Ch21 Metal Cutting Theory Wiley

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P.
Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
Overview of Machining Technology
Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Cutting Temperature
2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common feature of
which is removal of material from a starting workpart
so the remaining part has the desired shape
Categories:
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)
Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently applied to metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometry
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted material,
at least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming
Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the
starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Figure 21.3 (a) turning
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges
Figure 21.3 - The three most
common types of machining
process: (b) drilling
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly
relative to work to generate plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Figure 21.3 - (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling
Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
One cutting edge
Turning uses single point tools
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work usually achieved by
rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools.
Figure 21.4 - (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges
Cutting Conditions in Machining
The three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original
work surface
For certain operations, material removal rate can be
found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
Cutting Conditions for Turning
Figure 21.5 - Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning
operation
Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material from
the starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Figure 21.6 - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process
Chip Thickness Ratio
where r = chip thickness ratio; t
o
= thickness of the
chip prior to chip formation; and t
c
= chip thickness
after separation
Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before,
so chip ratio is always less than 1.0
c
o
t
t
r =
Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle can be determined as:
where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle
sin
cos
tan
r
r
=
1
Figure 21.7 - Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear
strain triangle used to derive strain equation
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed from the
following equation, based on the preceding parallel
plate model:
= tan( - ) + cot
where = shear strain, = shear plane angle, and =
rake angle of cutting tool
Figure 21.8 - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear
zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool-chip friction
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Segmented Chip
Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of
cut
High tool-chip friction
Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting:
(a) segmented
Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
Low tool-chip friction
formation in metal cutting:
(b) continuous
Continuous with BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off
formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built-up edge
Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
Most closely associated
with difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds
formation in metal cutting: (d)
serrated
Forces Acting on Chip
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force F
s
and Normal force to shear F
n
Figure 21.10 -
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of F
s
and F
n
= resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
follows:
N
F
=
tan =
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
sin
w t
A
o
s
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
s
s
A
F
S =
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
Forces F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force F
c
and Thrust force F
t
Figure 21.10 - Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Forces in Metal Cutting
Equations can be derived to relate the forces that
cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = F
c
sin + F
t
cos
N = F
c
cos - F
t
sin
F
s
= F
c
cos - F
t
sin
F
n
= F
c
sin + F
t
cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
could occur, the work material will select a shear
plane angle which minimizes energy, given by
Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining
2 2
45

+ =
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
To increase shear plane angle
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
2 2
45

+ =
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all
of which mean easier machining
Figure 21.12 - Effect of shear plane angle| : (a) higher | with a
resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller | with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Power and Energy Relationships
A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed from:
P
c
= F
c
v
where P
c
= cutting power; F
c
= cutting force; and v =
cutting speed
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed
as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)
where HP
c
= cutting horsepower, hp
000 33,
v F
HP
c
c
=
Gross power to operate the machine tool P
g
or HP
g
is
given by
or
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools = ~ 90%
E
P
P
c
g
=
E
HP
HP
c
g
=
Unit Power in Machining
Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut
Called the unit power, P
u
or unit horsepower, HP
u
or
where MRR = material removal rate
MRR
P
P
c
u
=
MRR
HP
HP
c
u
=
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm
3
or J/mm
3
(in-lb/in
3
)
w t
F
w vt
v F
MRR
P
P U
o
c
o
c c
u
= = = =
Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is
converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
tool-chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperature
Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various work
materials
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =
specific energy; v = cutting speed; t
o
= chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
333 0
4 0
.
.
|
.
|
\
|
=
K
vt
C
U
T
o
Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
Using this method, K. Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K v
m
where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature

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Ch21 Metal Cutting Theory Wiley

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P.

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e

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