ISSN 0020-3939 & BOLETINNo.61 2004 GOBIERNO DE CHILE 5 ; SERVICIO NACIONAL DE SUBDIRECCION NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA GEOLOGIA Y MINERIA VILLARRICA VOLCANO (39.5°S), SOUTHERN ANDES, CHILENo. " 2 3 “ 5 6 ” 18 19 a 2 8 a SERVICIONACIONALDEGEOLOGIAY MINERIA Boletines El agua sublerrénea de Santiago, informe pretiminar. lJ. Dingman y L. Baraza. 1958, 43 p Geoiogia dela cordilera dela Costa eno el valle de a Ligua ya cueslade Barriga. H Thomas. 1958.86. 1 mapa geolégico, scala 1 150,000. ErTitoniano de RioLehas, Proviciade O Higgins. conunarevision de! Tonianoy Neocomiana ela pare chilena del Geesincinal Andina. «J. Corvaiin. 1958.85 p. 7 Lams, Investigaciones gravimétricas en la regién de Chilén. ©. Lomnitz 1959.13 p. Elaquasubtersinea on einortede la Pampacel Tamarugal.O.Castilo, 1960 Incluye:Procecimiento atic paralaterpretacon geoquimica de los analsis de agua por AM. Piper. traduccion de O. Castile. 89 p dcervaciones geologicas en la corilera dela Casta de Tarapaca. G. Cacionl y F. Garcia, 1960, 28 p. Edades plome alta y marco estraligratico de granitos chilenos, con una discusion acerca de su relacién con la orogénesis, . Ruz, K: Segorsitom. L. Aguire J Corvalan, HJ. Rose, J y TW. Stem. 1960. 26 p Geologia dela corilaradelos Andes de Chile Cenzal, Provincas ie Santiago, O Higgins, Colcnaguay Cured. Kiahn. 1960, 95 p. 1 mapa geoiegeco, escala 1.150.000 Geolagiadelos Andes de Chie Genteal.Provinea de Aconcagua. L. Aguire. 1960.70p., 1 mapa geolegico, escala 1:100.000, YYacimientos oe cobre tipo manto, su dstrbucién en fajas mineralizadas. Provincia de Aconcagua, WD. Carter. 1961.30 p CContrbuodn dela Corporacién de Fomento al desarrollo del agua subterranea en Chile. J. Donoso y RJ. Dingman. 1962.21 p daces radiomatrieasypelrogratiadegramtos chilenos. Muestras Chie 13a Chile 36.8, Lev.,S.MehechyF. Munizaga, 1963. ao. Investigaciones de geologia apicada ala Ingenieria, Provincia de Concepcion. C. Gall y LW. Lemke, 1968. 79 p. Geoogia de os distitos mineros Checo de Cobre, Pampa Larga y Cabeza de Vaca, Provincia de Atacama. RL. Parker, Salas yG. Pérez. 1983. 45 p agua subterraneade Santiago. Segundolnforme 1968-1962, 0. Casto, E Faledn W.W.DoyelyM, Valenzuela. 1963, Incluye calidad quinica del agua subterranea en Santiago de H, Cusicaraul, 65 p Elsuoto de tundacion de Valparaiso Vina del Mar, Provincia ce Valparaiso. K.Grimme yL. Alvarez. 1964. Incluye: Geologia el area Valparaiso Vina det Mar de L. Alvarez. 58 p. 1 mapa geotogico 1:50 000 Geologia de ia cordilera de os Andes de las Prowincias de Cautin, Valdivia, Osomo y Lanquinue. L. Aquire yB. Lev. 1964 37 p., 1 mapa geologico, escala 1:500 000. Exploraciéndemineraiesradactivos en hie. Pimera Parte: Provincia de Tarapaca yAniolagasta PH Knowles, W.A. Bowes M.Gerrano, €.Kionn, R. Gruenwald y & Moraga. 1964. 78 p Reconcermianto goolegica en las Provincias de Llanquihue y Chloé. B Lev, A. Agulary A, Fuenzalida, 1966.45 p..1 mapa eciogico, escala1:500.000, Etectos del sismo de Marzo de 1965, Provinias de Aconcagua y Valparaiso. N. Aste, A Moraga y L. Alvarez, 1966. 72 p. Goologiay recursos mineralos del Departamento de Arica. P. Salas. FLF. Kast, F Montecinos e |. Salas, 1966. 144p. 1 ‘mapa goologia, escala 1 300.000. Exploracién de mineralesraciactivos en Chile; segunda parte: Provncias de Atacama y Coquimbo. WA Bowes. M. Serrano, E Klonn. A. Moraga y R. Gruenwald 1965.85 9.6 igs. 1lamina, 2 mapas. Govlogia de la Hoja Ovallo, Provincia do Coqumba. H. Thomas. 1967. §8 p, 1 mapa geoldgica. escala 1:250.000, Govlogia delas Hojas Copiapd y Ojos del Salad, Provincia de Atacama K. Segerslrom, 1968.58 p., 1 mapa geoligico.escala 1:250.000. Hallazgo de dinasauriosenelCrelacico Superior de Chile, suimporanciacronoligico-estragréica,F, Casamiquela,J.Corvalén yF Franquesa, 1969. 31 p. LLafaunade Trigoniasde Aisén. R. Reyes. 1970. Inluve:! Terciariode pin Provincia de Aisén, deR. Fuenzaliday A, Martinez Btp. Goologia de os yacimientos de manganeso de Corral Quemado, Arrayany Fragua, Provincia de Coquimbo. F Peebles y & ‘iotn 1970, 56. 27 igs. t mapa escala 150.000. Pubteaconaptads {Container atin)ISSN 0020-3939 SERVICIO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA Y MINERIA- CHILE BOLETIN No. 61 VILLARRICA VOLCANO (39.5°S), SOUTHERN ANDES, CHILE Luis E. Lara, Jorge Clavero (Editors)* * Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineta, Avda, Santa Maria C104, Santiago, Chile.Manuscrto recibido: Septiembre, 2004 Manuscrito aprobado: Noviembre, 2004 VILLARRICA VOLCANO (39.5°S), SOUTHERN ANDES, CHILE. BOLETIN No. 61, 2004. Inseripcién No. 143.483 ISSN 0020-3839 © Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Avda. Santa Maria 0104, Casila 10465, Santiago, Chile. Director Nacional: Luis Sougarret S. Subdirector Nacional de Geologia: José Frutos J. Prohibida su reproduccién, total o parcial, por procedimientos tales como fotocopia, digitalizacién, u otros. en conformidad al An, No. 18. letra b, de la Ley No. 17.396. Comité Editor: José Frutes J., Paula Comejo P., Anibal Gajardo C., Estanislao Godoy P-B.. Arturo Hauser ¥., Emesto Pérez dA. Carlos Portigiati N., Andrew Tomlinson, Renate Wall Z Editores: Luis €. Lara P.; Jorge Ciavero R. Coordinador de Publicaciones: Anibal Ganardo C Encargada Unidad de Publicaciones: Paulina Hofer P. Correccion idiomatica: Paulina Hofer P., Daniela Welkner R. Diagramacién: Nancy Espinoza P. Tiraje: 1.000 ejemplares Referencia bibliogratica: Lara, LE.; Clavero, J. (Editors). 2004. Vilarrica Voleano (39.5°S), Soulhem Andes. Chile. Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Winer. Botetin, No. 61, 66 p. Portada: 1949 (January 1) eruption of the Villrica Volcano. observed from Vilarica city 25 km farther south. Height of the column reaches 6 km Photograph: courtesy of Diario Austral, Temuco.CONTENIDO Overview of Villatrica Voleano. Luis E. Lara. Villarrica-Lanin chain: tectonic constraints for volcanism in a transversal alignment. LE. lara. Evolution of Villarrica Voleano. . Clavero and H. Moreno Laharic debris-flows from Villarrica Voleano. A.A. Naranjo and H, Moreno Magmatic evolution of the Villarrica Volcano. ®. Hickey-Vargas. L. Lopez Escobar. H. Moreno Ri, J. Clavero, L.£. Lara P. and M. Sun... Magma degassing at Villarrica Volcano. 18. Witter and ES. Calaer. Ice thickness and glacier retreat at Villarrica Volcano. G Casassa, C. Acufta, A. Zamora, E Sohliermann and A. Rivera ‘Geoarchaeology of the area of Calafquen lake, southwestern flank of Villarrica Volcano. M, Pino, L. Adan and O. Seguel. 13 7 28 39 46 53 61Overview of Villarrica Volcano Luis E. Lara Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Av. Santa Maria 0104. Santiago, Chile lotara@ sernageomin ABSTRACT This special volume deals with an overview of recent advances in the study of the Villarrica volcano in the areas of geology. geochemistry, magmatic evolution, expiosive-style, seismicity and volcanic hazards, developed by different researchers with specific skills on each area. In this chapter's presented a review of the main physical and geological features of he Villarrica volcano, together with a summary of its historical behaviour is presented GENERAL FEATURES Villarrica volcano, one of the mostactive volcanoes in South America, is locatedin the Southern VoleanicZone (SVZ) (39.42°S-71.93°W; Fig. 1), covers an area of nearly 400km?, reaches analtitude 0f2,847mazs.|. andrises 2,450 m above its base. Its almost perfect conelike shape permits an easy recognition from the distance (Fig. 2). Its summit is occupied by a 200 m diameter crater that varies. in depth from 100 to 150 m. Atits bottom, a small lava-lake of 30 to 40 m diameter commonly shows vertical oscillations and weak persistent strombolian activity characterised by ballistic spatters with apermanentfumaroles. Specifically, Villarrica volcano is located between Villarrica and Calafquén lakes, partially covering Villarrica, Pucén and Panguipulli local districts where population roughly increases during ‘summer season, Itforms partof the Villarrica National Park, andhousesa skiing resort nits northem flank. Around its base there are touristic towns like Villarrica, Pucon, Lican Ray and Cofiaripe, together with other smaller villages. Two international roads (Chile-Argentina) run at the base of its. northern and southern flank, the Villarrica-Junin de los Andes through the Mamuil Malal pass, and the Villarrica-San Martin de los Andes through the Caririfie pass. The main cone is located on the northwestern edge of an elliptical caldera of 6.5x4.2 km. The present stratovolcano is formed by basaltic and basaltic andesite lavas and pyroclastic deposits. Also, Villarrica volcano has produced basaltic ignimbritic eruptions of massive extent (Moreno ef al, 1994; Clavero and Moreno, 1994; Clavero, 1996) (Fig. 3). Onthe ancient volcano flanks, towards the northeast and south of the modem cone, there are more than 30 adventitious eruptive centres (Fig. 4) including cinder cones, lava flows and smallfissures (Moreno, 1993). The summit of the main cone and the floor of the caldera are covered by a glacier which extends over 40 km? with an approximate volume of 8 km? (Fig. 5).Villarrica Volcano FIG. 1. Location map of Villarica volcano, Main rivers and towns are labelled. Insert box shows the main features of the South American margin where the Villarrica volcano is located. Voleanie provinces of Southern Andes as. defined by (Lépez-Escobar e/ a/, 1993). NSVZ: North Southern Voleanic Zone; TSVZ: Transitional Southern Volcanic Zone; SSVZ: South Southern Volcanic Zone, FIG. 2. Panoramic view ofthe Vilarricavoleanofromthe FIG. 3. Exposure of the postglacial pyroclastic south. sequence. At the bottom, the matic Lican ignimbrite (ca. 14,000 yBP) overlies glacial tll of the Last Glacial Maxima, The large glacier together with the seasonal snow, makes the Villarrica volcano a lahar generator duringits eruptions. Moreover, the lahars, generated by the ice and snow melts together with the high lava effusion rates (> 100 m’/s), have been the worst and most destructive hazard during recent times. The lahars descend along the same channels as the lava, preceding them due to theirhigherFIG, 5. Deep fissure on the glacier of Villarrica volcano, FIG, 4. Flank vents over Villarrica volcano. They are mainly NE-trending aligned. FIG. 7. Surge facies of the matic Pucén ignimbrite (ca FIG. 6. Laharic deposits along the Correntoso stream 3,700 yrBP). (1971 eruption) and damages on the road. mobility. The scenario for an eventual lahar generation varies according to the time of the year and the seasonal snow thickness. Thus, at the beginning of spring, the snow accumulation reaches its maximum. During the eruption of December 1971 (Figs. 8, 9) in the Turbio-Pedregoso valley, the volume of the laharic deposits was estimated in 20x10° m (Marangunic, 1974). Therefore, together with the lava flows and tephra fallouts, lahars have been the most common processes thathave taken place during the historic eruptions The intensities and types of prehistoric eruptions have varied from Hawaiian (VEI = 0) to Plinian (VEI=6?), although the historical ones (last 440 years) have been mainly hawaiian, phreatomagmatic, vulcanian and strombolian (VEI = 0-3) (Moreno, 1993).FIG. 9. 1984 eruption of Vilarrica volcano. Ice-melting due to a lava flow occurred at the northern flank. FIG, 8. 1949 (January 1) eruption of the Villartica volcano, observed from Villarica city 25 km farther south. Height of the column reaches 6 km (courtesy of Diario Austral, Temuco). PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SURROUNDING AREA The Andean Cordillera at this latitude (39°S) is dominated by a rough relief that consists of deep glacial valleys and basins, lakes, dense hydrologic networks, sharp peaks and ridges, being the volcanoes Villarrica (2,847 m), Quetrupillan (2,360 m) and Lanin (3,774 m) the highest summits. The mean height of the mountain range around the Villarrica volcano is ca. 1,400 m a.s.l Together with the Andean uplift, the strong glacial erosion effects during the Pleistocene along fractures and faults, broadly moulded the main morphology of the area, crowned by the three modern stratovolcanoes. Thus, the relief is mainly the result of combined tectonic, glacial and volcanic activity. Infact, Villarrica and Calafquén lakes have a glacial origin with several frontal moraine belts along their western shorelines, instead, the Caburgua and Pellaifa lakes have volcanic barriers formed by lava flows and/or volcaniclastic accumulations. Valley filling during the postglacial period consists mainly of lava flows, ignimbrites, laharic deposits and fluvial sediments. Erosional features caused by the strong river activity, mainly during the Holocene, are superimposed to the glacial erosion valleys digging their bottoms and forming small ‘V’ shape valleys. The climate of the region is cool and rainy the year round, although between October and March the summeris warm with seldom rains andit is characterised by abundant low clouds. The average temperature for the warmest (January) andthe coldest (July) months are 25” and 10°C, respectively. The average annual precipitation varies from 2,000 mm in the western low-lands (Villarrica, Pucén, Lican Ray) up to 4,000 mm in the main Andean peaks and valleys (Lanin volcano). The snow line is about 900 m during winter. The main glacier of the region extends over the southeastern flank of the Villarrica volcano, and covers ca. 40 km?. The summit of the Lanin volcano is covered by a smaller glacier that also extends towards its southeastern flank.GEOLOGICAL SETTING Villarrica volcano is a Pleistocene-Holocene stratovolcano placed over a tectonic block that comprises a Paleozoic paired metamorphic belt, Mesozoic-Cenozoic volcanic and sedimentary sequences and mainly granitoids of the Northpatagonian Batholith, together with remnants of eroded Plio-Pleistocene volcanoes. The Viliarrica volcano is sitting on top of the Liquifie-Ofqui Fault Zone (LOF2), a long-lived margin parallel system, and forms together with the Quetrupillan and Lanin volcanoes, a chain that overlies an ancient regional-scale tectonic border. Quaternary infill in the region comprises mainly glacial tll ofthe last Pleistocene glaciation in the Southern Andes (ca. 100- 14 ka). pyroclastic deposits and lahars. Several postglacial Mmonogenetic cones and maars surround the Villarrica volcano. Villarrica volcano is a compound stratovolcano formed by an older collapsed edifice and anew stratocone inside. A first ancient stratigraphic unit (Villarrica 1) forms the ‘somma’ where a caldera was formed before 95 ka, the age of the renewing activity along the caldera rim. An intraglacial stage could have built a volcanic landform that was completely eroded by the ca. 14ka explosive eruption of the Lican ignimbrite, related to a nested caldera collapse. The present cone was built after that during the Postglacial period. The first growth stage of the present cone was coeval with an explosive phase of volcanism represented by the second stratigraphic unit (Villarrica2). This period culminates with a new smaller caldera-forming eruption related to the Pucon ignimbrite at ca. 3.7 ka (Fig. 9). The last eruptive period (Villarrica 3) is mainly characterised by strombolian activity. MAINHAZARDS The main hazards expected from future eruptions of the Villarrica volcano are those that derive directly from lava flows and pyroclastic fallouts. together with those induced by them, such as the lahars and river floods. Furthermore, other harzards include the emission of toxic gases like fluorine (either directly or together with ash falls), small snow avalanches andmass movements, forest fires. Physicochemical water changes, and vegetation and soil alterations (e.g., Moreno, 1993) Villarrica volcano and its scoria cones have emitted lava flows as longas 18 km long, which have especially affected the north, west and south sectors of the volcanic edifice. The pyroclastic fallout mainly affects the northeast to southeast sectors according to the prevailing winds. Prehistoric ballistic pyrociasts (>6.4 cm) can be recognised as far as 23 km fromthe central vent (towardthe east- southeast). Towns located in the most hazardous zones are Pucon, Cofiaripe and Lican Ray. Although admitting that the possibility of a pyroclastic flow is very low, it represents the most dangerous type of threat posed by the Villarrica volcano. About 35% of the local inhabitantsis settled within the areas of high and moderate hazard (Moreno, 2000). The summer tourism in the area increases the population by about 200% and is an additional factor of risk (Moreno. 1993). The historical record has 49 eruptions and, although not well documented, itis probable that this number could be closer to 90 in the period 1558 to 1986, the year of the last eruption (Petit-Breuilh, 1994) Most of the XX century eruptions could have been triggered by the seasonal snow loading and unloading over the cone and the subsequently water influx towards the hydrothermal system, that takes place during the period of snow melting. This situation, of course. needs fresh magma ascent and/or saturation of the magma chamber. Several eruptive cycles have started at the end of the winter season (August-October). Thus, one of the outstanding characteristics of the activity of the Villarrica volcano is the strong seasonal modulation present in the eruptions. Out of 31 well- documented eruptions, 8 occurred in December and 23 between spring and summer.ERUPTIVE CHRONOLOGY: XV TO XX CENTURIES The study of the historical eruptive chronology is one of the key issues in order to do a comprehensive analysis of hazards related to an active volcano. Here, an updated summary of the well-documented eruptions of the Villarrica volcano, which follows the model of the Smithsonian Institution (Simkin and Siebert, 1994), is presented (modified from Petit-Breuihl, 1994). Apermanent revision has allowed to reassign sometimes the magnitude and/or origin of the eruptions, obtaining more precise information from the same historical sources. TABLE 1. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORICAL ERUPTIONS FROM VILLARRICA VOLCANO AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, BASED ON HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS AND FIELD WORK (MODIFIED FROM PETIT-BREUILH, 1994), TAT a Tan chaTRCTOTATS Yearhiontnbay —| —VewontDay T 609, ran, hear, XE roe 7000 1007-05 cor 33.000 re 90 x 2000 cs a0 S000 320-72 0 S20. isa sa 7.900 roa roca 07 1.000" 0, isa6- 06-27 1000" re, Tear S100. iar sre 2-12 3.000. is77 =o fg77 01-20 “1.000 aa fee0-09 24 2200, oes ee3—10 16 7.000 see 10 1965118 e300 fee ise0- 12 = Nate: UN: Underroundroses VE: Voleaniceatnquakes EX: Explosions tthe centalcraler:GC: Gases com PE: Pyrocasticeyact:L: Lava tows:L LanarsR:creae oftver volume: L: Landsideson the cetaeraterH: Haight he erupvecolumn,1" This table summarizes more than 12 years of research from which the following statements can be concluded: According to the historical documents analysed. the Villarrica volcano has produced, atleast, 49 eruptions between 1558 and 1999. As itoccurs for most of the chronological studies of the Andean volcanoes, the Villarrica volcano has not increased its activity through time. The apparent increase is due to the most complete information in recent times, especially since the end of the XVIII century. The historical eruptive activity of the Villarica volcano basically consists of strombolian eruptions which have produced mainly lava flows and tephra fallouts. There isa tendency to assign the Villarrica volcano a higher short-term eruption frequency than that indicated by historical documents. Thisis probably due to the fact that sometimes the activity at the crater, which has an almost permanent lava-lake, has been considered as an eruption. Taking this into account, itis possible to reduce the real number of eruptions to one eruption each ca. 10 years. During the XX century, the most explosive eruptions of the Villarrica volcano were those which occurred in 1907-1908, 1948-1949 (Fig. 9) and 1971. In those three eruptions, lahars were generated causing several deaths and substantial damages to the infrastructures surrounding the volcano, Although the Villarrica volcano does nothave a high frequency of large explosive eruptions (VEI 3-4), the increase in tourism and urban development on its flanks makes ita potentially hazardous volcanic centre. SEISMIC MONITORING Asimple seismic monitoring by OVDAS (Observatorio Voleanolégico de los Andes del Sur) from SERNAGEOMIN (Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria) has existed since 1982, with the current network consisting of two short period single component seismometers located 4km (1,100ma.s.l.) and 19km (310m.a.s.l,)from the crater. Background seismic activity comprises continuous low level tremors and small explosion signals associated with the rupture of gas bubbles at the surface of the lava-lake (strombolian activity). Four main types of seismic signals are distinguished on the basis of waveform, frequency content and duration: a. a continuous tremor with a frequency content between 0,9 and 2,3 Hz and variable amplitude. Duration of high amplitude tremors may last from hours to days while low amplitude tremors can be continuous for days to months; b. strombolian explosions that have short durations (< 60 sec) and a frequency content of 1.1- 3.0 Hz and occur ata rate of ~1.7 events/min. Activity characterised by the presence of these signals commonly occurs for periods of 1-8 hours interspersed with periods of continuous tremors, and can last for months; c. isolated explosions that are sporadic, havea broad frequency range 1,1-8.9Hz, andshort durations (< 60 sec); and d. long period events with >60 sec durations and a frequency content dominantly between 1,0 and 1.4 Hz (Fuentealba efa/, 2003: Ortiz efa/. 2003). Seismic data are also processed to obtain RSAM (real time seismic amplitude measurements) (Endo and Murray, 1991). These data are used to monitor changes in activity levels on a weekly basis. The alert system used by OVDAS is based on the ‘sistema semaforo’ (De la Cruz Reina 1996) but as the situation in the Villarrica volcano is distinctive from others. itis treated separately. The lava-lake is permanently active and the seismicity is dominated by low frequency events which are associated with the continuous degassing system, thus, in August 1999 the alert system wasadapted by OVDAS considering the specific characteristics of the Villarrica volcano. This enabled both local authorities and public to realize that the changes in alert level made by OVDAS directly corresponded to activity that could be observed or was related specifically to the volcano. PAST AND ONGOING RESEARCH As Villarrica volcano is one of the most active volcanoes of South America, several studies with many different goals have been carried out, including some unpublished theses. First reconnaisences were made by Casertano (1963a, b, c) and Moreno ef a/. (1985). Geochemical studies were published by Lépez-Escobar ef a/. (1993, 1995) and Hickey-Vargas ef a/ (1989, 2002). Physical volcanology and sedimentological approaches have been used to understand the emplacement mechanisms of the most important ignimbrites. Magma degassing processes have been studied by Witter efa/, 2004. Seismological aspects of the 1984 eruption (Figs. 9, 10) were described by Fuentealba ef a/ (1985). Recent geophysical research was conduced by Ortiz ef a/, (2003) and Calder ef a/ (2004). Baseline parameters for volcanic monitoring were established and volcanic hazards were mapped and published by Moreno (2000). ‘On tthe other hand, current research involves, among the others: high-resolution petrology in order to under- stand the triggering mechanisms of mafic explosive eruptions. refined thermochronology to be used in a complete review of the volcanic stratigraphy physical volcanology in order to understand magma-ice interactions and mechanisms forlahar generation. geochemistry of the degassing processes tectonic studies of the surrounding area in order to understand the effects of the underlying faults and stress regime on the —_F1a, 10, Spatter cone inside the crater of Villarica volcanic behaviour. volcano during the 1984 eruption ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This special bulletin was a collaborative effort of the professional staff from SERNAGEOMIN and foreign researchers, especially produced or the |AVCE! 2004 General Assembly. M.E. Petit-Breuilh facilitated the historical chronology that was modified with the authors’ field data. Work done by G. Fuentealba and E. Calder was useful for summarizing the seismological aspects. D. Welknerkindly reviewed this text and other chapters.8 Villarrica-Lanin chain: tectonic constraints for volcanism in a transversal alignment Luis. Lara ‘Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Av. Santa Maria 0104. Santiago, Chile lelara @sernageomin.c! ABSTRACT The Villarrica-Lanin volcanic chain (99°S) is a 60 km long, NS0°W-trending alignment of Quaternary stratovoleanoes and monogenetic cones. They are sitting on top of a regional-scale crustal structure that has been an active channel for ascent of subduction-related basaltic magmas. The structure is pre-Andean in origin and corresponds to a first order geological limit. Despite the shallow seismicity in the coastal area, Quaternary displacements are not so clear, except for some geomorphologicalal markers. However, an active role for volcanism is inferred because of the spatial relationship with volcanic vents and the geochemical features of magmas, typical of long residence times and replenishment in transpressive domains. INTRODUCTION Asinmany volcanicarcs, and especially in those built over a prefractured upper crust, transversal voleanic chains are a typical feature. The Southern Volcanic Zone is a classic example of margin- parallel arc formed by several oblique chains related to both the inherited structural anisotropies and the current stress field, The Villarrica volcano is placed over one of this transversal alignments, the Villarrica-Lanin chain, which comprises the three major stratovoleanoes Villarrica, Quetrupillan and Lanin and five deeply eroded Pleistocene volcanoes together with more than 20 monogenetic cones, including two maars (Fig. 1) FIG. 1. Location map of the Villarrica-Lanin volcanicchain. QQ: Quinquill: LP: Laguna Los Patos; CM: Cordillera El Mocho; H: Huilico; HM: Huelemolles; CB: Caburgua; LB: La Barda A: Relicura; CR: Cerro Redondo; PCH: Pichares; SJ: San Jorge: LZ: Liizan; EA: El Arenal; LA: La Angostura Rucapilian maars (not shown) are located to the NW of Villarrica volcano.VILLARRICA-LANIN VOLCANIC CHAIN In detail, the Villarrica voleano (39.3°S/71.9°W) isa long-lived compound stratovolcano that has erupted mainly basalts and basaltic-andesites. Its volcanic structure consists of an external, 6.5km across an elliptic caldera which formed before the Last Glacial Maxima (LGM) in the region. While the whole last glaciation in the Southern Andes was considered by Clapperton (1993) between 90-14 ka, the LGM was the youngest (33.5-14 ka) glacial readvance (Lowell e¢@/, 1995). Within the Postglacial period, the Villarrica volcano showed a remarkable explosive stage (14.000-1.600 yr8P) with two major basalt-andesitic ignimbrites (ca. 13.800 and 3.700 yrBP; Moreno, 1993; Clavero, 1996). Amore recent summit caldera, 2 km across, formed in the main edifice on the northwestern: edge of the older caldera. The present stratocone has been built inside the summit caldera by repeated strombolian eruptions. About 30 parasitic pyroclastic cones are located on its northeast and south flanks. To the southeast, the Quetrupillan volcano (39.5°S/71.7°W) is a compound stratovolcano that comprises a basaltic to dacitic rock-suite. It has an extensive postglacial explosive record, which includes many pyroclastic flow and ash-fall deposits. Its morphostructural features showtwo nested calderas. Just as the Villarrica volcano, the first caldera structure is older than the LGM and the second one was formed during an explosive postglacial event. Domes and ‘coulées' surround the external caldera walls, while scoria cones are distributed in northeast-southwest and northwest- southeast directions (Pavez, 1997) Deeply eroded Pleistocene volcanoes as Cordillera EI Mocho (39.3°S/71.8°W), Quinquill (39.5°S/ 71.5°W), Laguna Los Patos (39.6°S/71.5°W), Carilafquén (39.7°S/71.6°W) and Pino Santo (39.8°S/ 71.2°W) are located along the oblique volcanic chain, The Cordillera El Mochoisan eroded and small stratocone locatedbetween Villarrica and Quetrupillén volcanoes. The Quinquililvoleanois.a prominent Neck surrounded by basaltic lavas, placed to the east of the Quetrupillan volcano. The Laguna Los Patos and Carilafquén centres are gently dipping volcanic sequences cut by feeder dykes, both located between the Quetrupillan and Lanin volcanoes. To the eastof the Lanin volcano, Pino Santo is a detritic-covered small volcano from which a noticeable lava flow fills the Malleo river valley. The Lanin volcano (39.7°S/71.5°W) lies at the southeastern endof the volcanicchain (Fig. 2) and was built mainly by basaltic andsilica-rich andesitic-daciticlavas, forming a simple large stratocone. Its summit reaches 3,747 ma.s.l., andis 2,500 m above the surrounding ground level. It covers an area of about 220 km* with an estimated volume of ca, 180km?, The Lanin volcanohasanearconical shape with steep slopes partially covered by glaciers. A dome that fed a blocky-lava flow fills the ‘summit area on the northern flank. Near 2,600 m a.s.I., and more defined on the NW flank, a slight break in the volcano slope roughly coincide with the heads of glacial cirques which seems to be the start line of the postglacial basalts (Lara, 2004; Lara ef a/, 2004). FIG. 2. Panoramic view from the west of Villarrica-Lanin volcanic chain; Villarrica volcano is in the foreground,TECTONIC SETTING The basement structure below the volcanic centres is only partially known. At continental scale the Villarrica-Lanin chain seems tojoin the maintrace of the Gastre Fault (Coira, 1975: Spalletti and Dalla Salda, 1996) being thus interpreted as a paleogeographical limit of the southern margin of Gondwana by Dalla Salda ef a/ (1991) and Franzese (1995). Moreover, the Lower and Upper Paleozoic accumulation of detritic sequences in an acretionary prism andits subsequent Paleozoic- Triassic regional metamorphism, seems to be constrained by this ancient border (Fig. 3) Atregionalscale, the present structure is the northernmost geological border of amajortectonicblock (Loncoche Ridge’: Chotin, 1975) formed by Upper Paleozoie- Triassic metasedimentary and volcanic sequences juxtaposed to the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Northpatagonian Batholith. Shallow bodies of ultramaticrocks follow the trend of this ridge cropping-outnear the southem flank of the Villarica volcano. At local scale, a suite of surficial alignments makes up the main structural system. These alignments are actually emphasized by the Pleistocene glacial erosion, but only few fresh mesoscopic faults can be observed. Nevertheless, a microtectonic analysis cartied out on fault populations reveals a stress tensor compatible with a north-east dextral transpression. This result iscoherent witha regional north-east dextral transpressive eventoccurredin the Andean range during the Quaternary, as pointed out by Lavenu and Cembrano (1999) Considering that whatever the scale is, it is possible to recognize strong evidences for a pre- Andean origin of this basement structure. Nevertheless. its temporal evolution is not so clear and the Quaternary activity is rather confuse. For example, from a geomorphological point of view. Moreno ef a/ (1994b) suggested that Villarrica-Lanin chain produces an offset in a left-lateral sense of the margin-parallel Liquifie-Ofqui Fault Zone (LOFZ) (Cembrano ef.a/, 1996) during the Late Cenozoic, perhaps the Quaternary. However, that offset implies only an apparent sinistral strike-slip displacement of the oblique fault. Taking into account arc-scale models for the kinematic regime during the Quaternary, Cembrano and Moreno (1994) proposed thatthe Villarrica-Lanin volcanic chain is a compressive domain within avoleanic arc affected by a simple dextral shear regime during the Quaternary, After that, Lavenu and Cembrano (1999) showed, through microtectonic analysis thatthe Quaternary volcanic archas been ina dextral transpressive regime as a whole. Following this reasoning, anorthwest-southeast structure could have pure thrust or sinistral-inverse displacements. Although the western continuity of the underlying fault below the Villarrica-Laninchainis obscured by Pleistocene-Holocene infill of the Central Valley, Bohm efa/ (2002) considered it as a part of the coastal first order structures (Fig. 4). Seismic data show a clear nucleation of shallow events along a NW-trending coastal fault allowing to infer an active role for this segment. Nevertheless, only few of this type of events have been recorded below the volcanic arc In addition, a mechanical link between the underlying fautt of the Villarrica-Lanin chain and the Gastre Fault is just an assumption based on big-scale morphological features, Again, there is no evidence of Quaternary displacements along these faults. New broad band seismic experiments with local networks or tectonic geomorphology approaches could enlight the possible recent activity. From afluid-dynamic point of view, a seismically active faultis nota necessary previous condition to be the locus of volcanism. Following the classic ideas of Sibson (1985, 1987, 1988, 1996), a pressurised fluid can dilate a sealed fault inducing displacement that drains fluid troughout stress drops. Ina prefractured upper crust, ancient faults are first order geological borders and key points for fluid-driven dilatation if they are compatible with the current stress field, or pressures are supralithostatic. The authors can speculate that long residence time of magmas with polibaric multi- ‘stage evolution could be the signals of this type of environment. Other transversal chains, as the6 Cordén Caulle-Puyehue (40°S) chain, seem to show geochemical signatures comparable to those of more complex evolution over an ancient fault (Tormey e¢a/, 1991). Work in progress throughout geophysical, crystal chemistry and systematics of radioactive isotopes will help with their understanding of magma dynamics in the upper crust. FIG. 3. Geological sketch of the area of the Villarica-Lanin voicanicchain (modified mainly from Dalla Salda ef a/, 1991; SERNAGEOMIN, 2002; and Lara and Moreno, 2004). Depth om) FIG. 4. Crustal seismicity along the 37-39°S ‘segment (simplified trom Bohm er.a/, 2002) N ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fondecyt grants 1930992 and 1960186 widely supported geological and geochemical work on Villarrica-Lanin chain for more than 10 years. Voleanic Hazards Programme and ovpas (Southern Andes Volcano Observatory) from SERNAGEOMIN facilitated the authors’ field work in the area. D. Welkner (SERNAGEOMIN) is acknowledged for reviewing of this text.Evolution of Villarrica Volcano Jorge Clavero Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Av, Santa Maria 0104. Santiago, Chile {elavero@semageomin.o Hugo Moreno ‘Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, P.O. Box 23-D, Temuco vgiay, ‘nmoreno@ sermageomin ABSTRACT Villarrica volcano is a Quaternary volcano located in the Southern Andes of Chile (39.5°S). In its early evolution (Villarrica 1 Unit, Middle to Upper Pleistocene) an ancestral stratocone was built, mainly with basaltic to basaltic andesite lavas and fallout deposits. At ca. 100 ka this ancestral edifice partially collapsed, generating an ellyptical caldera structure, 6.5 by 4.2 km in diameter. Subglacial basaltic andesite lavas were erupted during the Llanguihue Glaciation (95-14 ka), although itis not clear if an edifice was formed during this period. A second collapse, nested in the previous structure occurred at ca. 14 ka (Caldera 2), with the generation of a series of pyroclastic flows, including the large-volume Lican ignimbrite (ca. 10 km*), marking the beginning of an explosive phase, which seems to continue until today. A new stratocone located on the nosthwestern rim of calderas 1 and 2 was formed through successive effusive and explosive eruptions (Villarrica 2 Unit, 14-3.7 ka). At ca 3.7 ka this stratocone partially collapsed, forminga smaller summitcaldera (Caldera 3) associated to the Pucén Ignimbrite eruption, which marked the end of Villarrica 2 unit. Soon alter the collapse, a new stratocone started to build within the summit caldera. This new cone has been built through succesive effusive and explosive eruptions (Villarrica 3 unit, 3.7 ka to present). The last large explosive event at Villarrica volcano occurred at ca. 1,600 yrBP, with the generation of an extensively distributed pyroclastic flow. Historic activity at Villarrica has been, however, essentially effusive and slightly explosive (strombolian), and the volcano shows an almost permanent lava-like inside its crater with permanent degassing GENERAL FEATURES The Late Pleistocene to Holocene compound Villarrica stratovolcano and its products cover an area of more than 700 kr, although the edifice covers a surface of about 400 km, witha volume of c2 250 km*(Moreno, 1993, 2000; Fig. 1). Vilarica voleano ranges in age from Middle Pleistocene to the present, with its last eruption in 2000. itis considered one of the most active volcanoes of South America According to morphostructural and stratigraphic criteria the eruptive history of Villarrica volcano has been divided into three evolutionary stages: an old composite stratovolcano (Unit 1) that developed before and within the last glaciation in the Southern Andes (Llanquihue Drift: Clapperton, 1993; Clayton e7 @/, 1997). The basal volcanic sequence has been partially eroded by ice. This primitive Villarrica volcano was partially truncated by a 6.5 x 4.2 km ellyptical caldera, elongated inFIG. 1. Landsat TM image of Villarrica volcano and surroundigs areas, showing the nested caldera (marked C1-2) and the younger summit caldera (marked C3). NW-SE direction (C1-2 in Fig. 1), during the Late Pleistocene (ca. 95 ka), after which it continued to grow. A second collapse, at the beginning of the Postglacial (ca. 14 ka) used this same structure and partially truncated the volcanic edifice again. This collapse was associated to the generation of a large pyroclastic flow deposit, basaltic andesite in composition, the Licdn ignimbrite (Clavero and Moreno, 1994; Clavero, 1996). A second edifice (Unit 2), Postglacial to Holocene in age, was built on the northwestern side of this caldera (Fig. 1). It also suffered a summit collapse, generating a smaller Krakatoa-type caldera of ca, 2.2 km in diameter (C3 in Fig. 1), associated again to a large pyroclastic flow, the Pucén ignimbrite (Clavero and Moreno, 1994; Clavero, 1996). A recent Late Holocene cone (Unit 3) grew within this last caldera, whose lava flows have almost covered its rim and some remnants can be seen on the northern slopes at about 2,400 m a.s.l The modern Postglacial stratovoleano (Units 2 and 3) is mainly formed by basaltic to basaltic andesite lavas and pyroclastic deposits (Moreno efa/, 1980; Moreno, 1993, 2000; Hickey Vargas et al, 1989, 2002). Within the Postglacial (last 14,000 years), Villarrica volcano has generated approximately 16 pyroclastic flows, with volumes ranging between 2 x 10° mand 10'°m®, during explosive eruptions (Clavero and Moreno, 1994; Moreno efa/, 1994a; Clavero, 1996; Moreno, 2000). Along its evolution, the main composition of the eruptive products has been basalts to medium andesites (50-58% SiO,), being the basaltic andesites the most abundant rock type (52-56 %SiO,). Voleanic materials are porphyritic with plagioclase, clinopyroxene and olivine phenochrysts, and they would have derived by crystal fractionation from more primitive magmas (Hickey efa/., 1989, 1997, 2002; Lopez-Escobar and Moreno, 1994),GEOLOGIC SETTING Villarrica volcano basement consists mainly of igneous rocks, comprising volcaniclastic sequences, plutonic units, and scarce metamorphic and sedimentary rocks that range in age from Late Paleozoic to Pliocene (Fig. 2; Aguirre and Levi, 1964; Munizaga ef a/ 1988: Moreno, 1993; SERNAGEOMIN, 2002; Lara and Moreno, 2004; Moreno and Lara, in prep.). Along the northern shoreline of Calafquén Lake there are small remnants of the metamorphic rocks belonging to the Traftin Sequence (Martin e¢4/. 1999), which corresponds to a suite of metamorphosed medium- grained pelitic rocks where primary sedimentary features have not been completely overprinted. They are intruded by Pennsylvanian-Early Permian granitoids of the Futrono-Rifihue Batholith (Martin ef a/, 1999; Rodriguez ef al, 2000). The metamorphic rocks are part of the paired metamorphic belt developed on a Paleozoic accretionary prism. In the same area, the Trafin Sequence is uncomformably overlain by rocks of the Panguipulli Formation (Rodriguez ef a/, 2000), which corresponds to a succession of coarse-grained conglomerates, sandstones and plant-bearing shales Triassic in age (Arrondo ef @/, 1988) Most of the stratified old volcanic sequences in the area, belong to the Estratos de Tracalhue, alocal equivalent of the Cura-mallin Formation (Oligocene-Miocene; Suarez and Emparan, 1997) or Curarrehue Formation (Early Cretaceous; Lara and Moreno, 2004) and they appearas ‘roof-pendants’ allaround the volcano. They consists of tuffs, breccias and lavas, intruded mainly by Upper Miocene granitoids from the North Patagonian Batholith (Munizaga er.a/, 1988; Moreno and Lara, in prep.) A younger sequence of slightly folded lavas, breccias and tuffs crops out in the neighbouring area of Pucén Peninsula (Estratos de Peninsula Pucén; Late Miocene-Pliocene?; Moreno, 1993). Toward the west, northeast and northwest of the volcano, thick piles of volcanic stratified rocks (Estratos de Huincacara) gently dip towards the west or have a subhorizontal disposition. They comprise volcanic conglomerates, breccias, lavas and tuffs of basaltic to andesitic composition equivalent to the Malleco Formation of Late Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene age (4-0.7 Ma; Suarez and Emparan, 1997; Lara ef a/, 2001). Allthese units are partially buried by glacial deposits related to the penultimate (toward the west) and mainly to the last Pleistocene glaciations (Santa Marfa and Llanquihue; after Mercer, 1976 and Porter, 1981, respectively). The Llanquihue Glaciation deposits extend mainly to the northwest and southwest of the volcano flanks, forming several moraine belts that surround the shores of Villarrica and Calafqueén lakes (Fig. 2; Clapperton, 1993; Clayton efa/ 1997), Onthe otherhand, other stratovolcanoes are located close to Villarrica volcano. The small, older and eroded Cordillera El Mocho volcano, is immediately located toward the southeast of Villarrica stratocone, along the Villarrica, Quetrupillén, Lanin volcanic chain. The products of Cordillera El Mocho volcano are probably contemporaneous with the oldest sequences (Middle Pleistocene?) of Quetrupilidn and Villartica volcanoes (Moreno, 1993) Atthe northern and northeaster foothills of Villarrica volcano, several small volcanic: centres (<1 km?) can be distinguished. Among them. two main groups can be recognised: a first group related to the Liquifie Ofqui Fault Zone (LOFZ), which is controlled by this important NE-trending regional structure; and a second group scattered along the Villarrica-Lanin chain. The first group consists of small stratovolcano (La Barda, Pleistocene) with some parasitic pyroclastic cones, and two clusters of monogenetic pyroclastic cones (Caburgua. 5 pyroclastic cones and associated lava flows; and Huelemolle, 3 pyroctastic cones and associated lava flows). The other group comprises {two scoriaceous pyroclastic cone clusters and lava flows: Redondo-Cafii (2), Relicura (5) and the 'solated San Jorge cone. Alll of them are Holocene in age and have a basaltic composition (MorenoFIG. 2. Simplified geologic map of Villarrica volcano and its basement (modified from Clavero, 1996 and Moreno, 1993).a etal, 1980; Moreno, 1993; Lépez-Escobar and Moreno. 1994; Lopez-Escobar ef a/. 1995; Lopez- Escobar and Moreno, 1997: Hickey Vargas ef a/, 1989: Hickey Vargas ef a/, 2002). Ages from Villarrica pyroclastic flow deposits bracket the ages of the small eruptive centres Caburgua, Huelemolle, and Cerro Redondo between 8,000 and 6,000 yrBP (Moreno, 1993; Hickey Vargas efa/ 2002). The ages of the other centres are not yet well constrained ‘Several hotsprings, meso-to-hyperthermal (T ranging between 40° and 90°C), are locatedaround Villarrica volcano, most of them located on the northern fiank of the volcano (Moreno, 1993). Their occurrence is mainly controlled by EW fractures in Miocene granitoids: Quimey-co, Huife, Minetue, Trancura, and San Luis. Others as Palguin (to the east) are controlled by NS fractures in granites (Moreno, 1993; Pérez, 2000) VILLARRICA 1 UNIT (MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE?-LATE PLEISTOCENE, 13,800-3,700 BP) ‘The oldest unit, is Middle (?) to Late Pleistocene in age and consists of a 500 m thick sequence of lavas, voleaniclastic breccias (laharic, pyroclastic), agglomerates and some ignimbrite tufts, basalticto andesitic in composition, with some intrusions of dacitic dikes, lacoliths and small domes. The dacitic domes and dikes were emplaced mainly on the eastern rim of the oldest caldera (Caldera 1). This stratified unitrests in erosional unconformity upon Miocene granitoids (Munizaga e¢a/, 1988) and Cenozoic volcaniclastic formations (Moreno, 1993; Fig. 2). Villarrica 1 Unit crops out mainly towards the east, southeast and north (Fig. 3a) of the modern volcano that covers the west and northwest Caldera 1 rim (Fig. 2) ‘The pre-Caldera 1 products consist ofbasalts and basalticandesites as the prevailingrocktypes (50- 56% SiO. , with scarcemedium andesites (56-58.0% SiO, andrare dacitic intrusions and domes (64.5% SiO,). The rocks are porphyritiewith plagioclase, olivineand clinopyroxene phenochrysts; orthopyroxene appears only in the dacitic intrusions (Moreno, 1993; Hickey - Vargas ef a/. 1989; this work). Based on stratigraphic and morphostructural evidences. the ancient Villarrica volcano was probably a composite stratovolcano with a summit located about 3 km toward the SE of the modern cone, with an apparentheight of about 3,000 ma.s.|. Itdeveloped priorand duringthe Last Glaciation (Lianquihue drift; Clapperton, 1993). The oldest lavas have been deeply eroded by glacier activity (Fig. 3a), whereas intra glacial lavas have dense joint and great thickness because of ice-contact inglacier paleochannels. Probably at around 100 ka a large ellyptical caldera (Caldera 1; 6.5 x 4.2 km in diameter) was formed, whose associated eruptions generateda series of pyroclastic flow deposits, The remaining deposits of this (these) eruptions crops out on the westem flank of the volcano, on top of and interbedded with old glacial deposits (Fig. 3b). At c2. 95 ka (Table 1) a series of dacitic domes and dikes were emplaced, using the annular fractures of Caldera 1, which canbe seen on its eastern rim. These are the most acid products of Villarrica voleano found i sitvso far, and could represent the latest stages on the evolution of the volcano associated to its first collapse. Although no other ‘TABLE 1.""Ar™Ar DATA FOR VILLARRICA 1 DACITIC DOME. ' Sample Steps Plateauage = MSWD Weochron Steps sedi ntereept_ MSD | ‘age regression toes 95415 6 308 +6 ost |FIG. 3. a. View from the north to Villarica volcano. The black arrow marks deeply glaciated remnants of Villarrica 1 Unit basaltic lavas; b. Strongly weathered pyroclastic deposits (tephra fallout-if and pyroclaste flow) from Villarica 1 Unit (intraglacial) on top of morainic deposits from the penultimate glaciation. The outcrop is located about 25 km to the west of the voleano; ¢. Outerop on the northem flank of the volcano, showing Villarrica 2 and 3 units pyroclastic deposits. The grey surge deposit (s) corresponds to the upper section of the Pucén Ignimbrite, and the tephra fallout deposits (tf) correspond to the first eruptive phases of Villarrica 3 Unit (Chaimilla fallout deposits); d. View from the north to Villarica voleano. In the foreground par of the Villartica 1 and 2 units pyroclastic sequence (p) on top of moraines of the Llanqulhue Glaciation; e. View from the west to Villarrica volcano. In the foreground lahar deposits from the 1971 eruption in the Chaillupén river; f. Villarica 2 and 3 units pyroclastic deposits and lavas. The grey layer at the bottom of the sequence corresponds to the Pucén Ignimbrite, which is here covered by a Villarrica 3 Unit pyroclastic sequence (p). which is itself covered by @ basaltic pahoehoe lava (I),radiometric dates have been obtained from pre-last glaciation rocks, itis very likely that between 95 and 14 ka eruptive activity remained similar as it was prior to the partial collapse of the edifice. Few ¥C dates have been obtained from charcoal contained in pyroclastic flow deposits of this Unit, cropping out on the western flank of the volcano. The dates range between >45 ka and 20 ka (C. Clapperton, personal communication, 2002; G. Denton, written communication, 2004), which means that explosive activity continued between 95 and 14 ka (intra-Llanquihue glaciation). A series of subglacial basaltic lavas have also been recognised both on the eastem and southern flanks of the volcano, suggesting effusive activity continued during the intraglacial period (95-14 ka) VILLARRICA2 UNIT (LATE PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE, 13,850-3,700 BP) Atthe beginning of the Postglacial the cone built between 95 and 14 ka, and probably also part ofthe oldest one, partially collapsed (Clavero and Moreno, 1994: Clavero, 1996). Thisnew collapse, associated to large explosive eruptions, probably used the same weakened structures of the first collapse, forming a nested elongated caldera (Caldera 2; 6.5 x 4.2 km in diameter. Fig. 1, 2). The Postglacial eruptive history of Villarrica voleano began then at ca. 13.850 yrBP (Fig. 4), with violent eruptions that generated a series of pyroclastic flows from the ancient cone: the Cudico pyroclastic iow andthe large Lican Ignimbrite (Clavero, 1996; Claveroand Moreno, 1994). Thevolume of the latter one makes it the most likely eruptive expression of the partial collapse of the edifice. The Lican ignimbrite has an estimated minimum volume (non-DRE) of 10 km*, and its deposits have been found at more than 40 km from the volcano, covering over 1,000 km? of the surrounding areas (Clavero. 1996). Its transport was mainly laminar with an extremely high-energy, coveringlarge areas around the volcano and overflowing topographic barriers higher than 300 mat 15km from the source. The emptying of the magma chamber probably produced a partial collapse of the ancestral edifice, which used the weak structures left by the early collapse (Caldera 1), generating a nested caldera (Caldera 2). Locally, the Lican ignimbrite shows structures, which suggest a more dilute transport, mainly due to local topographic irregularities. A very thin fallout deposit (<15 cm thick) at its base has been found in distal outcrops on the eastern fiank of the volcano. This suggests that, despite its volume, the pyroclastic flows were generated by alow-altitude column collapse (‘boiling- over’; Clavero, 1996). Following these explosive eruptions a series of quiet and explosive eruptions were produced (Figs. 3d, 4), both from the central ventand flank parasitic pyrociastic cones. These eruptive events generated |ava tiows, anda series of pyroclastic flow, surge and {fallout deposits (Figs. 3d, 4), mainly basaltic to andesitic in composition (50-57% SiO,). The products of Villarrica 2 Unit cover more than 2000 km? around the volcano. The sequence is upto 120m thick, although individual flow thickness ranges between 0.2and 100m (e.g., Puconignimbrite deposit). The modern composite stratovolcano. located on the northwestern part of the large ellyptical Caldera 1 (Figs. 1, 2) started to build up after the eruption of the Lican ignimbrite. According to ""C ages (Moreno. 1993: Moreno ef al, 1994a), its formation started probably between 13,500 and 11,000 yrBP ending with the second largest explosive event of Villarrica volcano: the Pucén ignimbrite at ca. 3,700 yrBP (Clavero and Moreno. 1994; Clavero, 1996; Moreno, 2000). The eruption of the Pucén Ignimbrite (~ 5 km®, non-DRE) marked the end of the evolution stage of Villarrica 2 Unit, and has been interpreted as the cause of a 2.2 km in diameter summit caldera (Caldera 3; Figs. 1, 2, 4; Clavero and Moreno, 1994; Clavero. 1996; Moreno, 2000). The volcanicBy edifice would have reached near 3,000 m high before its collapse and covered a wide surface, mainly toward the northwest, west and southwest, burying the area of the ancient Villarrica 1Unit sequence. The Pucén Ignimbrite extends up to 20 km from the present-day summit, Formed originally as an essentially continuous sheet, but with a strong topographic control, it reaches a thickness of up to ~100 m in deep gullies and a few m on ridges (overflow facies). It includes massive, diffusely, planar and oross-stratified lithotacies. with greatly variable proportions of basaltic andesite juvenile scoria and accidental components. The base of the deposit is a thin scoria fallout deposit that crops out scarcely on the eastern and northern flanks. The contact with the overlying pyroclastic density current deposits indicates a rapid change in the eruptive dynamics towards an ignimbrite-forming eruptive mechanism. The deposit has several and very different facies, some of them correspond to typically dense juvenile-rich pyroclastic flow, while others show ‘structures suggesting a much more dilute transport, being more similar to a hot volcanic debris flow rather than to a typical pyroclastic flow. There is even a well-developed surge deposit associated to the latest stages of the eruption, mainly distributed on the northern and eastern flanks of the volcano (Fig. 3c), on top of which there is usually a well-developed thin (<10 em thick) accretionary lappilli-rich fine ash layer. The pyroclastic density current deposit is mainly divided into two stratigraphic units with different distributions around the volcano and distinct assemblages of accidental components. Particularly, the upper unit is characterised by the sudden presence of fragments of basement granitoids, both as free clasts but also as inclusions in scoria, whereas these are essentially absent in the lower unit. The lower unit occurs only to the northwest flank of the volcano and represents only about the 20% of the total volume of the ignimbrite. By contrast, the voluminuous upper unit was deposited all around the volcano, with massive pyroclastic density current deposits first and then a conspicuous planar and cross stratified pyroclastic density current deposit towards the top. The differences in lithology, distribution, run-out and volume, between both units, as well as the presence of erosive structures produced by the upper unit on the already deposited lower unit, suggest that their sharp boundary represents an increase of eruptive intensity of the eruption (C. Silva, written communication, 2004). Most of the products of this unit are basaltic to basaltic andesite in composition, although some pumiceous juvenile fragments have been found in pyroclastic low deposits, However, theiralteration degree has not permitted to analyse their chemistry, VILLARRICA UNIT 3 (HOLOCENE, 3,700 yrBP-PRESENT) This unitis mainly formed by basaltic to basaltic andesite lavas and pyroclastic flow, surge and fallout deposits (Figs. 31, §), of the same composition (50-55% SiO,). Products of this unit are distributed all around the volcano, and form the new cone built within the youngest caldera depression (Caldera3; Fig. 1, 2). Thenew cone started to build soon after the Pucén eruption with aseries of strombolian explosive eruptions, which generated the Chaimilla tephra fallout deposits, mainly distributed towards the eastern and northern flanks of the volcano (Figs. 3c, 5). Lavas of this unit have covered almost all the youngest caldera rims. and several flows have flowed over the Caldera 1-2 rims, reaching the lower parts of the volcano flanks. The recent cone reaches an altitude of 2,847 ma.s| The unit consists of a sequence of lava flows with interbedded pyroclastic flow. fallout and surge deposits as well as lahar deposits (Fig. 5), including historical lava flows and lahars (Fig. 3e: since 1558 A.D. up to the last eruption in 2000). The pyroclastic sequence is up to 15 m thick, althoughSTRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Villarrica 2 Unit FLOW UNIT Cap. Age (yrBP) Pucén ignimbrite 3700 Zanjon Seco lavas ‘Aunahue pyrocasticflow 4100 Be 4200 Antumala aves Candelaria pyrocasticflow $700 CChépica pyrocastc flow Scotia pyroclastic low and fallout Piao lavas oipir pyroclastic low 8600 Basatc lavas Nettume plnian fallout deposit {from Mecho -Choshuenco _oleano} Basalt lavas Tutbio pyroclastic fow 10600 Scotia pyroclastic flow Pucur lavas Seoria fallout deposit Pucura pyroclastic flow Reworked layer Lican ignimbrite 13800 eusico pyrclstictlow 13850 FIG. 4, Generalised stratigraphic column of Villarica 2 unit 2% STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Villarrica 3 Unit Thickness FLOW UNIT Cap. Age max (m) (yrBP) 1964 Bastia T1988 Lanardeposts 1971 Baa lova T1971 Lamar deposits 1963-64 v0 1963-64 Lahardeposts 1948-49 Basic va 1948-49 Lana deposts Historic and recent ate Holocene) basal lavas, interbedded with ahar deposits CCongui pyroclastic ow 1600 anyon Seco pahoehoe 1809 basaltic aves Los Nevados pyroclastic flow Sk sconia pyroclastic low Moko basatic vas rete scoriaftou deposits Pedregoso pyodasicsurge 2600 = Fineash and accretionary api Chaimilla2scoria fallout deposit = Fineash and accretionary lap ZEEE craimitat scona fallout deposit FIG. 5. Generalised stratigraphic column of Villarrica 3 unit% individual flow thickness ranges between 0.2 and 3 m. The last explosive eruption in Villarrica volcano history corresponds to a widespread pyroclastic flow deposit (Cénquil proclastic flow, Fig. 5), which has been dated in 1,620 yrBP and covers more than 2000 km® of the surrounding area Historical eruptive activity at Villarrica counts 59 documented eruptions since 1558, when the first Spanish conquerors arrived in southern Chile (Petit-Breuilh and Lobato, 1994). However. out of 31 well-documented eruptions, 8 occurred in December and 23 between spring and summer. This suggests Villarrica voleano has a strong seasonal modulation present in the eruptions. Historical eruptive activity has been essentially effusive with few explosive eruptions (/e,, 1948-1949 eruption). This effusive activity has produced several lava flows, both pahoehoe and ‘aa’ type, with some associated scoria fallout deposits, which have been directed towards the east and southeast (Moreno, 1993). The effusion of high-temperature (ca. 1100-1250°C) lava flows overanice-covered volcano has generated numerous lahars. which have travelled down the main valleys surrounding the voleano (Fig. 3e), and which have caused tens of deaths during the XX century. Villarrica volcano has a permanent fumarole, which mainly emits SO,, HCI, HF and CO,, Its summit has a 200 m-diameter crater. varying in depth from 100 to 150 mand at the bottom of which there is frequently a smaillava lake, 30 to 40m in diameter. This iava lake commonly shows vertical oscillations and a weak persistent strombolian activity, characterised by ballistic spatters and a continuous fumarolic emission, In2001 (summer). forinstance, Villarrica volcano emitted 4602260 tons/day of SO,, 102442 tons/day of HCl, and 133 ton/day of HF. This recentstudy has also shown that more than 1 km: of magma have degassed since 1985 (end of the last effusive eruption) until 2002 at Villarrica volcano. This means an average rate of 2.2 m* of magma per second degasses at Villarrica summit, As no clear edifice deformation or summit collapse has been observed at Villarrica cone, itis suggested that convection occurring at the conduit. bring up volatiles and heat to produce the observed emissions and to prevent the lava-lake to solidify (Witter and Delmelle. 2004. EVOLUTION OF VILLARRICA VOLCANO Villarrica volcano started its evolution in the Middle Pleistocene with the formation of a large stratocone (marked V1 in Fig. 6), mainly formed by basaltic andesite lavas and pyroclastic deposits (Villarrica 1 Unit). This large edifice was partially truncated at ca. 100 ka, prior to the peak of the Llanquihue Glaciation by a caldera collapse (Caldera 1, marked C1/2 in Fig. 6). This collapse was probably associated with the generation of a series of pyroclastic flows, which have been preserved onthe lower western flank of the volcano. Soon after this first collapse (ca. 95 ka), a series of dacitic domes and dikes were emplaced through the annular fractures of the caldera structure. which can be observed on its easter rim (Fig. 6). Between 95 and 14 ka (intra-Last Glaciation). a series of subglacial lava flows was generated, which have been mainly preservedon the southem andeastern flanks of the volcano (Villarrica 1 Unit). However. it is not clear yet if these subglacial lavas formed a paleoeditice within the caldera depression. Soon after the ice retreat from the lower parts of the volcanic edifice a series of explosive eruptions were generated, among them the outstanding large- volume basaltic andesite Lican Ignimbrite (13,800 yrBP). This large explosive eruption generateda second caldera collapse (Caldera 2), nestedin the older one (marked C1/2 in Fig. 6), and markedthe beginning of the postglacial eruptive activity of the volcano. Between 14 and 3.7 ka (Villarrica 2 Unit) a series of explosive and effusive eruptions, of mainly basaltic andesite products (lavas anda pyroclastic flow, surge and tephra fallout) were generated, forming a new stratocone built on the northwestern rim of calderas 1 and 2 (Fig. 6). This new stratocone was itself partially truncated at ca. 3.7 ka by a large-volume explosive eruption, which generated the Pucon ignimbrite, and its associated 2.2 km collapse caldera (C-3 in Fig. 6). Soon after this last edifice collapse, a new cone started to grow inside Caldera 3 depression, through strombolian explosive eruptions, Subsequent effusive and explosive eruptions formed the present stratocone, which shows an almostpermanent lava-lake within its crater and a permanent fumarolic activity. Documented historical eruptions (59 since 1558) have been mainly effusive or slightly explosive (strombolian to subplinian?), being \ahar-generation the major threat to human settlements around the volcano. fiat atthe aya epi sta nc sen ees Wy ‘bgeltitentbo stan Ban Oar ope 12 cr 3 Unt rn sore 2, may eae Sate meena fw tee et pee 242. Cott nd. dana eh snine o 10% ‘Shpwondicn gamete open 1 Sbe ane ° (69 Caoa.n 224m in dana seat Pain eatin. FIG. 6. Sketch diagram (not to scale) showing the evolution of Villarica volcano and its main morphostructural features, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been partially funded through Fondecyt projects (1247 to HM) and 1040515 (tJC). The authors thank the valuable comments on an early version of the text by L. Lara. J.A. Naranjo. E. Polanco (Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria). C. Silva and the help of G. Anabalon in producing some of the figures.28 Laharic debris-flows from Villarrica Volcano José A. Naranjo Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mneria. Av. Santa Maria 0104, Santiago, Chile Inaranjo@sernageominc! Hugo Moreno ‘Servicio Nacional de Geoiogia y Mineria, P.O. Box 23-0, Temuco moreno @ sermageomin cl ABSTRACT The Villarrica volcano (2,847 m a.s.\,) is one of the most active Andean volcanoes being a perfect cone of basalts to basaltic-andesites. The 200 m across open crater has an active fumarolic lava-lake. An extensive glacier fills an older caldera and partially covers the Holocene cone. Snow covers most of the volcano from May to October, up to 20 m thick around the summit, Lava eruptions have taken place, sporadically, through the main crater at low effusion rates (~20 m/s as in 1984), or frequently through upper flank fissures at higher effusion rates (~500 m/s as in 1971). One of the most hazardous places around the volcano is Pucén town. 10 km north, built on top of historic (1908) and recent laharic deposits. Within the XX century, six big lahars have occurred. Also. debris remobilisation by heavy rains is common and their effects are significant, Fissure orientation in the crater rim define the most probable lahar flow directions, with high effusion rates as a triggering condition. Finally. a source of coarse debris and a suitable channel slope are the driving factors for the resulting damage of the neighbouring areas. INTRODUCTION Modem andancient lahar flows have invaded and inundated the main river systems that drain the Villarrica volcano. Above the 1,900 m, both the summit flanks and the 6.5x 4.2km caldera are capped by perennial ice. Total glaciers cover an area of ~40 km? with a volume of ~8 km’ of ice, equivalent to ~6.5 km’ of water (Moreno, 1993. 2000). As a consequence, almost all effusive eruptions have produced lahars, which have caused most of the disasters around the volcano. Among the main documented eruptions, only those of 1908 (October-December, with lavas and laharic flows to the north), 1948-1949 (October to February. the largest historical event that emitted lavas and laharic flows in different directions), 1963 (March-May). 1964 and 1971, added up more than 100 fatalities, together with an unknown number of missingpeopleand severe damages to the infrastructure. Thus, laharic flows have been the most risky and recurrent hazard of the Villarrica volcano. The main goal of this article is to summarise what is known about the characteristics of the ahar deposits in the Villarrica volcano on the basis of field observations, especially in the deposits and riverbeds to the north of the volcano, along the Turbio, Pedregoso and Zanjén Seco river systems. Alsothe authors pursued the description of lahar occurrences and the determination of theirnature, possible origin and behaviour.2 MODERN ERUPTION-TRIGGERED DEBRIS FLOWS Reliable chronicles (e.g., Petit-Breuilh and Lobato, 1994) about eruption-triggered lahars in the Villarrica volcano are mainly available since the XX century (Table 1). They include lahars and floods that occurred not only in the northeast drains of the volcano, but also in other radial river systems as Voipir-Molco, Chaillupén, Cofaripe and Palguin (Fig. 1) FIG. 1. Location map of Villarrica volcano and the river network over its flanks RIVERBEDS AND LAHARDEPOSIT CHARACTERISTICS THE TURBIO-PEDREGOSO RIVER SYSTEM Laharic flows generated during the 1971 event along the Turbio-Pedregoso rivers obliterated ancient deposits. However, larger lahar events were preservedas terraces placed higher than those formedin 1971. These deposits crops out 1 km downstream the junction of Turbio and Pucén rivers (Fig. 1), and were driven through the Turbio riverheads under the eastern and more voluminous glacier tongue of the Villarrica volcano. That glacieris situated between the northeastern caldera wall and the frontal glacial till thatis also present above the 1,300m contour. Coarse sediment moraine ridges, up to 20 m high, are the main source for debris flows (Fig. 2). The glacial til has been partially eroded by young lahars on slopes that exceed 0.27 m/m. Debris deposits were left as lahar tails between 1 and 3 m thick over the Holocene lavas that fll the glacial valley at Palguin, Turbio and Pedregoso headwaters, where the stream has gradients of 0.18-0.24 m/m. These tail facies exhibit an increase in the matrix/boulder30 ‘TABLE 1 ERUPTION-TRIGGERED LAHARS AT VILLARRICA VOLCANO DURING THE XX CENTURY. Date Riverbed Main features a Velocity (kun) 1904 Turbio-Pedregoso [Several debris flows. Adam was fomed upstream the juncion of Turbo 7 [ZanjonSeco-Carmeito [and P ucon vers. which collgpsod altor low ours. Lulgens (1808) facie inckeated that along the Tufbio river, thedabris lw completely razedihe bese native lorest covering an approximated area of 15 x 3.8km, describing a alpen ‘3m high wave that lef athe mentioned junction @ 1 m thick ceposit lee blocks wore shed into the Villar lak, ve08 Furbo Pedregoso Tidal marks up to 10 m high were identified in trees along the Pusan 7 [Zanjon Seco (io Pucen) | Wer Correnioso MolooHuichatio chaitupén 1320 rubio Pedregoso No records. 7 Early Molvo-Huichatio December |Voipir Paiguin? 1348-1949 | Turi Pedregoso Laige Wonks and boulders up lo 20 nF wore carried Witnesses told that october. | Zanjén Seco-Carmeito | he water level of the Vilaria lake ose t m, making clear that We total February) | Correnioso discharge was really hh, Moleo Huichatio [crainupén 1968 [Zanion Seco-Cametio | The Diuco Grain was able contain the debris Now fa 1210 1Skm, bul 0 March 2” | Correntoso xm before the mouth it split up and one iird destroyed the western halt ices of Cofaripe (22 fatalities). A maximum tlw section of 3 m high and 250 Bae im wide vith a disc ge of 4,000 108,000 m fs was documented, 1971 Turtio-Pedregose Large turks ard boulders upto 30-40 mwere camed. Estimated 6 (pees lense discharges of 10.000 to 20.000 ms. The totat vaume of sediments and . anjon Seco-Cannesto |NaleF mobiised along the Pu cen mver in atrent pulses during eight 7 Zanion Seco-Carmetio Trours, exceeded 40 x 10'm’.A gam similar fo thal ofthe 1908 event was een: formed. Parteularly voluminous were the flows in Turbic-Pedregaso and Voir Challupen rivers sath waves up io 10 m high that devastated all ondges. The fan delta of the Pucdn «ver in the Vilarsca lake was completly transformed The Carmelito creek channeled reduced volumes of debris lows compared to those & Turk Pedregoss. Chailupén and V oir Fivers. due 10 the efficient sediment depos ion occurred upstream at El Playon (Zann Seco Valley). The 1971 eruption gave Key evidences aout har velooties as the eruption climax was observed. Infact, the right of Oacembar 29 of 1971, a 2km long N10‘E fissure produced a deep chit across the Viarica crater that generated a 400 m high plowing fava fountain. The 50-60 m thick glacier was partly meted ater 50 minutes of actly. Wiggering @ water outburst al 004 0h of the December 39. Lahanc ous reached mean velocities of 36 knvh (irom 90 to 40 krvh, and wore channelized by the Turbio, Zanjon Sevo, [Conenteso, Voip and Chatlupén rivers ratioand occupies the entire 1 km wide valley (Fig. 3). However, where narrow 30m deep cannyons were present. lahars were more erosive than common sediment-rich debris-flows and no-deposition occurred, moreover, substrate lavas and previous deposits were eroded. In the western branch of the Pedregoso river (drain width less than 120 m), below the 450 m contour. exists evidence of wave marks (3106 m above the riverbed) with peak-flow levels indicating flow depths 3 to 4 times greater than the deposit thickness, as boulders of lava (up to2m_ diameter) inaddition toangularclasts (up to m diameter) derived from piecemeal erosion of the steep bedrock walls may have been transported by different lahar pulses during different eruptive events.FIG. 2. Coarse sediment moraine ridges are the main source for the lahar flow at the heads of Pedregoso and Turbio rivers. FIG. 3, Oblique aerial view of the lahar facies along the highest gradient segments of the Pedregoso river. Gradient decreases to 0.018 m/m 1 km upstream of the junction of Turbio and Pedregoso rivers causing an increase in the sediment accumulation. Large clasts migrated towards the debris flow marginsas the velocity was greater in the central channel, forming 4 m high laterallevées (Fig. 4). Asa consequence, the accretion oflarge clasts and reverse-normal gradationis observed inthe levées. The central channel depth was estimated in 8 m, and considering 130 m width for the entire flow, its total section could have been estimated between 800 and 1,000 m*. Blocks of less than 1 m diameter formed more than 20% in volume of the levées, while the deposits left in the channel typically form thin lags with a concentration of the coarser and denser particles in detriment of the matrix. In contrast, at the same altitude the wider Turbio riverbranch has faciesnotably richer in fine sandy matrix. Thus, the larger and denser solid charge of the lahars moved through the Pucén river was mainly transported through the Pedregoso rather than the Turbio river (Fig. 1). The lower segment of the Turbio river corresponds to an alluvial fan and has a gradient of 0.026 mim. Itis characterised by lahar flow deposits of 300 m wide and 2 m thick. However, the 1971 lahar spilled over the river terrace to the west and runned straightforward to the Pucdn’s aerodrome (Figs 1, 5). The Prehistoric facies that dominates here corresponds to hyperconcentrated sediments with scarce floating blocks of 1 to 2.5 m in diameter with very flat tops. A summary of the main characteristics of the riverbeds and lahar debris flows occurred in the Villlarrica volcano during the 1964 and 1971 eruptions is presented in table 2, as itis inferred from witnesses and direct observations at the field. It is evidenced that most of the modern Villarrica lahars have been lower than those of historic eruptions such as Mt. St. Helens in 1980 (Washington USA) and Nevados del Ruiz, in 1985 (Colombia, Voight, 1990). Data correspond to sites nearwhere substantial deposition of debris flows first occurred (after Pierson, 1995),‘An ephemeral dam was formed in the junction of Turbio and Pucén rivers (Fig. 1), causing a momentary discharge decrease. The dam invaded over 800 m upstream rising 10m the water level for 3 to 4 hours. During the dam breakage in the Pucén river, the undercutting of steep slopes from the former fluvial terraces (the northern terrace retreated for 10m) probably was the mostimportant and efficient way in which the lahar eroded and incorporated sediments in this segment. Thus, the entrance of these materials together with the huge amounts of wood incorporated as the flow inundated large areas of forestedterrain, producedan increase of the final lahar volume towards the urban area of Pucén. This rise in the volume occured in spite of the gradient drop (from ~0.037 m/ m to 0.026 m/m) along the lower segment of the Turbio river (> 235 m a.s.l.), and the enlargement. almost three times, the width of the riverbeds. ‘TABLE 2. SUMMARY OFTHE DEBRIS-FLOWS AND CHANNEL SCHARACTERISTICS OF THE VILLARRICA VOLCANO, COMPARED ‘TO SAINT HELENS (1980) ANDNEVADOS DEL RUIZ (1985) VOLCANOES (PIERSON, 1995). eer ‘Channel Peak mean paste Site nd debristows | em | gradient | velocity is Seen releronoe (mim) Viarica Corarret36e ws cm = =| 20002 400_| Conae Tao bride 16 c088 0 =a] 6.000:10,000 | Pucin-Curarehue 19 toa overtone e Tae = “a Too | vile sri Pucin oad ‘chalupén 728 e100 m0 25 a0 | Po 197i Guaco ‘alpen 7s ceo rary “S| oo05 1a 000 [atin ae 1371 Pecegoso 3 oaa6 ~ 3 s7000 | Rnude 7007 700m er Pecegoso ra 88 7 =58 | 7o0070.000 [Ade 40m 480m sor Tube 0058 310 “58 | ~1200520000] Tudo mo sor Pocon ors cen ver Aude 235 m Pucin ver cs cats | 1,500 mas), its maximum width reaches 2km and no deposition is observed due to the high gradient of the heads of both Calabozos creek (eastern branch, 0.38 m/m) and Carmelito creek (western double branch, 0.46 m/m). Along the transitional segment, between 1,500 and 1,000 masi, both gradients decrease to0. 13 m/m and 0.17-0.21 m/m, respectively. This causes that from 1,000 m downwards two branches derived from Calabozos creek to Carmelitocreek, tuning the latterinto the most active riverbed. Both gradients decrease (Calabozos=0.038 m/m; Carmelito= 0.035) below 1,000ma.s.|. The main glacial valley ends at 600m asland splits into different riverbeds following ancient lava lobes (Fig. 6). Figure 6 also shows both the distribution of remnants of debris flow deposits that occurred during the XX century and lahar deposits accumulated during the 1971 event. Thin (< 1 m) easy removable lahar deposits are found between 1,100 and 1,500 m high,characterised by randomly distributed (< 2 m diameter) blocks in a matrix of sand and gravels. Thicker (<2.5-3 m) lobes that cover the entire valley width (1.5 km) are present at 1,100 m, but no wave marks were found. Laharic lobe deposits of 0.5-1 km width were measured at El Playén (1,100-750 ma.s.l., 0.067 m/m gradient), where three debris levels of different events are observed adding up a thickness of 10m. The younger, deposited in 1971, reached up to 2 m, while the middle one (1948) ranged from 2 to 3.5 m thick. Lahar heads of the 1971 flow produced marks in the trees up to 6 m high, roughly 4 times higher than the thickness of the tail deposit (Figs. 7, 8). The sand and fine gravel matrix supported blocks of less than 1 m diameter. The lahar overflowed the previous terraces where abundant 15 m tall trees were placed, with the consequent covering of 2/3 of their trunks (Fig. 8). Discharges of 10,000 to 15,000 m’/s are estimated for the 1971 lahar in this riverbed segment. The FIG. 6. Main lahar paths along the Zanjén Seco-Carmelito valley (A). The last reactivation of the 1971 event is also shown (B).FIG. 7. Lahar's wave (1971 event) momentum must have been high enough to overspill 1S m deep crevasses, leaving up to 4 m high impact marks on tree trunks. FIG. 8. Lahar deposits of 1971 eruption in the western branch of Zanjén Seco valley. The central channel is >60m wide and the flow overspills inundate large areas of forested terrain. flow-section deeps to 50 x 8 m from 500 m contour up to the bottom of the valley, where lavas look ‘scratched and polished by the lahar erosion. Evidences of 400 m wide lahar overflows older than 1944 are exposed at banking curves where blocks < 27 m* were lett, 0.75 km before the Villarrica lake shoreline (Fig. 9). A half km before the lake coast, the Carmelito creek diverges into a eastern branch (Carmelito) and a western main fan where the lahar fel ike a 25m high cascade (Fig. 9). In the Carmelito branch, coarse facies of the 1971 laharare exposed, while a 5 m section formed by three hyperconcentrated units characterised the 1971 fan at the creek mouth. Field evidences indicated that downstream dilution occurred over the course of Zanjén Seco-Carmelito riverbed and caused a complete transformation from debris flow to hyperconcentrated flow at the thalweg. These deposits are better sorted and show a faint stratification, so it is assumed that they accreted during significant time intervals. Sediment remobilisation along the Carmelito fan facies repeatedly occurred after the 1971 eruption in 1973, 1975 and 1976, during heavy winter rainstorms. Tothe eastern partof the Zanjon Seco Valley, older (1908?) and higher energy lahars flows have left boulders (0.3 to2m diameter) spread throughout La Turbina (Pucén) and Calabozo (Agua Grande) creeks (Fig. 6).% FIG, 9. Map showing the main lahar flow paths at the mouth of Carmelito creek. Course evidences of events larger than 1971, as 1908(?) andlor older, are incicated DISCUSSION Inthe Villarrica volcano, field evidences indicate that most lahar deposits appear to be clay-poor (less than 5% clay/sand+silt+clay), thus they are generally induced by sudden water release (Scott, 1988). In addition to the presence of perennial glaciers and snow as water sources, the Villarrica voleano shows steep slopes and an abrupt relief at the summit. On the other hand, the presence of small caldera at ~2,400 m a.s.I., produces a structural slope break, which favours the subglacial accumulation of lavas during effusive eruptions that can form small subglacial lakes. This may eventually break out when a section of the ice cap becomes buoyant, as it was observed in 1971 with the consequent release of the trapped water. Thus, rapidly melted snow and ice are the main triggering mechanism to generate subsequent laharic flows, while the lava emission rate suddenly increases during the eruption turning point (Major and Newhall, 1989) The solid fraction of the Villarrica lahars is mainly supplied by common unconsolidated debris sources of glacial tillthat were left on the volcano flanks. These materials are loose clastic sediments that are easily incorporated to the flux as debris with the consequent generation of alahar flow.On the contrary, ifpeak water-discharge is reached and the amount of sediment available isnot enough a flood would result instead of alahar. For example, during the 1984-1985 eruption no laharic event was produced when lava emission continued for many weeks, but small floods resulted instead3 FIG, 10.Sketch map of the morphological evolution showing the Pucén river delta progradation from 1944 until 1995. Shaded area as reference. The major modifications occurred after the 1948 and 1971 lahars.38 Althoughitcouldbe interpretedas.a consequence of the absence of an eruption climax, the drainage system showed no enough sediment available to form lahars. The laharic deposits relatedto both river systemsare quite different due to their gradient features and flowing behaviours. While the Turbio-Pedregoso riverbeds show remarkable slope breaks, permanent water-flow, and tribute to the Pucon river, the Zanjon Seco creek is commonly dry and discharges straightinto the Villarrica lake. Hence. facies changes due to /ahar dilution normally takes place along the Turbio-Pedregoso-Pucén rivers. As a consequence, a very dynamic fan delta develops in the Villarrica lake, since 1944, after three lahar-generating eruptions in 1948-1949, 1963 and 1971 (Fig. 10) Lava eruptions of the Villarrica volcano have taken place through the main crater or through radial flank fissures. In fact, during the 1984 eruption, the lava emission rate reached only about 20 m/ s (Moreno e¢a/, 1985: Moreno, 1993) and all lava flows poured out from the main crater without a lahar generation. On the contrary, in 1971, a 2 km long N10°E fissure yield two lava fountains with a very high emission rate of ca. 500 m*/s (Moreno, 1993) that produced large volumes of lahars (Marangunic, 1974). The pattern directions of the fissure vents on the volcano flanks depend both on the intemal cone structure and the magma injection together with its pathway to the surface. These variables may dictate possible routes that lavas and lahars will take, and only a slight angle variation of the fissure and its lava fountain will affect one or another riverbed Chronicles of the XX century eruptions in addition to field evidences indicate that lateral or flank fissures occurred in all of them: a. 1908 to the north (Zanjan Seco and Turbio-Pedregoso drainage systems); b. 1948-1949 to the WNW and ESE (Chaillupén, Voipir, Molco. Turbio-Pedregoso, Correntoso, Zanjén Seco riverbeds): ¢. 1963 to the WSW (Zanjén Seco, Huichatio, Chaillupén), d. 1964to the south (Cofaripe, Correntoso, Huichatio, Voipir) ande. 1971 tothe NNE and SSW (Turbio- Pedregoso, Zanjén Seco, Correntoso, Voipir, Chaillupén) (Fig. 1). Hence, during future eruptions the volume and discharge of laharic ows together with theirhazard scenario would be highly dependent on the fissure and lava fountain direction. CONCLUSIONS Laharic flows descending along the Turbio-Pedregoso and Zanjon Seco River systems are the main Villartica’s volcanic hazard that threatens Pucon town. The course of the lahars will strongly depend on the direction that emitted lava will take during the eruption climax, together with its magnitude in terms of effusion rate and discharge. The directions that take the erupting fissures that cross the crater increase the hazard problem definition. The probability thata lahar could take the Turbio-Pedregoso river or Zanjon Seco creek will depend on a NW or a NNW fissure eruption, respectively. The resulting scenario could vary from a catastrophic to a small effect in Pucon. The uncertainty to determine the hazard degree comes from allthe riverbeds that drain the Villarrica volcano, until the turing pointof an effusive eruptionis reached ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FONDECYT GRANT No. 1247 (HM) support the field work at the Villarrica volcano. Reviews of L. E. Lara and D. Welkner greatly improved the text and its conclusions.98 Magmatic evolution of the Villarrica Volcano Rosemary Hickey-Vargas Department of Earth Sciences, Florida International Universi, Miami, USA hickey @fiv ed Leopoldo LopezEscobar Universidas'de Concepcion, Concepeion. Chile lopez @ udec el Hugo MorenoR, Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Minera, P.O. Box 28-0, Temuco. moreno sernageomin.c! Jorge ClaveroR Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Av. Santa Maria 0104. Santiago. Chile Inaranjo@semageorin c Luis Lara. Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, P.O. Box 23-0, Temuco timoreno @semageomin.e Murong Sun Florida international University, Miami, USA ABSTRACT Voleanic rocks from Villarrica volcano have been studied using a broader array of pettologic and ‘geochemical tools than any other SVZ volcano, Results to date show that magmas erupted at this centre evolve through polybaric crystallization of olivine and plagioclase from hydrous basaltic magma, yielding basaltic andesite and low-SiO, andesite differentiates. Geochemical evidence for assimilation of crust is minimal at Villarrica volcano, however, assimilation of chemically related volcanic and plutonic wallrocks and mixing with silicic differentiates trom within the same magmatic system are suggested by U-series data for Villarrica basaltic andesite, which are closer to isotopic equilibrium than basalt. Magma generation occurred by tlux- ‘melting of the mantle wedge with a significant contribution of elements transported in fluids derived from the subducted crust. The subduction input is indicated by high "Be/*Be, high B/Be, °U2"Th and *Ra/™"Th These values are higher in Villarrica basalts than in those from any other SVZ volcanic centre. INTRODUCTION Villarrica voleano is one of the most well-characterised volanoes of the Central Southern Volcanic Zone with respect to its magmatic evolution. Over the past 15 years, a number of papers has described the compositions of magmas erupted at Villarrica volcano, and the relationship between these magma compositions and those erupted at nearby small eruptive centres and the Villarrica-Lanin cross-chain (Hickey-Vargas efa/, 1989: Lopez-Escobar and Moreno, 1994: Moreno etal, 1994a; Lopez-Escobar efa/, 1995; Clavero, 1996; Sun, 2001). Villarrica volcanois also one of the most frequently studied SVZ volcanoes for the purpose of elucidating subduction zone processes. Four papers have used Villarrica as a type’ composition to characterise the SVZ subduction system and subduction zone magmatism generally (Sigmarsson ef a/, 1990: Morris e/.a/, 1990: Hickey- Vargas eta/., 2002; Sigmarsson eta/, 2002). in this report the authors review the magmatic evolution of Villarrica volcano, first from the ‘standpoint of magma chamber and crustal processes and, second, from the point of view of magma formation by melting and manile wedge processes.0 MAJOR ELEMENT VARIATION AND VOLCANIC CHRONOLOGY The volcanic stratigraphy of the Villatrica volcano was describedin detail inLopez-Escobar etal, 1984) and subsequently refined by Moreno (1993). Moreno ef a/ (1994a), Clavero and Moreno (1994) and work in progress by the coauthors. Three volcanic units are identified: Villarrica 3 (from 3,700 yrBP, including historic eruptions of 1948, 1964, 1971 and 1984), Villarrica 2 (14,000-3,700 ytBP), which encompasses postglacial lavas and pyrociastics that culminated with the development of a2 km wide caldera that forms the base of the currently active cone. and Villarrica 1 (>14,000 yBP), which includes interglacial lavas and pyroclastics that precede the development of a 6 km diameter caldera that forms the E-SE flank of the volcano. Ages for the units are defined by "C dates for charcoal found in deposits of the Lican and Pucon Ignimbrites (Moreno ef a/, 1994a; Clavero and Moreno, 1994) Petrologic and geochemical data for the volcanic products of Villarrica have been reported by Hickey-Vargas ef a/ (1989); Lopez-Escobar and Moreno (1994). Clavero (1996) and Sun (2001). Major element geochemical data forlavas and pyroclastics compiled from these sourcesare shown in figure 1. Overall, the three units exhibit a similar chemical and petrologic variation, with a few significant differences. All units include products in the range basalt to basaltic andesite (50-54% SiO,). Basaltic andesite and low-SiO, andesite with >54% SiO, is rare among Villarrica 1 and 3 products, whereas Villarrica 2 has more abundant basaltic andesite and andesite, and rhyolite is associated with the late caldera-forming stage of Villarrica 1. Phenocryst minerals are plagioclase andolivinein basalts and basaltic andesites. and plagioclase and clinopyroxene in andesite. together with accessory magnetite. On variation diagrams. all three units show decreasing MgO, Al,O, and CaO withincreasing SiO, , and increasing Na,O and K,O. These changesate broadly consistentwith crystallization of the observed phenocryst phases. For example, Hickey-Vargas ef a/. (1989) modeled crystallization of a Villarrica 2 basaltic andesite (55% SiO,) from basalt (52% SiO,) by 33% crystallization of an assemblage consisting of 17% olivine, 55% plagioclase, 24% clinopyroxene, and 4% magnetite. Newer data (Fig. 1) show that many basaltic andesites and andesites from Villarrica 2 have higher Fe,O, (>11% Fe,0,) than the majority of basalts and basalticandesites from this and other units, This type of andesite requires a somewhat different origin, including lower /O, conditions to suppress magnetite crystallization. MAGMA CHAMBER PROCESSES Villarrica basalts and basaltic andesites are plagioclase and olivine phyric, with plagioclase phenocryst contents ranging from 5% to more than 30%. Based on major element trends. Hickey- Vargas ef al. (1989) interpreted that basalts with the highest Al,O, contents (>18%) contained ‘excess’ plagioclase crystals that accumulated by either floating, or by crystal entrainment during magma ascentand eruption. Lopez-Escobar and Moreno (1994) observed that high Al,O,/CaO ratios were associated with products of Villarrica’s most explosive pyroclastic eruptions. in general, the origin of very high Al basalts a significant puzzle for petrologists what focused on subduction zone magmatism (e.g.. Plank and Langmuir, 1988). Alternative explanations are that: 1) the abundant feldspars are accumulative, even xenocrystals. so, the whole rock analyses do not reflect a liquid composition, or 2) plagioclase crystallization is suppressed by moderate/high pressure, high PH o crystallization, increasing the Al,O, contents of the liquid, followed by plagioclase crystallization when the magma ascends to shallow depths and degasses." The best approach to resolving this issue is through examination of mineral chemistry. and ideally, the changing volatile contents of the magma. Sun (2001) analysed phenocrysts from 3 Villarrica basalts/basaltic andesites with SiO, <53% and MgO contents >6% (Fig. 2). Basalt with relatively sparse phenocrysts have a bimodal distribution of plagioclase core compositions centred at An... and An,,.,,. A highly phyric (30% phenocrysts) basalt analyzed for oxygen isotopes by Hickey-Vargas ef a/ (1989) (Fig. 2) also has some An-rich cores, but the largest proportion of plagioclase crystals have cores with An,,, .,. Bimodal phenocryst populations may indicate mixing of mafic and evolved magma, however, in this case, mixing is not consistent with the exclusively basaltic composition of the rocks or their high phenocryst content. It is more likely that the two. generations of feldspars reflect polybaric crystallization, one stage at depth, under high Pro conditions, and a second stage near the surface. where loss of water causes feldspar saturation and reduced An contents. Since An-rich cores ate common, most erupted basaltic magmas apparently undergo the first stage of crystallization, whereas the second stage can be by-passed in some cases or extended in others. During the second stage, impediments to degassing could result in the explosive behavior noted by Lépez-Escobar and Moreno (1994) as well as the correlation with high Al,O, contents. oT 20081 (Scar eine Jac21 vance sors 20, Fa moisine FIG. 2. Plagioclase and olivine composi tions in three Villartica basaltic andesites with dffenng phenocryst S802 SiO: contents: 210281-1 (1971 flow) FIG. 1. Variation of major element oxides versusSiO, for the volcanic 8% phenocrysts, 280976-1 (L21} Units ofthe Vilarrica volcano. Data from Hickey-Vargas ef 14% phenocrysts, 190281-1 (V2- (1989) and unpublished data trom Moreno (1993) 10-30% phenoerysts,2 ROLE OF THE CRUST One of the most widely debated questions about SVZ magmatism is the importance of the crust inchanging the composition of mantle-derived magma (¢.g., Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988). Aprimary issue is whether the absence of typical indicators of crustal contamination in a volcanic suite indicates a low extent of crustal involvement, or that the assimilated crust was chemically similar to magma. In the central SVZ, chemically similar crust could be the numerous Miocene granitoid plutons underlying active volcanic belt, voleanicand plutonic products of Quaternary volcanism, and even partially solidified portions of the active sub-volcanic magmatic system. Older basement rocks for Villarrica include Mesozoic and Paleozoic granitoids exposed at its base, and Paleozoic subduction-related metamorphic rocks that hosted these intrusions. Most geochemical indicators of assimilation of old sialic crust are absent from Villarrica volcanic rocks. For example, *Sri®Sr ratios are low and uncorrelated with bulk composition, even for the unusual rhyolite composition. 5°*O ratios are 6.1-6.2% in plagioclase in basalts and 5.8% for the rhyolite whole rock (Hickey- Vargas efa/, 1989). These values are mantle like. andthe relatively high value for the rhyolite mitigates against partial melting of plutonic or volcanic rocks altered by meteoric water asa potential origin (e.g., Grunder, 1987). Perhaps the only indication of contamination by pre- Cenozoic crustis "”Os/""Os measured in one Villarrica basalt that are slightly elevated compared with MORB values (Chesley, personal communication). These values couldindicate assimilation of ancient crust at depth, or alternatively, subduction mobilization of Os within the mantle wedge. Trace element discriminants have been proposed to test for assimilation by young, chemically similar crust. For example, McMillan efa/, (1989) and Dungan eff (2002) propose it that changes in ratios of highly incompatible elements, like K/Rb, Rb/Ba and Rb/La in a differentiated sequence may be a good indicator of crustal assimilation. For the Villarrica suite, Hickey-Vargas e¢a/. (1989) argued that changes in these ratios from basalt to rhyolite could be caused by changing and increasing bulk partition coefficients with increasing SiO, content. Although this hypothesisis borne outby crystal chemical arguments, ithas never been tested directly. Variations between basaltand andesite were modeled by mixing of basaltic andesite and rhyolite. The current, larger dataset (Fig 3) exhibits a larger range of K/Rb ratios than the smaller set modeled by Hickey-Vargas ef@/ (1989). However, like the earlier data set, the widest range of K/Rb ratios is found at the matic end of the series, with less variation among intermediate to silicic rocks. In general, therefore. such trace element tests can be useful when changes are correlated with bulk composition. but variations 0 ao ~ o ‘Villarica S BVillrrica 2 avitaricat | Flank eruptions. K/Rb | FIG. 9, K/Rb versus SiO, for the volcanic units of the Villarrica Ca 6 voleano, Data sources as in SiOz figure 18 among basaltic end-members can complicate their interpretation. Current views of the nature of magma storage in the crust encompass a variety of assimilation processes that have little impact on long-lived isotopes, such as assimilation of petrogenetically- related wallrock and mixing of newly intruded basaltic magma with highly differentiated liquids produced over time in the same magmatic system. in these cases, an effective indicator of contamination can be the activity ratios of short-lived radioisotopes, like 2 Th/*Th or °Ra/2"Th, which tend toward isotopic equilibrium with time, Sun (2001) measured U-series isotopes for one Villarrica matic basaltic andesite (52.6% SiO,), and two higher silica basaltic andesites (55-56% SiO, from Villarrica volcano. The more silicic samples plot closer to equilibrium values (the equiline. Fig. 4) than the mafic sample, which is consistent with mixing of basaltic magma with silicic differentiates from older parts of the system, or with magmatic assimilation of chemically-related silicic voleanic or plutonic wallrocks. This pattem of decreasing activity with increasing SiO, is widely observed among basaltic andintermediatesilicic rocks in subduction settings (Reagan efa/, 2003) which suggests that assimilation of the older products of the same magmatic system is a common process in both continental and oceanic arcs. ea 4 to sobae ‘ & E we § orten woo FO Sve P| Sees Pree 5 as 06 08 10 12 =The=Th FIG. 4. (a) Th*Th versus**U/*Th (a) and (b) "Ber Be versus B/Be for matic and high-silica basaltic andesites from the Villarrica volcano, and other SVZ volcanic centres. Villarrica samples are indicaled by the unit and SiO. Content. Data from Sigmarsson e/ a/ (1990), Mortis er a/ (1990); Sun (2001), Hickey-Vargas ef a/ (2002) land Sigmarsson ef af, (2002). INFERENCES ABOUT MANTLE MELTING AND SUBDUCTION INPUTS. Like most subduction related volcanic rocks, the products of the Villarrica volcano are depleted in Nb and Ta relative to REE (rare earth elements) and enriched in LILE (large ion \ithophile elements) relative to LREE (light REE) (Fig. 5). In the continuum of magma compositions observed in arcs. Villarrica basalts are geochemically indistinguishable from those of oceanic island ares (e.g. Hawkesworth ef a/, 1993), As discussed by Sigmarsson e¢a/ (1990); Morris ef.a/ (1990): Hickey- Vargas eta/.(2002) and Sigmarsson e/a/ (2002), Villarrica basalts have detectible ""Be contents (Fig 4), which indicates that Be derived from subducted youngpelagic Nazca plate sedimentis incorporated into their mantle wedge sources, and the primary magmas derived by melting of those sources. °U/ *=Thand**Ra/*"Th ratiosin Villarrica basalts are high. which indicates that excess™°U and"Rahave recently been added to the sources of the magmas, in the case of Ra, within a few thousand years4“ prior to magma eruption. Current models of magma generation in ares are that basalt and sediment of the subducted crust devolatilize and melt (sediment), and that hydrous fluids induce flux-melting of the peridotite mantle wedge (¢.g., Plankand Langmuir, 1998). For Villarrica, mass balance estimates based on the isotopic composition of Nd and Th in Villarrica basalt, indicate that only 36% of the Nd and 10% of the Th is derived from the presubduction mantle wedge. and that 38% of the Nd and 68% of the Th is derived from subducted sediment (Sun, 2001; Hickey-Vargas ef af. 2002) Based on correlated B/Be, ""Be/"Be and 2"U/"Th ratios in volcanic rocks from several SVZ volcanoes, including Villarrica, Morris efa/ (1990) and Sigmarsson e¢a/ (1990) suggested that the composition of slab-derived fluids added to the mantle wedge was remarkably uniform along the length of the SVZ, but variedin its amount at different volcanic centres. This correlation was shown toextendto***Ra/*"Th by Sigmarsson efa/ (2002). Basalts from Villarrica, together with basalt from Osorno, define the high B/Be. high '°Be/Be, high “°U/Th, high “*Ra/Th end of the correlation line. According to Sigmarsson efa/. (2002), this observation indicates thatthe amount of sediment- derived fluid added to the sources of these centres is greater than at others. An altemative interpretation proposed by Hickey-Vargas efa/. (2002) is that the subduction-derived components at Villarrica and similar centres have the shortest mantle and crustal residence times. Prolonged contact of magma with Band "Be poor mantle and crust, combined with decay of U-series isotopes overtime, resuitin the lower values foundat other SVZ centres, particularly those with more abundant intermediate to silicic volcanic products. More thorough study of these chemical parameters at well- characterised volcanic centres is needed to resolve these competing ideas. 100 Rock/Primitive mantle GBR BRUT KL GR RF BN Inz HE GD OU Y be YW FIG, 5. Primitive mantie normauisea trace element aounaance patierns for > voicanic rocks trom tne vuiarnica volcano, Normalizing values are trom the GERM website: hitp:/earthref.org/GERM. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Work accumulated over the past 15 years shows that the Villarrica volcano exhibits qualities that make it particularly useful for further study, using newly emerging approaches and geochemical tools. Studies of phenocryst texture and chemistry, together with magmatic volatile contents determined from melt inclusions, can help to clarify the origin of high Al basalts. the origin of basalticandesites and andesites, and the reasons for explosive volcanism. Study of phenocryst trace element contents can help to distinguish the effects of cryptic crustal contamination and crystallisation with changing partition coefficients. The strong signal of subduction indicators in Villarrica volcano basalts, coupled with a small crustal signal and frequent recent eruption, make itone of the best SVZ centres for examining and quantifying subduction zone fluxes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS R. Hickey-Vargas and M. Sun gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grant EAR 9725366. Chilean researchers are indebted to Fondecyt grants No. 1911247, 1930992, 1831019.46 Magma degassing at Villarrica Volcano Jeffrey B. Witter Deparment of Earth and Space Sciences. University ol Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA ‘mil_98103yah00.com Eliza. Calder Volcano Dynamics Group. Department o! Earth Sciences, The Opon University Milton Keynes, MK 2UN, U.K. ES Calder@open ac.uk ABSTRACT Villartica voleano has been characterised by continuous, open-vent, passive degassing from a summit lava lake, with negligible eruption of magmatic material, from the end of the last eruption in 1985 to the time. of writing, In 2000, the emission rate of SO, at Villarrica volcano was measured as 2431155 ton/day SO, In 2001, the emission rates of SO,, HCI, and HF at Villarrica voleano were measured as: 4644259 ton/day SO,, 102442 ton/day HCI, and 13#3 tons/day HF. Diffuse degassing of CO, on the flanks of the volcano was negligible. The authors used a variety of methods to constrain volatile emissions including: correlation spectrometry (COSPEC and FLYSPEC), filter packs, anda soil gas flux survey. By combining the measured gas emission rates with data on the pre-eruptive volatile content of the Villarrica magma, we found that, on average. ~2.2 m! of magma is degassed per second (or ~5800 kg/sec). The authors interpret their volatile flux measurements to represent the current baseline level of volcanic gas emission at Villarrica volcano. Future measurements of gas flux at Villarrica volcano can be compared with this baseline level to assess changes in the level of activity at the volcano. INTRODUCTION Villarrica volcano is notable in that it has persistently degassed from an active lava lake in its ‘summit crater from the end of the last eruption in 1985, and continues to do so now (Nov. 2003), a period of 18 years. During this time, eruption of magmatic material has been negligible. In this chapter, the authors describe the methods used to quantify gas emissions at Villarrica volcano, give results for the current lux of acid gases (SO,, HCI. and HF) and present calculations of the degassing rate of Villarrica magma. As far as the authors can determine, these are the first successful measurements of gas emissions at Villarrica volcano to be published. Indeed, results of gas flux measurements have been published for only a handful of Chilean volcanoes (@.g., Lonquimay and Lascar, Andres e//, 1991). At present, gas emission measurements at Villarrica volcano are not made on regular or ongoing basis. A continuous volcanic gas study program at Villarrica volcano would be a fruitful avenue of research and a valuable too! for volcano monitoringa GAS FLUX MEASUREMENT METHODS, CORRELATION SPECTROMETRY (COSPEC) Sulfur dioxide emission rates were measured using a correlation spectrometer (COSPEC; Stoiber and Jepsen, 1973; Stoiber ef a/, 1983). The COSPEC contains an ultraviolet spectrometer that measures the concentration-path length of SO, (in units of ppm-m) ina vertical column of atmosphere above the instrument upwardly-pointing telescope. The COSPEC is driven or flown beneath, and foughly perpendicularto, the downwind direction of the gasplume. The concentration-path length of SO, is integrated across the width of the gas plume, and multiplied by the wind velocity and a conversion factor to put the gas flux in units of ton/day SO,. A trigonometric correction is made for portions of the transect that are not perpendicular to the gas plume The largest source of errorin COSPEC measurements is in estimating wind velocity. The authors. used three methods to estimate wind velocity. 1. The same day that ground-based COSPEC measurements were made, they measured wind velocity at the summit of Villarrica volcano using ahand-held anemometer. 2. During airbome COSPEC traverses, wind data were obtained from in- flight GPS as wells by differencing the upwind and downwind groundspeed and dividing by two. This method had the advantage of being a direct measurement of wind velocity at the same altitude as the gas plume. 3. We supplemented their wind velocity measurements with winds aloft forecasts for 9,000 foot elevation obtained from the meteorological division of the Temuco airport. Errors in the SO, emission rate associated with COSPEC data collection and reduction are estimatedto be ~20% relative In the year 2000, COSPEC measurements were made between January 29 and June 1. They performed a total of sixty-three COSPEC traverses of the gas plume over the course of 14 survey days using both airborne (17 traverses) and ground-based (46 traverses) methods. Inthe year 2001, COSPEC measurements were made between January 15 and February 2. They made twenty-five COSPEC traverses of the gas plume over the course of 4 days during the study period using only ground-basedmethods, CORRELATION SPECTROMETRY (FLYSPEC) ‘SO, emissions were also measured at Villarrica using FLYSPEC; anew-generation, miniature UV spectrometer developed for field use at the University of Hawali (Horton ef a/. in press). The instrument comprises a correlation spectrometer (USB 2000) with a small telescope that measures the concentration-path length of SO, (in units of ppm-m) in the atmosphere in a similar fashion to COSPEC. Power for the spectrometer is supplied through a mini-notebook computer additionally equipped with a GPS. The retrieval method (described in Horton e/ /.. in press) benefits from real- time comparison of reference tobackground spectrum to measured spectra, The software allows for real-time display of the detected UV spectrum, calculation of the spectral absorbance and gas concentration-pathlength values in ppm-m, and corresponding GPS position and time High-resolution time series SO, concentration measurements were made at Villarrica crater on December 16 and 17, 2002. Data were acquired for a total of 6, approximately one-hour scans undertaken between 1330.and 1630LT (00:00 UTM) on December 16 and 17, 2002 and between 1230 and 1530LT (00:00 UTM) on December 17.2002, During this period, the height of the lava lake within the crater was low (> 200 m lower than crater | rim) and beyond the field of view. However, continuous.8 gas puffing and audible explosions occurred with occasional events sending incandescent spatter into view. FLYSPEC was deployed in the static mode, mounted on a tripod located 50 m NW of the crater rim (2862 ma.s.|.). The instrument was set ata low angle targeting the plume center-point ~ 200 mabovetthe ventas volcanic gas buoyed out of the crater and was blown eastwards (away from the instrument). This method differs from the COSPEC surveys in that it does not acquire data for a complete transect of the plume, and thus SO, flux data (ton/day) cannot be obtained (although FLYSPEC can be used in a manor to achieve this). Instead, high-resolution time series concentrations are acquired for a stationary point through which the centerline of the plume passes. This allows a detailed quantification of how the gas plume concentration varies over short time scales, and indeed can record the ‘puffing’thatis often visible characteristic of the Villarrica volcano gas plume. Constraining, short term variations in this manner isimportant in understanding the significance of the variation in the sparse COSPEC data and also. when used in combination with other geophysical parameters, can provide insightful information on conduit dynamics (Calder ef af, in prep.) DIFFUSE DEGASSING OF CO, The authors measured CO, gas flux through soil to test for diffuse degassing on the flanks of Villartica using an instrument manufactured by West Systems of Pisa. Italy on loan from J. Rogie (USGS. Menlo Park). The instrument consists of an accumulation chamber connected througha pump and tubingtoa Drager infrared gas analyser. The instrumentmeasures CO, fluxin.units of ppmis, which is then multiplied by the molecular weight of CO, and corrected for ambient pressure and temperature conditions. Accounting for the volume and footprint (area) of the accumulation chamber, the CO, flux is converted to units of g/m*day. Details of this technique are outlined in Evans ef af (2001). FILTER PACKS, The authors used filter packs in 2001 to measure the relative concentrations of acid gases (S, Cl, and F) in Villarrica voleano gas plume. The filter pack method they employed (developed by P Deimelie. Département. des Sciences du Sol, Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium) collects trace gases in the atmosphere using impregnated filters. It is analogous to gas filtration methods used at Masaya (Stoiber e/a/, 1986); Erebus (Zreda-Gostynska e/a/, 1993), and Etna (Pennisi and LeCloarec, 1998). The authors collected samples of gases using filter packs while standing in Villarrica volcano gas plume on the rim of the actively degassing summit crater. The filter pack instrument consists of a small vacuum pump which sucks the ambient gases (a mixture of atmosphericair and volcanic gases) througha series of three paper filters (Whatman 2.2cm diameter ashless Grade 42 filters) each impregnated witha saturated sodium bicarbonate solution. The gases are pre-filtered with a 10 um Teflon mesh to minimize intake of airborne ash particles. Total filtration time varied from 3 to 46. minutes. Filtration time was chosen so that nearly all of the acid gases were absorbed by the first two filters in the filter stack. Relative concentrations of the acid gas species (SO,, Cl, and F) absorbed onto the filter paper were obtained by ion chromatography at Département des Sciences du Sol, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Belgium (P, Deimelle, analyst) Twenty-three gas measurements were made using filter packs over the course of eight summit days. They authors also sampled acid gas ratios from the Villarrica gas plume using volatile traps (small buckets containing a KOH solution placed on the rim of the degassing crater) but we found the filter pack technique was much less labor intensive and gave superior results.® RESULTS COsPEC Inthe year2000, COSPEC measurements yielded an overall average (#16) SO, flux of 243+155 tons/day SO, (Witter e/4/, 2004). In2001, COSPEC measurements yielded an overall average (10) SO, flux of 464259 tons/day SO, (Witter ef@/, 2004). individual measurements and daily averages of COSPEC traverses are shown in table 1. The overall average SO, flux in 2001 is greater than, but within, the 1 variation of the overall average SO, flux measured in 2000, which may suggest SO, flux at Villarrica does not change significantly on an annual basis. The highest values obtained for each year are also relatively consistent (Fig. 1), indicating that the variation in the yearly averages. to some extent may be an artifact of survey frequency. Furthermore. considering the ~20% relative errorinherentto the COSPEC method, the daily to weekly variationsin SO, flux measured at Villarrica volcano during 2000 and 2001 (Fig. 1; Table 1) are real. Variations of this magnitude are not unusual fora volcano of this type. For comparison, Mather ef. (2004) measured an SO, flux of ~350 tons/ day at Villarrica volcano in February 2003 using Differential Optical Abosorption Spectrometry {DOAS). In addition, two COSPEC surveys from neighboring Liaima volcano on April 14 and 12, 2000 gave average SO, fluxes of 642 and 597 ton/day. respectively (E.S. Calder, unpublished data). 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Jani Mar Mayi—Jun/30Aug/30_—Ocv29.—«(Deci29_—«Feb/28 Fe000—> 2001 > Date SO, Flux (bday) FIG. 1. SO, flux data for each of the COSPEC traverses conducted at Villarica during the period 29, January 2000 to February 2 . 2001. Individual runs (open diamonds) and daily averages (filed diamonds) for each survey day are plotted FLYSPEC High resolution time series SO, concentration-pathlength results (ppm-m)and corresponding UTM time are shown in figure 2. The complete scans for each day (Fig. 2a and c) show SO, concentration variations between a few 10's to over 2000 ppm-m. Two periods with expanded time axes (Fig. 2b and d), show gas plume ‘puffing’, which is considered to be related to the ascent of large gas slugs in the conduit (Calder e¢2/, in prep.). From this data, itis evident that puffing episodes can vary in time-scales (from 40 to 72 second intervals between puffs) and magnitude (from an average of 500 to 1500 ppm-m). Periods where degassing seems to occur more continuously also exist.