vertical
shafts. Relict hypogene void-conduit systems (mainly shafts) can remain empty and accessible for direct
examination but they may be plugged by sediments brought from the surface. The latter is probably the
dominant case in the Raura area, which was severely affected by glaciations, where most of intercepted
cavities are likely to be filled by clastic sediments during glacial retreat.
Examination of satellite images reveals the presence of features that likely manifest hypogene karstification.
There are localized clusters of circular, elongated or more complex in the plan view negative forms, commonly
filled with water (small lakes) or soils (Figure 4). There is a cluster of circular negative forms on the patch of
a glacier (Figure 4-b). These forms can be blowout features. These forms may indicate the presence of
hypogene conduits (shafts) beneath, intersected by the denudational surface (e.g. by glacial scouring) and
largely filled with sediments. Distinct closed basins with larger lakes could be formed by preferential glacial
erosion of hypogenically karstified clusters, where closely spaced sub-vertical conduits or possibly large
chambers were precursors for the enhanced deepening and provided internal drainage. A good example is
the lake of the oval shape to the south-east of Santa Ana Baja Lake, with cross-dimensions of ca. 400x500
m (Figure 4 c). Similarly to Santa Ana Baja Lake and some other hypogene karst clusters, this lake is located
along the south-south-eastern continuation of the Raura Fault (Figure 5) and next to a small intrusion (Raura
Geology map). This basin shows remarkable signs of erosion of the surrounding moraine, which suggests a
substantial capacity of the inferred hypogene systems below to accommodate sediments.
We preliminary conclude that, whereas epigene karstification is of minor significance in the Raura area, relict
hypogene karst features are present in highly localized clusters. Such clusters may have considerably
influenced the relief formation, being precursors of locally enhanced glacial erosion and the formation of
closed basins. They tend to be proximal to igneous intrusions and aligned to faults and their intersections.
The Raura Fault and its south-south-eastern continuation seem to play a role in controlling distribution of
hypogene karst clusters, as well as WWN-SSE-trending faults.
Santa Ana Baja Lake area may represent one of such hypogene karst cluster, predisposed by the intersection
of three faults (Figure 5). Steep hydraulic gradients imposed by the nearby mine caused reactivation of some
hypogene conduits, the establishment of preferential flow between the lake and the mine, piping conduit
sediments, and eventually the formation of a dropout sinkhole in the lake bottom sediments and drying the
lake.
Figure 4 Clusters of negative features that may represent relict hypogene karst systems
4 SINKHOLE MECHANISMS
The formation of sinkholes is by far the most common geohazard related to embankments with karstic
foundations. Sinkholes are related to processes that can be summarized as: dissolutional lowering of ground
surface, rock roof failure into underlying cave, collapse of insoluble overburden into cave in soluble rock
below, soil collapse into soil void formed over bedrock fissure, down–washing of soil into fissures in bedrock
(Waltham et al. 2005; Gutierrez et al. 2014). Sinkhole surface diameters can range from 1 m to 100’s of
meters – the largest being Xiaozhai Tiankeng in China, which is more than 600 m wide and deep. Sinkholes
are commonly filled with low–permeability clayey residual or colluvial soils, which tend to restrict drainage
and perch water tables. Conduits beneath sinkholes, termed ponors or swallow holes, commonly drain
stormwater overflow into the deeper karstic system after rain events.
Ground collapse related to karstic terrain is commonly induced by human activity – typically by hydraulic
changes in the subsurface due to engineering activity (Waltham & Fookes, 2003). The development of
sinkholes within soluble rock foundations are common occurrences at reservoirs and TSFs, particularly
during initial filling (Figure 6).
The basin of Santa Ana Baja Lake likely represents one of clusters of relict hypogene karst conduits, which
location is predisposed by the intersection of three faults (Figure 5). These subvertical conduits beneath the
lake bottom, largely filled with sediments, remained inactive under natural conditions of phreatic zone and
rather low hydraulic gradients. Subvertical relict hypogene karst conduits do not assist lateral groundwater
outflow from the cluster zone; the latter occurs through fracture media.
Drainage of the aquifer through the underground mine has established steep hydraulic gradient between the
lake and mine galleries. For instance, the altitude difference between the lake bottom and the mine level
4380 is about 240 m. Some subvertical hypogene conduits can have enhanced hydraulic connection with the
mine galleries via series of larger fractures, such as those at the point TR-4380-07. Preferential hydraulic
connection can establish through hypogene conduits and larger fractures, leading to elevated flow rate and
washing-out sediment fill from the conduits through piping (Figure 7-1). This process can initially be slow,
moderated by the lower conductivity of fractures as compared to karst conduits.
Figure 7 Inferred conditions of the sinkhole formation beneath Laguna Santa Ana Baja.
The emptying of karst conduits below moraine and lake sediments caused their settling/piping into the karst
space and the formation of soil cavities above the conduits. At some stage, they collapse and sinkholes open
at the lake bottom, causing relatively rapid drainage and drying of the lake (Figure 7-2). The main connection
from the sinkhole SUM-01 and the mine extends to the point TR-4380-07, as suggested by the dye tracing
experiment. The fact that the drop of water levels of Santa Ana Baja lagoon in October-December 2020 was
somewhat extended through time testifies that the preferential flow route between the lake and the mine is
the combination of conduit and fracture elements, with the latter controlling the flow rate.
Examples of sinkhole formation due to sudden collapses below pounded water bodies are numerous. One
close analogy is the opening of a sinkhole over the rift-like karst conduit in the North Cape, South Africa,
which occurred on 06.01.2017 beneath the flooded plane after 3-days heavy rain period (Figure 8-b). Rift
type caves of presumably hypogene origin are known in the larger area (Figure 8 c and d). The linear
morphology of the main sinkhole at Santa Ana Baja lagoon suggests that the karst conduit beneath the
moraine cover may be of the rift type, although it also may be just a linear part of the erosional trench and
the morphology of the conduit can be shaft-like.
Figure 8 Sinkhole SUM-01 at the bottom of Santa Ana Baja lagoon (a), sinkhole formed beneath the flooded
plane in the North Cape, South Africa (b), and photos of rift-like caves in the same area.
Technical Memo
Revision
Elaborate Approved
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLES
FIGURES
Figure 1 Main subsidence area in Popovo Polje – Hutovo Reservoir (Milanović P., 2015) ..................................................... 1
Figure 2 Main subsidence – temporarily active ponor (Hutovo Reservoir) .............................................................................. 2
Figure 3 Photo left – submerged springs during tracer test (downstream), Photo right – spatial position of sinkhole
(location of tracer injection at a depth of 50 m) (upstream/reservoir) ........................................................................ 3
Figure 4 Diagram of water discharge (seepage) through time (left). Measuring discharge from springs (right). .................... 3
Figure 5 Schematic longitudinal cross sections with conduit distribution Layout tracer test results (Milanović, 2009) ........... 4
Figure 6 Hydrogram of the water level in the lake with a comparative representation of precipitation ................................... 5
Figure 7 Water fluctuation in the period when the sinkhole is first observed (which does not correspond to the graph
shown in the previous figure) ?................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 8 Map of the results of analysis of the tracer tests analysis of the tracer tests ............................................................ 7
Figure 9 Map and cross section of sinkhole SUM-1 and boreholes with some main data ...................................................... 8
Figure 10 Proposed natural condition of Laguna Santa Ana Baja........................................................................................... 9
Figure 11 Piezometric data for wider area ............................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 12 Condition of the Laguna Santa Ana Baja and mining galleries during mining process ......................................... 10
Figure 13 One of proposed mechanism of sinkhole genesis in the Lake Santa Ana Baja .................................................... 10
1 SINKHOLE MECHANISMS
Considering all man-made structures in karst as dams, reservoirs, tunnels as well as mine galleries are most
vulnerable in relation to the induced collapses, subsidence and caverns. Especially subsidence-prone are
reservoirs or lakes which are located, entirely or partially, in the karstified rocks covered with unconsolidated
sediments. Generally, as consequence of induced collapses, a number of reservoirs in karst were failed and
never been fully filled. Every problem is unique and past response is never repeated.
Collapses in lake bottom occurs under the influence of water (groundwater and surface water) as erosion
and piping action breaks down the support of poorly consolidated sediments. Also, the subsidences
originated at the lake bottom can be connected with long, wide and very deep cracks. Defects during the
mine underground excavation, in karst can provoke undesirable effects at the surface, especially in the case
of thin overburden. Also, it can changed regime of underground and surface water provoking many different
destructive processes: suffosion, erosion, air hammer and water hammer effect. Suffosion (mechanical
suffosion) acting from surface as flood water or from below as underground water. After initial channel is
formed as consequence of flood water suffosion and erosion processes occurs. Large volume of eroded
material can be transported through the karst channels and the collapses prone zones can occur everywhere.
As a good examples of sinkhole mechanisms are large number of collapses in karst poljes of Dinaric karst.
Reservoir Hutovo, located at the lowest part of large karst depression Popovo Polje (Herzegovina), is a good
example for induced subsidences occurrence (Milanović P., 20115). The reservoir bottom is covered with
alluvial deposits the thickness of which increases from the flanks toward the middle part of the polje, where
it reaches about 30 m. Topography of bedrock (Cretaceous limestone) is typical for karst.
The area of reservoir was losing water under natural conditions through 75 registered ponors in the shape of
different size subsidences. The largest one was formed above the fossilized ponor of river Trebisnjica (Figure
1).
Figure 1 Main subsidence area in Popovo Polje – Hutovo Reservoir (Milanović P., 2015)
By applying different investigation methods (geological mapping, geophysical investigations and close
spacing drilling) the fossilized opening of ponor was detected at depth of 50 m beneath the bottom level.
Figure 2 shows contour lines of karstified paleorelief (a) and a cross-section (b) through the infilled karstic
sinkhole with fossilized ponor the very bottom. Presently the swallowing capacity of ponor is drastically
limited.
.
Figure 2. (a) Contourlines of paleorelief and locations of investigation boreholes. Arrows indicate trace of
fosile river bed toward the main ponor.
(b) Cross-section: 1. Karstified limestone, 2. Alluvial deposits; 3. Degraded zone in alluvial deposits; 4. Karst
channel; 5. Direction of underground flow; 6. Subsidence; 7. Investigation boreholes; 8. Zone treated by
compaction, and 9. Zone treated by grouting.
Before reservoir filling that ponor was active from time to time only. During reservoir operation, in spite of
surface treatment, a number of large collapses occurred. After first impounding 38, next year 44 and during
third year of operation 36 new collapses occurred.
One of the good example is Višegrad hydropower plant which is situated on the River Drina, 2.7 km upstream
from the town of Višegrad. It was built from1985 to 1989. Already in the first year of the exploitation of the
Višegrad dam, the occurrence of submerged downstream springs was noticed. From the measurements of
water quantities that appear in the springs downstream from the dam it was established that the quantity had
increased from the 1.4 m3/s (in 1990) to 13.92 m3/s (in 2008), and 14.68 -15.00 m3/s (in the 2012) (Fig. 3). In
order to define the positions of karst conduits along which the groundwater circulates under the dam site, in
2009 and again in 2013 special-purpose investigations and remediation works (still in progress) were
performed. Geological investigations of the karst setting, required to address leakage beneath the Višegrad
dam, were focused on a rather narrow area containing a refill “sinking” zone and a drainage “discharge” zone.
Figure 3 Photo left – submerged springs during tracer test (downstream), Photo right – spatial position of
sinkhole (location of tracer injection at a depth of 50 m) (upstream/reservoir)
Geological investigations were performed during all phases of design and construction of the dam of the
Višegrad HPP. During the previous period of dam exploitation certain multidisciplinary investigations were
also performed, primarily with the goal of choosing the optimum dam site as well as definition of possible
seepage. All these investigations have yielded a large body of results yet they did not point to the possibility
of losing so much water that was higher from year to year. Also groundwater tracer tests were performed in
the phase of choosing the optimal dam site. Systematic monitoring from the stage of previous investigation
and design construction up to the exploitation of water seepage beneath the dam has been done from 1991
to the present (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Diagram of water discharge (seepage) through time (left). Measuring discharge from springs (right).
In 2009 special-purpose investigations were performed in order to define the conduits along which the water
leakage occurs below the dam site. Since the study and systematization of the results of previous
investigations generally shown above, the investigations have started with the determination of the geological
structure of the wider area of the Višegrad reservoir that encompassed an area of circa 6 km2. General result
is shown on Figure 5.
Figure 5 Schematic longitudinal cross sections with conduit distribution Layout tracer test results (Milanović,
2009)
Generally, according to sinkhole in Laguna Santa Ana Baja during the mine operation period water table was
slow decreasing deep below the bottom of the lake. Still, during the wet period of the year, water table raises
abruptly, and the considerable part of the reservoir can be under influence of uplift. Such a mechanism,
which has been repeated for years due to the increasing drainage of water from the wider zone of the mine
due to underground mining, probably resulted in the final collapsing of the lake bottom. Sinkhole and huge
open cracks in the reservoir bottom appear as a result.
In order to assume or define a model of the mechanisms of the sinkhole in Santa Ana Baja lake, a certain
number of valid data is certainly necessary, which could numerically and spatially support some of the
sinkhole mechanism theories. The data (very scarce) of the report made by the company AMPHOS 21 in
December 2021 were used to assume the mechanism of the formation of the sinkhole of Lake Santa Ana
Baja.
The report states that the loss of water from the lake occurred in October 2020. It is also shown in Figure 6
the diagram of the fluctuation of the water level in the lake during from 2016 up to part of 2021 is shown
(certainly so that the time series of data on the fluctuation of the water level in the lake with comparative
precipitation in longer period as well as data of groundwater monitoring would be of great importance).
Figure 6 Hydrogram of the water level in the lake with a comparative representation of precipitation
Figure 7 Water fluctuation in the period when the sinkhole is first observed (which does not correspond to the
graph shown in the previous figure) ?
It is expected that such extreme events would be very visible and easily noticeable: through increased inflow
of ground water into mining galleries or increased water circulation to lower zones (toward lake Caballococha)
of established circulation from Lake Santa Ana Baja. Unfortunately, such data were not available.
Other data that can be used in the function of defining the mechanism of water sinking in Lake Santa Ana
Baja are determined or assumed directions of groundwater circulation obtained by the tracer tests. This
experiment has definitely established that water circulate to the several privileged directions. Summary data
from the two sampling campaigns are shown in Table 1.
ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb ppb
Sample
Date
type TR-4300- TR-4300- TR-4380- TR-4380- TR-4380- TR-4300- TR-4380- RA-AMP19- RA-AMP19- RA-AMP19-
08 42 21 07 23 45 16 22B 07 15A
19-Nov-
21 Charcoal 0.66 3 2.04
20-Nov-
21 Charcoal 0.8 1.52 0.39 1.27 2.13 1.51 0.4
It can be clearly seen from the table that the tracer appeared no later than max. 4 days after the injected into
the SUM-1 sinkhole. It should be emphasized that this is the longest possible time of occurrence of tracers,
since sampling was done using charcoal (with this method of sampling it is not possible to determine the
exact time or concentration of the tracer). It is also noticeable that the tracer appeared in high concentrations,
which indicates a fast connection between the sinkhole and the mining gallery. In this case, it is a mining
gallery at an elevation of 4380 m a.s.l. and a connection with the sinkhole in Lake Santa Ana Baja at an
elevation of 4619 m a.s.l., which makes an altitude difference of 239 m. The first and probably the main
connection is from the sinkhole SUM-1 to the location in the mine gallery TR-4380-07, whose horizontal
distance is 480 m with a vertical difference of 239 m, or about total length of 535 m. The sampling location is
defined as a fault with the occurrence of water leakage, and thus confirms this location as the most important
location of possible water leakage into the mine gallery for now. It is most probable that a tracer appears at
this location, in this zone, from which is further transported along the entire mining gallery and registered at
points (TR-4380-16, TR-4380-21 and TR-4380-23). The fact that the tracer was registered at the farthest
point after 4 days gives us the right to state that it appeared at the first location in 2 days and maybe less.
Which further points us to the fact that it is probably about the rapid circulation of groundwater from the
sinkhole to the location of mining works and their certain connection. It is also necessary to mention that in
addition to the main sinkhole SUM-1, two smaller sinkholes SUM-2 and SUM-3 were registered, which are in
the same line with the sinkhole SUM-1. It is necessary that these sinkhole sites be explored as well as the
SUM-1 sinkhole in order to get a complete picture of the sinking mechanism (Figure 8).
Occurrence of tracer in mining galleries that are 80 m from galleries that are at an elevation of 4380 m a.s.l.
was registered at locations (TR-4300-08, TR-4300-42) after 7 days from the tracer injection, with the distance
of possible leakage point from the gallery TR-4380 according to the locations where the appearance of tracer
in the gallery TR-4300 is registered about 200 m, this location is described as a flow in the gallery without
any indication that it is a leak from a rupture, crack or fault. It can be realistically assumed that a connection
is being made within this part of the mining galleries, and that it is less likely that water will circulate directly
from the sinkhole towards the mining galleries on the 4300 elevation.
Proof of the slow circulation of ground through fissured and cracked zones, is the appearance of tracer in the
borehole RA-AMP19-15A after 20-29 days from the injection. As the concentration of tracer extracted from
the charcoal is greater than 2 ppb, it is definitely concluded that there is a connection between the sinkhole
and the location of this piezometer (Figure 8).
The connection between the SUM-1 sinkhole and the borehole RA-AMP19-07, close to Lake Caballococha,
is also very significant. The distance is about 740 m, where the tracer traveled for a maximum of 6 days with
a final concentration of 1.44 ppb (charcoals), and in the next sample after a maximum of 28 days an even
higher concentration of 3 ppb was found, which definitely points to connection between SUM-1 and borehole.
The last identified connection of the tracer test is the connection of the sinkhole with the borehole RA-AMP19-
22B from, a distance of about 200 m. A tracer with a concentration of 1.27 ppb appeared in this borehole
after a maximum of 6 days, while the concentration after 29 days from the beginning of the tracer test in the
second sampling campaign using charcoal samplers was twice less or 0.6 ppb, which may indicate that in
this case the tracer wave was very slow and with low concentrations.
An overview map of the analysis of the tracer test is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Map of the results of analysis of the tracer tests analysis of the tracer tests
Fragments of data related to the display of borehole cores were also used to define the mechanism of the
genesis and functioning of the sinkholes. The AMPHOS 21 report only partially shows the intervals of geology
as high or low intervals of limestone karstification in the immediate vicinity of the sinkhole.
Currently data from borehole (RA-AMP19-01 and RA-AMP19-22B) are shown at Figure 9. Although, their
cores are only partially shown, we can only assume about karstification of limestones and generally geology
on a wider area in vertical cross section. It would be good to have the loggs of all boreholes, especially those
in which a tracer has appeared. Also, on the Figure 9. the cross section with some main data according to
boreholes loggs, lake water level as well as groundwater level are shown.
Figure 9 Map and cross section of sinkhole SUM-1 and boreholes with some main data
Based on all that has been presented so far, a preliminary conceptual model of the sinkhole mechanism
genesis (must be supplemented by geological data) and water loss from the lake can be given in several
steps as it is shown on the figures below.
Only * shown in the Figure 8 and as such were used as input data for further analysis.
Figure 12 Condition of the Laguna Santa Ana Baja and mining galleries during mining process
Figure 13 One of proposed mechanism of sinkhole genesis in the Lake Santa Ana Baja