V.P.

Raman
Associate Vice President - TechnicaI,
Waaree Instruments Limited.
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING.
Introduction
Nowadays information technology (IT) is increasingly determining the growth in the world of
automation. After it changed hierarchies, structures and flows in the entire office world, it now covers all
the sectors from the process and manufacturing industries to logistics and building automation. The
technological problems are shifting from measurement and control to information management and
connectivity, leading to widespread use of networking.
The communications capability of devices and continuous, transparent information routes are
indispensable components of future-oriented automation concepts. The 1980s saw the beginning of the
networks in Industrial Automation and the 1990s saw plants turn to standardized bus architectures. At
the turn of the 21
st
century, we can expect the wireless connectivity to dominate. Its a foregone
conclusion that communications will shape the factory of tomorrow, as it will be faster, more efficient and
reliable, work areas will be safer and productivity will increase. The future of the automation industry lies
in the hands of internet based advanced networking and wireless connectivity, utilizing the standard and
proven bus architectures and protocols. Also over the past several years the advancements in the
windows operating system have provided new mechanisms for the exchange of information among various
desktop applications at a relatively lower cost.
This technical paper gives the reader a basic understanding of how industrial networking can be
used in various applications.
What is a Network?
Networks are collections of computers which can communicate with each other over a shared
medium. Prior to the development of networking technology, individual machines were isolated unless
they could interconnect through a main frame.Networking allows people to Share resources such as:
Printers, large hard drives, host computers such as mainframes, mini-computers, workstations, modems,
Servers - like database servers, Electronic mail, World Wide Web servers, search engines etc. and it
means less hardware investment. In computer networking, rules are usually referred to as protocols.
There are over 100 industrial networks and identifying the right one for the right application
becomes a tricky issue. This technical paper will discuss many of such issues that need to be considered
when selecting an industrial network. The network selected should allow us to communicate with all the
interconnected devices without concerns about the loss or corruption of data and getting the right
information to the right user. Networking and communications have been around for decades. One of
the first networks, Modbus, which almost became extinct, but is now reborn on Ethernet.
LAN - (Local Area Network).
Local area networks (LANS) are those networks usually confined to a small geographic area such as a
single building or a college campus. It may consist of workstations, printers, modems, and mainframe
computers. The development of various standards for networking protocols and media has made possible
the proliferation of LANs worldwide for business and educational applications. LANS are connected by
dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links etc.
WAN - (Wide Area Network).
Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. Often a network is located
in multiple physical places. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as
dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links,
and data packet carrier services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access
server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked
using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast
distances.
Internet.
System of worldwide linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication
services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. With the
meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a communications highway for millions
of users. This now provides Communications highway for millions of users.
Intranet.
Private network using Internet-type tools -available in limited areas like within a given organization,
building, location etc. For large organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate
information
Protocols.
Network protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol defines how computers
identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information
is processed once it reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling lost or
damaged transmissions or "packets."
Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This common
method of accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist over the network
media, and allows the builder of a network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols.
Principle roles of Protocols.
N Nodes must adhere to the same standards if they are to communicate.
N Defines how computers identify each other on a network.
N How data is transmitted.
N How received information is processed.
N Message error handling.
N TCP/IP - (transmission control protocol/Internet Protocol).
N Standards that define the data link and network protocols.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
Protocol that enables files to be transferred between PCs and is Part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
FTP works on a client/server principle and Client program enables you to interact with a FTP server. Files
on FTP servers are often compressed so that More may be stored and Reduces file transfer time.
The computers do not need to run on the same operating system.
In addition, many computers allow you to log on to their FTP server as an Anonymous user if you
do not have an account on the remote system. Although this does not let you run programs or write to
the distant computer, it does allow you to copy files into your local account.
To use FTP you must know the URL of the remote site.
Network Characteristics
To correctly analyze and evaluate industrial networks, we need to define and analyze several
characteristics and most of the below mentioned characteristics are interrelated.
Hierarchy.
What is the network used for :
N Connect I/O back to the controller?
N Connect PLCs and operator interfaces together?
N Link manufacturing computers together?
N Link manufacturing with the rest of the company?
N Link manufacturing with other plants that supply raw materials or consume the products
manufactured?
N Linkage the inventory with manufacturing?
N Promote enterprise management solution?
Response Time and Variance.
N What is the typical response required on the network?
N Are some messages high priority and some low priority?
N Are the messages continuous or intermittent?
N How fast do the devices need to respond to each other?
N What happens if the devices communicate at different intervals?
Bandwidth.
What is the raw speed that the data travels : Bandwidth is the ability to pump data through the
communications link. Think of it as how big are the pipes and pumps to pump the data.
Efficiency.
Efficiency is a measure of how much additional work has to be done to send a message.
N How much overhead is required to send a message.
N How many messages need to be sent to read and write data to a device.
N How much the host computer has to do.
Access Method.
We will consider only two main types of access methods: deterministic and collision / detection.
N Deterministic means that given the number of devices on the network we can calculate what the
maximum response time will be. The response time of deterministic networks tends to vary less than
networks based on collision detection. Typically Master-Slave networks operate in a deterministic
manner where the master sends data to each slave, which allows the slave to respond and send data
back to the master. Most industrial I/O networks are deterministic.
N Collision Detection is where a device listens before it starts talking. If the device does not hear
anything then it starts talking. If someone else starts talking at the same time, then each device stops
for a random amount of time and then starts listening for silence again. The problem with collision
detection access method is, if you have a lot of devices needing to talk at the same time, you have to
wait an unknown amount of time. A lot of collisions waste even more time. Even worse, once a
device collides with another device, it has a lower priority to communicate again. It is even proved
that networks using collision detection start to degrade at only about 35 to 40 percent of their rated
bandwidth. Ethernet is the best example of a network using collision detection.
Topology.
Topology refers to how cables are run. Can all cables run back to a hub or do you "daisy-chain?. A
star or hub topology has all of the devices running a cable, back to the centralized hub. You need to
check the distance that each cable can be run from the hub to the device. If one device loses power it
should not affect the communications with the other devices.
A hub receives data from one device and rebroadcasts data to all the other devices connected to
the hub. So a switch greatly expands the bandwidth and decreases the collision domain.
A ring or "daisy-chain network is where you run the cable from device to device. This usually
results in less cable being used. However, we still have to consider the total length of the cable. Often
repeaters are used "midstream to boost (reamplify) the signal. Only one device can talk at a time on this
type of network.
Distance.
Each type of network has distance and speed limitations that are related. The most common
characteristic to all networks is that the longer the distance - the slower the speed. Repeaters, bridges,
gateways, hubs, switches are ways to get around these limitations. There is a limit to how many repeaters
you can use on one cable to extend the cable.
Number of devices.
Another factor limiting the response time, speed, and distance is the number of devices on the
communications length. The higher the number of devices then the shorter the distance, slower the baud
rate, and higher the response time.
Capabilities: We need to determine what the communications capabilities of each device are.
Length Of Messages: Theoretically it is ideal to have similar sized messages on the same network.
RS-232 Standard.
Due to its simplicity and low hardware overhead (as compared to parallel interface), serial
communication is extremely popular in the industry today and the most popular communication is the
EIA/TIA-232 E standard. This standard which has been developed by the Electronic Industry Association
and the Telecommunication Industry Association (EIA/TIA) is more popularly referred as RS-232, where
RS stands for Recommended Standard. The official name for this standard is "Interface between Data
Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit Termination Equipment employing Serial Binary Data Interchange.
This standard was introduced in 1962 and has undergone four changes till date.
Unlike many standards, which simply specify the electrical characteristics of a given interface, RS-
232 specifies Electrical, Functional and Mechanical characteristics in order to meet the above three
criteria.
Main Features of RS-232.
N Communication is point to Point and is Asynchronous.
N This is suitable for Serial, Binary and Digital Communication.
N The communication is reliable upto 50 feet and Data rates are upto 20 kbps.
Limitations using RS-232 standards.
N One limitation, the fact that over twenty signals have been defined by the standard, do not use all of
the signals or the 25 pin connector.
N The standard defines the maximum data rate of 20 kb/sec. This is slow for many of the present days
application.
N We have seen that the cable length specification that was once included in the RS-232 standard has
been replaced by a maximum load capacitance of 2500 pF.
RS-422A standard.
To allow transmission and high data rates, RS-422A uses two separate wires for each signal and
minimizes the problem of varying ground potential (balanced transmission). Another major difference
between RS-422A and RS-232 is the transition region between mark and space states.
RS-423A standard.
This transmits at a lower speed and uses one wire as a common return path for all signals in a
given direction (Unbalanced transmission). This standard operates in both RS-232 and RS-422A
environments.
RS-449 standard.
This is the intended successor to the functional portion of RS-232, including the mechanical
specification of the plugs and sockets. This standard which uses two connectors rather than one is
intended to replace the functional portion of RS-232. It has no provision for automatic dialing.
RS-485 standard.
This is a specialized interface that would not be considered standard equipment on todays home
PC, but is very common in the serial interface world. This is an extension of RS-422 standard. Today, the
most popular serial interface used in the industry is EIA-485 or RS-485 specifications. RS-485 will support
32 drivers as well as 32 receivers. We are talking about bi-directional half-duplex multi-drop
communications over a single or dual twisted pair cable. An RS-485 network can be connected in a 2 or 4
wire mode. Maximum cable length can be as much as 4000 feet because of the differential voltage
transmission system used. The RS- 232 may be converted to RS-485 with simple interface converter.
When choosing a transmission line for RS-485, it is necessary to examine the required distance of the
cable and the data rate of the system. Loses in a transmission line are a combination of AC loss (Skin
effect), DC conductor loss, leakage and AC losses in the dielectric. In high quality cable, the conductor
losses and the dielectric losses are on the same order of magnitude.
MODBUS.
MODBUS Protocol is a messaging structure, widely used to establish master-slave communication
between intelligent devices. A MODBUS message sent from a master to a slave contains the address of the
slave, the "command" (e.g. "read register" or "write register"), the data, and a check sum (LRC or CRC).
Since Modbus protocol is just a messaging structure, it is independent of the underlying physical layer. It
is traditionally implemented using RS232, RS422, or RS485 over a variety of media (e.g. fiber, radio,
cellular, etc.).
N MODBUS PLUS is a higher speed token passing derivative that uses the MODBUS messaging structure.
N MODBUS TCP/IP uses TCP/IP and Ethernet to carry the MODBUS messaging structure.
N Two kinds of checksum are used for standard Modbus networks. The error checking field contents
depend upon the transmission method that is being used.
N The address field of a message frame contains two characters (ASCII) or eight bits (RTU). A master
addresses a slave by placing the slave address in the address field of the message. When the slave
sends its response, it places its own address in this address field of the response to let the master
know which slave is responding.
N The data field of messages sent from a master to slave devices contains additional information which
the slave must use to take the action defined by the function code. This can include items like discrete
and register addresses, the quantity of items to be handled, and the count of actual data bytes in the
field.
What is Modbus Protocol?
MODBUS Protocol is an open, published and widely implemented protocol that requires a license,
but without a royalty payment to the owner. It is literally implemented by hundreds of vendors on
thousands of different devices in order to transfer discrete/analog I/O and register data between control
devices. One report called it the "de facto standard in multi-vendor integration".
N This defines a message structure that the devices understand and use, regardless of network type in
use and describes the process a device uses to access another device, how the device will respond,
how errors are detected and reported.
N Modbus messages are imbedded within the frame or packet structure of network being used like
Modbus TCP/IP and Modbus Plus. It establishes a common format for the layout and contents of
message fields.
N During communications on a Modbus network, the protocol determines how each controller will know
its device address, recognize a message addressed to it, determine the kind of action to be taken, and
extract any data or other information contained in the message. If a reply is required, the controller
will construct the reply message and send it using Modbus protocol.
What is MODBUS TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is the common transport protocol of the Internet and is actually a set of layered protocols,
providing a reliable data transport mechanism between machines. Ethernet has become the de facto
standard of corporate enterprise systems, so it comes as no surprise that it has also become the de facto
standard for factory networking. Ethernet is not a new technology. Using Ethernet TCP/IP in the factory
allows true integration with the corporate Intranet and MES systems that support that factory. In order to
move MODBUS protocols into the 21
st
century, an open MODBUS TCP/IP specification has been created.
Combining a versatile, scaleable, and ubiquitous physical network (Ethernet) with a universal networking
standard (TCP/IP) and a vendor-neutral data representation (MODBUS) gives a truly open, accessible
network for exchange of process data.
When it comes to choosing a network for your device, MODBUS TCP/IP offers several significant
advantages:
N Simplicity: MODBUS TCP simply takes the MODBUS instruction set and wraps TCP around it.
N Standard Ethernet: There are no exotic chipsets required to be purchased from vendors, and you can
use standard PC Ethernet cards to talk to your newly implemented device. To sum up, you are no
longer tied to one vendor for support, but benefit from the thousands of developers out there who are
making Ethernet and the Internet the networking tools of the future.
N Open: MODBUS and MODBUS TCP protocols are really open protocols.
Modbus Protocol structure.
This section describes the general form of encapsulation of a MODBUS request or response when
carried on the MODBUS/TCP network. It is important to note that the structure of the request and
response body, from the function code to the end of the data portion, have EXACTLY the same layout and
meaning as in the other MODBUS variants, such as
N MODBUS serial port - ASCII encoding
N MODBUS serial port - Binary encoding
N MODBUS PLUS network - data path
Requests are normally sent in half-duplex fashion on a given connection.
Client / Server Implementation Guidance.
The comments in this section should not be regarded as binding and however, if followed, these
policies will minimize integration 'surprises when implementing multi-vendor systems and gateways to
installed MODBUS equipment.
N Client design: MODBUS/TCP is designed to allow the design of a client to be as simple as possible.
N Server design: A MODBUS/TCP server should always be designed to support multiple concurrent
clients, even if in its intended use only a single client appears to make sense.
Performance of MODBUS TCP/IP.
The performance basically depends on the network and the hardware. If you are running MODBUS
TCP/IP over the Internet, you wont get better than typical Internet response times. For a high-
performance Intranet with high-speed Ethernet switches to guarantee performance, the situation is
completely different. As low-end CPUs get cheaper, Momentum-type devices will chase the theoretical
limit, although theyll never reach it because the limit will be continually pushed further away with 1
Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, etc.
N The fact that TCP/IP is the transport protocol of the Internet automatically means that MODBUS TCP/IP
can be used over the Internet!
N In practical terms, this means that a MODBUS TCP/IP device installed in Europe can be addressed over
the Internet from the USA from anywhere else in the world.
N Managing geographically distributed systems becomes easy using commercially available internet /
intranet technologies.
N MODBUS TCP/IP is simply MODBUS protocol with a TCP wrapper. It is therefore extremely simple for
existing MODBUS devices to communicate over MODBUS TCP/IP. To do this a gateway device is
required.
N In MODBUS, data transactions are traditionally stateless, making them highly resistant to disruption
from noise and yet requiring minimal recovery information to be maintained at either end.
N All MODBUS requests and responses are designed in such a way that the recipient can verify that a
message is complete.
N When Modbus is carried over TCP, additional length information is carried in the prefix to allow the
recipient to recognize message boundaries even if the message had to be split into multiple packets for
transmission. The existence of explicit and implicit length rules, and use of a CRC-32 error check code
(on Ethernet) results in an infinitesimal chance of undetected corruption to a request or response
message.
N It must be noted that future extensions to this standard may define additional function codes to handle
situations where the existing de-facto standard is deficient. It will always be possible to determine if a
particular target device supports a particular function code by sending it 'speculatively and checking
for the type of exception response if any, and this approach will guarantee the continued
interoperability of current MODBUS devices with the introduction of any such extensions. Indeed, this
is the philosophy which has led to the current function code classification.
PROFIBUS.
Communication in automation is becoming increasingly direct, horizontally at field level as well as
vertically through all hierarchy levels. Depending on the application and the price, graduated, matching
industrial communication systems such as the Ethernet-based PROFInet, the fieldbus PROFIBUS and
other systems like the sensor/actuator bus AS-Interface offer the ideal preconditions for transparent
networking in all areas and levels of the automation process.
N PROFIBUS is a vendor-independent, open field bus standard for a wide range of applications in
manufacturing and process automation. Vendor-independence and openness are ensured by the
international standards EN 50170, EN 50254 and IEC 61158.
N PROFIBUS International paves the way for the steady development of the PROFIBUS technology to
serve as the best solution for all of the industrial sectors today and in the future.
N Another source of pressure is the awareness of the providing industry to develop a technology of
greatest benefit and of best quality.
N PROFIBUS allows communication between devices of different manufacturers without any special
interface adjustment. PROFIBUS can be used for both high-speed time critical applications and
complex communication tasks.
N PROFIBUS offers functionally graduated communication protocols-DP and FMS. In the course of
further technical development, the PROFIBUS User Organization is currently working on the
implementation of universal concepts for vertical integration on the basis of Ethernet TCP/IP.
N At sensor/actuator level the signals of the binary sensors and actuators are transmitted via a
sensor/actuator bus. The data are transmitted purely cyclically.
N At field level the distributed peripherals, such as I/O modules, measuring transducers, drive units,
valves and operator terminals communicate with the automation systems via an efficient, real-time
communication system. The transmission of the process data is effected cyclically, while alarms,
parameters and diagnostic data also have to be transmitted cyclically if necessary. PROFIBUS meets
these requirements and offers a transparent solution for manufacturing as well as for process
automation.
Communication Basics of PROFIBUS.
PROFIBUS defines the technical characteristics of a serial field bus system with which distributed
digital programmable controllers can be networked, from field level to cell level. PROFIBUS is a multi-
master system and thus allows the joint operation of several automation, engineering or visualization
systems with their distributed peripherals on one bus.
PROFIBUS distinguishes between the following types of device:
N Master devices determine the data communication on the bus. A master can send messages without
an external request when it holds the bus access rights (the token). Masters are also called active
stations.
N Slave devices are peripherals such as I/O devices, valves, drives and measuring transducers. They do
not have bus access rights and they can only acknowledge received messages or send messages to the
master when requested to do so. Slaves are called passive stations.
DP Communication Profile.
The DP Communication Profile is designed for efficient data exchange at the field level. The central
automation devices, such as PLC/PC or process control systems, communicate through a fast serial
connection with distributed field devices such as I/O, drives and valves, as well as measuring transducers.
Data exchange with the distributed devices is mainly cyclic. The communication functions required for this
are defined by the basic DP functions in accordance with EN 50 170. In addition to these basic functions,
DP also offers extended acyclic communication services for the parameterization, operation, monitoring
and alarm handling of intelligent field devices.
Extended DP Functions.
The extended DP functions make it possible to transmit acyclic read and write functions as well as
alarms between master and slaves parallel and independent of cyclic user data communication. This allows
the user to optimize the device parameters of the connected field devices (slaves) or read out the device
status without disturbing system operation.
N With these extended functions, DP meets the requirements of even complex devices which often have
to be parameterized during operation.
N Transmission of the acyclic required data is performed with a lower priority parallel to the high-speed
cyclic user data transfer. The master requires some additional time to carry out the acyclic
communication services. This must be taken into account in the parameterization of the overall
system. To achieve this, the parameterization tool usually increases the token circulation time
somewhat in order to give the master a chance to carry out not only cyclic data transmission, but also
acyclic communication tasks.
FMS Communication Profile.
The FMS Communication Profile is designed for communication at cell level. At this level,
programmable controllers (PLCs and PCs) communicate primarily with each other. In this application area
a high degree of functionality is more important than fast system reaction times.
The PROFIBUS-FMS communication model permits distributed application processes to be unified into a
common process by using communication relationships. That portion of an application process in a field
device which can be reached via communication is called a virtual field device (VFD).
Application Profiles.
PROFIBUS Application Profiles describe the use of PROFIBUS Communication and Physical Profiles
for a certain range of applications (process automation, building automation) or for certain device types
(encoders, drives).
N The use of PROFIBUS in typical devices and applications in process automation is defined by the PA
profile. The PA profile defines the device parameters and the device behavior of typical field devices
such as measuring transducers or positioners independent of the manufacturer, thus facilitating device
interchangeability and vendor independent operation.
N The description of the functions and device behavior is based on the internationally recognized
Function Block model. The definitions and options of the PA application profile, make PROFIBUS
suitable as a substitute for analog signal transmission with 4 ... 20 mA or Hart.
N The PROFIBUS PA profile has been developed in close cooperation with users in the processing industry
(NAMUR) and meets the special requirements of this application area like -
1.Addition and removal of bus stations even in intrinsically safe areas without influencing other stations
2.Bus supply of measuring transducers using two-wire technology according to IEC 1158-2.
3.Use is also possible in potentially explosive areas with protection types "intrinsically safe (EEx ia/ib)
or "encapsulation (EEx d).
PROFIsafe.
The PROFISafe profile defines how failsafe devices (emergency stop pushbutton, light grids,
interlocks) are connected to the programmable controllers via PROFIBUS. This means that the advantages
of open bus communication with PROFIBUS can also be used in this special area where, until now, almost
all devices were wired conventionally.
N With the PROFISafe profile, failsafe devices can communicate via PROFIBUS.
N ProfiSafe is based on the DP Communication Profile and can be operated with RS-485, fiber optics or
IEC 1158-2 technology.
N ProfiSafe is a single-channel software solution that does not require any further bus cables.
N ProfiSafe takes account of all known possible errors that can occur during serial bus communication
(repetition, loss, insertion, incorrect sequence, delay, masquerade, corrupted process data and
erroneous addressing) and defines further security mechanisms which extend beyond the standard
error detection and elimination mechanisms of the PROFIBUS bus access protocol.
N Through skilful selection and combination of the available recovery measures, such as consecutive
numbering, time monitoring with acknowledgement, source-target identification and CRC control, as
well as a patented "SIL Monitor", it was possible to achieve the required fail probability class up to
SIL3, or AK6, or category 4.
PROFInet.
Today, two aspects determine new automation concepts. On the one hand they consist of
distributed and component-oriented control structures, on the other hand the industrial automation and
the IT of high-level management fields are growing more and more together (vertical integration).
PROFInet takes this new trend into account by offering a simple and cost-saving solution for both partial
aspects of new automation structures with one single technology.
N PROFInet is designed as a cross-vendor communications, automation and engineering model, and is
optimized for the requirements of an automation system with distributed intelligence. Its use results in
major savings for the configuring and commissioning of machines and plants.
N The ability to vertically integrate the IT of the office world and to horizontally integrate the entire
automation world makes PROFInet to a complete open system.
N To ensure that the investments of millions of PROFIBUS users are protected, existing PROFIBUS
segments can be incorporated into PROFInet automation projects.
N The primary goal of PROFInet is the combination of the naturally distributed automation objects of an
application rather than the distribution of the computing power. Chiefly components of a fixed
functionality that can have parameter values assigned (drive, valve, measuring unit, control station,
manipulator, monitoring equipment, etc.) are involved in this process. The free computing power of
the automation devices like PLC or PC is then reduced to the higher-order sequencing logic (such as
recipe handling), higher-order safety (such as guards, energy supply), or interfaces to the outside
world (such as office applications, access control).
N PROFInet satisfies the main customer demands for openness, horizontal and vertical transparency
from office environment of an enterprise up to automation level and, last but not least, the protection
of investments.
N In summary, PROFInet has not only been specified to define a multi-vendor communications model for
Ethernet, it is also a new, manufacturer-independent object oriented architecture model for distributed
automation solutions with capability of system-wide engineering.
FIELDBUS
Fieldbus is an enabling technology. Fieldbus is a multi-drop, bi-directional digital communication
link among intelligent field devices and host systems. The Fieldbus technology standardized through the
Fieldbus Foundation, FOUNDATION
TM
fieldbus, enables for various beneficial applications to utilize
enormous amount of functions and data of the intelligent field devices. Control and monitoring is the basic
application utilizing field devices. In this area, field devices are treated as the process I/O and additionally
part of the basic control functions may be shifted to the field devices to achieve safer and higher
performance as the total system.
Another point is the enormous amount of field management data available on the host systems from the
devices and their applications. Fieldbus provides unified method to access various data in the devices from
various manufacturers and based on each unique measurement and control technologies. "Fieldbus is the
digital replacement of 4-20mA signal transmission" in a conventional sense, but its impact will be much
larger.
Multidrop Capability.
With 4-20mA, each field device is individually connected, point-to-point to a control system.
Contrary, fieldbus allows up to 32 devices on a single wire pair, multi-drop, which significantly reduces
wiring complexity, installation time and efforts, while increasing flexibility and making trouble shooting
easier. Preliminary studies estimate an installation savings for new installations to be 10 - 30%
potentially, with fewer wires, conduits, barriers, termination, racks and even control system's I/O racks.
For renovation, new field devices may be often added, based on regulatory requirements and for more
effective monitoring and operation, but without additional wiring. Large volumes of field data provided
from field devices through fieldbus enable you to improve plant performance and process availability if
properly managed and presented for operation and maintenance. With this capability, you will benefit from
future innovations of field instrumentation such as full digital sensing, range-free measurement, multi-
variable and multi-functional devices.
Fieldbus becomes more representative of a "New Language" for digital process control
instrumentation in the 21
st
Century. We believe that it will dramatically impact every area of
instrumentation in the years to come. Fieldbus technology offers quantitative and qualitative measures
that allow users to produce and save more thereby increasing the line of profitability. Fieldbus allows
migration of control functions to the field devices paving the way for "Control Anywhere.
Field Bus Architecture.
This technology consists of three parts.
N Physical Layer.
N Communications stack.
N User Applications.
The physical layer is defined by IEC & ISA standards. It receives the messages from the
communication stack and converts them into physical signals on the field bus transmission medium and
vice-versa. Fieldbus signals are encoded using the "Manchester Biphase - L Technique. The signal is
called "Synchronous Serial because the clock formation is embedded in the serial data stream. Data is
combined with the clock signal to create the field bus signal.
The DLL layer controls transmission of messages onto the fieldbus. The DLL manages the access to
the fieldbus through a deterministic centralized bus scheduler called the Link Active Scheduler (LAS). The
DLL is a subset of emerging IEC/ISA DLL Standard.
User Application blocks defines the way to access information within the fields and how to
distribute this information to devices in the same node or eventually to other nodes of a fieldbus network.
The architecture base of fieldbus is the function block, which performs the data acquisition, control, output
etc. Every function block contains an algorithm, a database that is used by the algorithm and the user
defined name. The database is partitioned into Input, Output and Internal variables.
The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) layered communication model is used for this model. The
physical layer is OSI Layer1. The data link layer (DLL) is OSI Layer2. The fieldbus message specification
(FMS) is OSI Layer7. The communication stack is comprised of layers 2 & 7 in the OSI model. The fieldbus
protocol does not use OSI layers 3,4,5&6.
Fieldbus - Intrinsically safe applications.
The IEC 1158-2 physical layer replaces the old 4-20 mA technology in hazardous and non-hazardous
areas. IEC 1158-2 is the physical layer standard governing digital multidrops and two way
communications. One advantage to using the fieldbus in IS applications is the possibility of connecting
upto four devices to a single fieldbus barrier.
Another important point is the flexibility - by choosing devices that requires less power to operate, one
can have longer cable runs and/or more devices connected within the same barrier.
Until now it has been necessary to select different barrier type for input and output for various supply
voltages. With fieldbus, all transmitters and positioners are the same and all devices must operate on
9-32 volts VDC, which in turn permits the use of single barrier.
It is to be noted that that fieldbus network requires two terminators, one at each end. The installation is
simplified if the terminator (which must also be intrinsically safe) for the host end is built into the safety
barrier.
Network Classification.
Information Level Ethernet TCP/IP
Control Level ARCnet, ControlNet
Device Level - Packet Data Fieldbus, Profibus-PA
Device Level - Byte Data Profibus-DP, Devicenet, Interbus
Device Level - Bit Data AS-I, Seriplex.
A wide variety of networks are available in the industrial automation environment, however,
confusion arises because of their capabilities overlap. The important point is NO single fieldbus product will
emerge as universal standard and it is more likely that several standards will emerge at various levels of
performance and complexity, in different applications and environment. Small and medium sized
companies are likely to have different needs and expectations and the requisite standards to meet their
needs. Since interoperability among equipment from different vendors is a major factor for many users, all
major open-bus vendor organizations offer independently certified interoperability, typically through third
party test establishments. The question is whether an I/O from vendor-A will operate with sensors from
vendor-B and controller from vendor-C, as there may be speed of operations as a constraint which will
provide proprietary differentiation.
A standard benefits end user, not the vendors. Over the years number of buses have emerged on the
market. Indeed the trend has been towards the development of universal, non- proprietary buses, but
users are still faced with a confusing array of open and standard buses. For fieldbus alone, eight different
buses were accepted by IEC. None of these fieldbuses can talk to each other, so it is very difficult for the
end user to mix and match systems.
HART.
HART networks are another form of fieldbus that works quite well in the digital plant. Virtually all
the manufacturers offer array of products supporting HART. In a HART device, digital data and status
information are encoded into the analog signal, and can be extracted by handheld calibration devices or
plug-in monitors. Additionally, HART can perform limited amount of local control.
INDUSTRIAL ETHERNET.
Industrial Ethernet is the latest over hyped technology. Earlier the Ethernet was not a
consideration, since it was slow and not deterministic. With the development of high bandwidth and
inexpensive Ethernet switching technology, Ethernet is emerging as a good alternative.
N Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) technology that transmits information between computers at
speeds of 10 and 100 million bits per second (Mbps).
N The ability to link a wide range of computers using a neutral network technology is an essential feature
for todays market. Most LANs must support a wide variety of computers purchased from different
manufacturers, which requires a high degree of network interoperability of the sort that Ethernet
provides.
N Ethernet is simply a way to transport data between two devices - it does not guarantee that the device
receiving the data will know how to interpret the data. The protocol is at the highest OSI model layer.
In a relatively short time, network connection have evolved from shared or switched Ethernet to
switched fast Ethernet to meet the rising bandwidth demand.
N All devices attached to an Ethernet are connected to a shared signaling system, also called the
medium. Ethernet signals are transmitted serially, one bit at a time, over the shared signal channel to
every attached device. To send data a device first listens to the channel and when the channel is idle it
transmits the data in the form of a packet called Ethernet Frame. After each frame transmission, all
devices on the network must contend equally for the next frame transmission opportunity. This
ensures that access to the network channel is fair and that no single device can lock out the other
devices.
N Access to the shared channel is determined by the medium access control (MAC) mechanism
embedded the Ethernet interface located in each of the device. The medium access control mechanism
is based on the a system called Sense Multiple Access with Direct Collision (CSMA/CD).
N Ethernet is the most popular LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast
Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk.
Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation.
These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support
virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most
computer users today.
N IEEE Standard 802.3 defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well as specifying how
elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
History and Standards.
N Ethernet was invented at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center during the 1970s by Dr. Robert M.
Metcalfe. It was designed to support research on the "office of the future which included one of the
worlds first personal workstations, the Xerox Alto. The first Ethernet system ran at approximately 3-
Mbps and was known as the "Experimental Ethernet. The signal clock for the experimental Ethernet
interface was derived from the Alto's system clock, which resulted in a data transmission rate on the
experimental Ethernet of 2.94 Mbps.
N Metcalfe's first experimental network was called the Alto Aloha Network. In 1973 Metcalfe changed the
name to "Ethernet," to make it clear that the system could support any computer--not just Altos. He
chose to base the name on the word "ether" as a way of describing an essential feature of the system:
the physical medium (i.e., a cable) carries bits to all stations, much the same way that the old
"luminiferous ether" was once thought to propagate electromagnetic waves through space. Thus,
Ethernet was born.
N Formal specifications for Ethernet were published in 1980 by a multi-vendor consortium that created
the DEC-Intel-Xerox (DIX) standard. The effort turned the experimental Ethernet into an open,
production-quality Ethernet system that operates at 10-Mbps. Ethernet technology was then adopted
for standardization by the LAN standards committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE 802). The IEEE standard was first published in 1985, with the formal title "IEEE 802.3
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and Physical Layer
Specifications.
N The IEEE standard has since been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
which makes it worldwide networking standard. Since 1985 the standard has grown to include new
media systems for 10-Mbps Ethernet ( eg. Twisted pair media ), as well as the latest set of
specifications for 100-Mbps fast Ethernet.
N Original Ethernet was constructed as a bus system where individual stations shared a common
backbone connection. This coaxial backbone was termed as 'thicknet for its bulky appearance.
Eventually, the IEEE standardized this physical layer as 10BASE5. A subsequent bus implementation
called "thinnet was standardized as 10BASE2. These two bus standards are no longer popular.
N What is popular today is the link segment consisting of either twisted pair or fiber optic cabling. A link
segment is defined to have only two devices attached to a link. In order to expand an Ethernet
network, a two port repeater or multi-hub port must be used.
N Three data rates are currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
1. 10 Mbps-10Base-T Ethernet
2. 100 Mbps-Fast Ethernet
3. 1000 Mbps-Gigabit Ethernet
Note: 10-Gigabit Ethernet is under development and will be published as IEEE standards.
Emergence of Ethernet.
In the past there were many issues regarding the use of Ethernet for Real Time applications like:
N Bandwidth is shared and not dedicated.
N Sharing necessitated bus arbitration with no concept of priority.
N Sharing results in collisions when 2 or more devices transmit simultaneously.
N More devices on one segment increases the probability of collisions.
N Large broadcast domains eat up usable bandwidth.
N There is no way to differentiate between High priority and Low priority of traffic.
N There is no way to provide a low delay path for real time traffic.
All the above concerns were justified in the earlier days, as at that time Ethernet was purely a shared bus
topology using bus arbitration to manage the transmission among devices. This suited the Office
Automation environment due to high performance and low cost, but was definitely not suited for the real
time applications.
With the development of switched Ethernet devices, it was possible to design a network that switched
frames from one Ethernet segment to another without affecting devices sending or receiving frames on
other switched ports. By using high speed port switches, the bandwidth can be increased and the need for
bus arbitration can be overcome.
Ethernet is now available at 100-Mbps or more in full duplex mode. Auto sensing 10/100 Ethernet has
become todays standard interface for users. This has eliminated the bottlenecks caused by the lower
speed of the network.
Ethernet is a scalable technology. The networks can be segmented to achieve greater bandwidths. It is
possible to connect a single device per port. With this it is possible to switch off the bus arbitration and
operate in full duplex mode. With bus arbitration disabled, a device can transmit and receive at wire speed
and at any instant of time. This eliminates the collisions and improves the network performance. Also the
Bandwidth is scalable (ie. More users = more bandwidths).
Ethernet Frame and Ethernet Addresses.
The heart of the Ethernet system is the Ethernet frame, which is used to deliver data between computers.
The frame consists of a set of bits organized into several fields.
The first two fields in the frame carry 48-bit addresses, called the destination and source addresses. The
IEEE controls the assignment of these addresses by administering a portion of the address field. The IEEE
does this by providing 24-bit identifiers called "Organizationally Unique Identifiers" (OUIs), since a unique
24-bit identifier is assigned to each organization that wishes to build Ethernet interfaces. The organization,
in turn, creates 48-bit addresses using the assigned OUI as the first 24 bits of the address. This 48-bit
address is also known as the physical address, hardware address, or MAC address.
As each Ethernet frame is sent onto the shared signal channel, all Ethernet interfaces look at the first 48-
bit field of the frame, which contains the destination address. The interfaces compare the destination
address of the frame with their own address. The Ethernet interface with the same address as the
destination address in the frame will read in the entire frame and deliver it to the networking software
running on that computer. All other network interfaces will stop reading the frame when they discover that
the destination address does not match their own address.
Each device on the network competes for access to the bus through an arbitration method known as
CSMA/CD. Once a device gets the access, data is transmitted in packets which include the destination
address, the source address, the data being sent and an error check. The controller forms these packets
from the stream of data being output by a device with the data rate of 10 to 100-Mbps. All transmissions
are seen by all devices on a network segment, but only the one to which the message is addressed will
respond to it.
CSMA/CD protocol.
The CSMA/CD protocol functions somewhat like a dinner party in a dark room.
N To translate this into Ethernet terms, each interface must wait until there is no signal on the channel,
then it can begin transmitting. If some other interface is transmitting there will be a signal on the
channel, which is called carrier. All other interfaces must wait until carrier ceases before trying to
transmit, and this process is called Carrier Sense.
N All Ethernet interfaces are equal in their ability to send frames onto the network. No one gets a higher
priority than anyone else, and democracy reigns. This is what is meant by Multiple Access. Since
signals take a finite time to travel from one end of an Ethernet system to the other, the first bits of a
transmitted frame do not reach all parts of the network simultaneously. Therefore, it's possible for two
interfaces to sense that the network is idle and to start transmitting their frames simultaneously. When
this happens, the Ethernet system has a way to sense the "collision" of signals and to stop the
transmission and re-send the frames. This is called Collision Detect.
N The CSMA/CD protocol is designed to provide fair access to the shared channel so that all stations get
a chance to use the network. After every packet transmission all stations use the CSMA/CD protocol to
determine which station gets to use the Ethernet channel next.
N The Carrier Sense part of the protocol CSMA/CD means that before transmitting data, a station listens
to see if any other station is already sending something. In spite of all this, there exists a few
nanoseconds of time where it is possible that two stations could see the network is available and send
the data exactly at the same time.
N This is where Collision detection comes in. When such collisions occur both the stations stops
transmitting, "back off and try again after a randomly chosen delay period.
Speed and Distance.
Shared Ethernet of Half Duplex Ethernet is the original technology where medium access is determined by
the famous CSMA/CD algorithm.
N With a half duplex medium, transmitting and receiving is possible but not at the same time, otherwise
a data collision will occur. Before a station initiates a transmission, it first waits for a clear channel.
During the transmission, the originating station listens for a time to ensure that the transmission is
faithfully reproduced and that no other station attempts a simultaneous transmission. If one occurs,
this is called collision and the originating station will reinforce the collision by applying JAM signal. All
stations will see the collision and will discard the frame. The competing stations will back off for a
random amount of time (based on the algorithm) and will renew their attempt. In order for this
mechanism to function, all stations and hubs must reside in collision domain.
N In order for the collision detection mechanism to function, the round trip propagation time between the
two farthest devices must be shorter than the Ethernet slot time plus preamble.
N The IEEE 802.3 discusses the use of repeaters to extend network length and the rule we can use is 5-
4-3 rule and applies only to 10 Mbps repeater operation. The rule states that a network can have up to
five segments, four repeaters and no more than three mixing segments. A mixing segment is a coaxial
bus segment. This rule is conservative and not applicable to fiber optic. Although the fiber optic
segment can be up to 2 Km, we are not allowed to cascade five segments. The IEEE 802.3 standard
says that if you limit the number of repeaters to three and retain twisted pair segments at each end of
the network, the two remaining segments can be fiber optic as long as each segment does not exceed
1 Km. From this we can assume that if we eliminate one repeater and one fiber optic segment, the
remaining fiber optic segment can be increased to its 2 Km limit.
Half Duplex or Full Duplex.
Full duplex links are the key to extending the maximum network diameter of fast (100Mbps) Ethernet. Full
duplex requires separate receive and transmit paths. These devices can be Ethernet adapters or switching
hub ports. A repeating hub is a part of the collision domain and reinforces collisions received on any of its
other ports. Ethernet adapters configured for full duplex, expansion beyond two adapters requires a
switching hub capable of supporting full duplex operation.
N Half duplex means transmitting and receiving over the same medium but not at the same time.
N Full duplex allows for simultaneous sending and receiving.
N It is important to configure full duplex correctly. If this is configured for half duplex it will incorrectly
detect collisions and take actions that could cause late collisions (which are not automatically re-sent)
and CRC errors. This result is a slowdown of the network negating the benefits of migrating to fast
Ethernet.
N As mentioned above , at 100 Mbps the maximum network diameter is short because of limited
collisions domain at this speed. This is not a problem with twisted pair link segments and switch ports
because the maximum twisted pair segment length is 100 m which is within the collision domain limit.
The problem is with fiber optic ports, which allow segment lengths of 2 Km for multi mode operation
and 15 Km or greater for single mode operation. Under the rules for half duplex CSMA/CD Ethernet our
point to point fiber optic segment is limited by the collision domain to 412 m. However, with full duplex
operation, which do not follow CSMA/CD algorithm, fiber optic segments can be extended to their limit.
N With fast Ethernet, use of switch technology is recommended and when using Fast Ethernet over fiber
optic cabling full duplex operation is recommended.
Collisions:
If more than one station happens to transmit on the Ethernet channel at the same moment, then the
signals are said to collide. The stations are notified of this event, and instantly reschedule their
transmission using a specially designed backoff algorithm. As part of this algorithm the stations involved
each choose a random time interval to schedule the retransmission of the frame, which keeps the stations
from making transmission attempts in lock step.
N The truth of the matter is that collisions are absolutely normal and expected events on an Ethernet, and
simply indicate that the CSMA/CD protocol is functioning as designed. As more computers are added to a
given Ethernet, and as the traffic level increases, more collisions will occur as part of the normal
operation of an Ethernet. A normal collision does not result in lost data.
N On a network with heavy traffic loads it may happen that there are multiple collisions for a given frame
transmission attempt. This is also normal behavior. If repeated collisions occur for a given transmission
attempt, then the stations involved begin expanding the set of potential backoff times from which they
chose their random retransmission time.
N Repeated collisions for a given packet transmission attempt indicate a busy network. Only after 16
consecutive collisions for a given transmission attempt will the interface finally discard the Ethernet
packet. This can happen only if the Ethernet channel is overloaded for a fairly long period of time, or is
broken in some way.
N In a system where the devices are connected individually through a packet switch such as switching hub,
bridge or a router, they are in separate collision domains. Packet switches do not forward collision signals
from one segment to other. Instead of propagating the collision signals between Ethernet segments,
packet switches interrupt the collision domain and allow the Ethernet they link, to operate independently.
Transport Layer Protocols.
Refer to the OSI Reference model layers. Ethernet is termed a data link and physical layer technology, and
therefore occupies layers two and one of the OSI reference model. This technology never intended to
guarantee end-to-end message delivery. This responsibility is given to transport layer (Layer four) of the
OSI model. It is important that all Ethernet nodes on the network utilize compatible protocols. Since
TCP/IP powers the Internet, this is the protocol that is recommended for Industrial Ethernet. Actually
TCP/IP is a set of protocols defined by a series of RFCs (Request for comments). TCP/IP will work with
other data link technologies besides Ethernet, so it resides above the data link / physical layer.
N At the transport layer there are two important protocols. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
acknowledges receipt of messages while the user Datagram Protocol (UDP) does both. At the very top
of the protocol stack, there are several useful application layer protocols that find use in Industrial
Ethernet.
N The Internet Protocol (IP) handles the routing of packets between stations that may reside on different
networks.
Round Trip Timing.
In order for the media access control system to work properly, all Ethernet interfaces must be
capable of responding to one another's signals within a specified amount of time.
The signal timing is based on the amount of time it takes for a signal to get from one end of the complete
media system and back, which is known as the "round trip time." The maximum round trip time of signals
on the shared Ethernet channel is strictly limited to ensure that every interface can hear all network
signals within the specified amount of time provided in the Ethernet medium access control system.
The longer a given network segment is, the more time it takes for a signal to travel over it. The intent of
the configuration guidelines is to make sure that the round trip timing limits are met, no matter what
combination of media segments are used in the system.
Extending Ethernets with Hubs.
Ethernet was designed to be easily expandable to meet the networking needs of a given site. To
help extend Ethernet systems, networking vendors sell devices that provide multiple Ethernet ports. These
devices are known as hubs since they provide the central portion, or hub, of a media system.
N There are two major kinds of hub: repeater hubs and switching hubs. As we've seen, each port of a
repeater hub links individual Ethernet media segments together to create a larger network that
operates as a single Ethernet LAN. The total set of segments and repeaters in the Ethernet LAN must
meet the round trip timing specifications. The second kind of hub provides packet switching, typically
based on bridging ports.
N The important thing to know at this point is that each port of a packet switching hub provides a
connection to an Ethernet media system that operates as a separate Ethernet LAN. Unlike a repeater
hub whose individual ports combine segments together to create a single large LAN, a switching hub
makes it possible to divide a set of Ethernet media systems into multiple LANs that are linked together
by way of the packet switching electronics in the hub. The round trip timing rules for each LAN stop at
the switching hub port. This allows you to link a large number of individual Ethernet LANs together.
N A given Ethernet LAN can consist of merely a single cable segment linking some number of computers,
or it may consist of a repeater hub linking several such media segments together. Whole Ethernet
LANs can themselves be linked together to form extended network systems using packet switching
hubs. While an individual Ethernet LAN may typically support anywhere from a few up to several dozen
computers, the total system of Ethernet LANs linked with packet switches at a given site may support
many hundreds or thousands of machines.
Ethernet Gaining Ground in Control Networks.
Faced with a plethora of proprietary and "standard control networks, some users have begun to
explore the potential of using Ethernet for plant floor control applications. Users are very familiar with this
low cost, highly reliable technology. Adding impetus to this movement are user concerns that existing
control networks may not provide enough bandwidth for their current and future requirements. Users are
also skeptical of "standards being interpreted and the lack of any single "standard rising to the forefront
in the industry. With its speed, robust performance, low cost of deployment and constantly updated
technology, Ethernet is a natural fit into the automation hierarchy at the control level. Ethernets ability to
easily communicate with multiple devices and manage the traffic to the information level of the plant,
make it an ideal candidate for use at the control level. Widely available, low cost Ethernet switching hubs
are now available allowing Ethernet networks to be fully deterministic. Several control suppliers are also
leading the charge toward more open systems by taking advantage of the latest technologies from
commercial suppliers. With this new emphasis, several of these companies have developed new control
systems that take full advantage of the latest commercial technologies, including the use of Ethernet as a
control network. Top tier PLC suppliers are mixed in their approach to Ethernet adoption. Some
manufacturers use Ethernet to network PLCs while others are passive on the issue and focus more on
proprietary control networks as their solution, while downplaying Ethernet to users.
Wireless networking.
There are a lot of different ways to wireless network including infrared, radio frequency, cellular,
and satellite. A lot of advances are being made in these areas for Personal Area Networks (PANs), Local
Area Networks (LANs), and Wide Area Networks (WANs).
Prominent among them is the Bluetooth, a radio communication protocol getting set to dominate the
world of networking. The Bluetooth technology was initially developed and promoted by Swedish
telecommunication giant Ericson in the mid 1990s. Bluetooth is an industry developed standard intended
to allow a broad range of electronic devices to communicate wirelessly. Bluetooth is a Radio Frequency
specification for short range, point to point and point to multi-point voice and data transfer. It consists of
a small inexpensive computer chip that carries a two way , spread-spectrum radio that can be installed
into virtually any electronic device. Consisting of a low power transmitter and receiver that operates in the
2.4 gigahertz range over a distance of app. 10 meters. It communicates and exchanges information with
any similarly equipped device using protocols. By eliminating cables and providing common
communication protocol , Bluetooth makes possible the creation of an infinite series of networks.
History.
Harald Bluetooth was king of Denmark from c.935 until his death c.985 and completed the unification of
Denmark begun by his father. Its his role as a unifier of fractious states that led to the adoption of his
name for the radio technology.
Architecture / Reliability.
Bluetooth was designed with reliability in mind with several concepts behind it. Frequency
Hopping Code Division Multiple Access (FH-CDMA). The chosen radio band 2.45 GHz is divided into 79
1MHz slots. Each communicating pair of devices has its own frequency-hopping scheme decided when
initially connected and chosen in order to avoid conflicts as much as possible. This technique minimizes
possibilities for interference within Bluetooth system and interference with other radio-based systems.
Bluetooth includes both forward error correction (FEC) and packet retransmission. There are two
different FEC codes used, 1/3 rate code and 2/3 rate code. The 1/3 rate code is always used for the
packet header. For application data generally the 2/3 rate is used. This is a shortened hamming code and
able to automatically correct all one bit errors and detect two bit errors. Each packet of ARQ contains a
CRC checksum to check for errors. Each transmitted packet contains an ACK/NAK bit to indicate the status
of previously received packet. Retransmission is done if packets are lost or NAKed. This allows for the safe
transmission of data.
Bluetooth will allow data transmission of upto about 784 Kbps using frequency hopping spread
spectrum technology at 2.4 GHz. Its designed to allow wireless connectivity among its own devices and all
sorts of handheld devices, computer equipment and telephones.
Bluetooth devices self-detect one another as long as power is on, and they form limited "pico-nets -
small peer to peer networks in which any device may communicate with each other. Bluetooth technology
provides a 10 meter personal bubble that supports simultaneous transmission of both voice and data for
multiple devices. Upto 8 data devices can be connected in a pico-net and upto 10 pico-nets can exist
within this 10 meter bubble. He gross data rate is 1 Mbps, but the actual data rates are 432 Kbps for full
duplex transmission and 721/56 Kbps for asymmetric transmission and 384 Kbps for TMS 2000
transmission. A time division duplex scheme is used for full duplex transmission.
The radio band chosen for the Bluetooth is the 2.4 GHz ISM unlicensed band. Several radio operated
devices and standard networks use this band. The important is the probably the IEEE 802.11b standard.
The embedded intelligence along with the built-in Internet based user interface (UI) may visualize the
device status from different point of view. Combining Bluetooth and user interface , a user may use any
HMI (Human Machine Interface) or PDA or Laptop to access the device. For Internet based applications
the only demand is a standard HTML (or WAP) browser availability in the HMI device and that the
Bluetooth is supported as a media for the IP based communication.
The main problem faced by todays users in Bluetooth technology is non-availability of single universal
protocol. Hence each manufacturer has his own set of frequencies, which in turn results in conflicts
between two devices from different manufacturers.
Wireless LAN.
A wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a flexible data communication system implemented as an
extension to, the wired LAN. Using Radio Frequency technology wireless LANs transmit/receive data.
Wireless LAN standard is not sufficiently rigid to guarantee interoperability. The IEEE 802.11f standard is
supposed to solve this problem by defining a set of interoperability standards but only for direct sequence
spread spectrum. The designated purpose for a WLAN is to connect mobile computers and handheld
devices directly into the corporate LAN, which in turn will provide real time data interchange.
Conclusion.
For Productivity Improvements - Vary Your Diet : The man-cannot-live-on-bread-alone axiom is
directly parallel to manufacturing and networks. Most manufacturing facilities cannot "live" on one
network. The reason is simple: different networks are designed to support the needs of distinctly different
applications.
Given that a variety of buses are almost a necessity, the one problem that currently exists is the
lack of integration between each, even though several organizations are working for unifying and
standardizing it.
To increase productivity and decrease cost, however, manufacturers must be able to see, analyze
and adjust what is happening on the plant floor as a whole. Some control suppliers have recognized this
need and are offering products to seamlessly couple networks throughout the entire facility.
The Bottom Line is the ultimate benefit of integrating process and discrete applications is that end
users can take full advantage of a networks benefits and strengths, with lower cost. Since data can be
shared across the plant floor, engineers can easily gather and compare information for on-going
productivity improvements, while the management can analyze the performance and productivity.
Each network functions in its optimal environment, and manufacturers feast on the resulting
continuous boost in efficiency and reliability. This soon has to be resolved and uniform standards to be
developed which will benefit both the manufacturers and the users.
Please Send your feedbacks to Mr. V.P.Raman at ramanvp@waaree.com