Early 20th century

The abolition of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 raised hopes that the colonies would be granted self-determination. However this proposal was withheld and this led to the emergence of a concrete freedom movement.[5] Lus de Menezes Bragana founded the first Portuguese language newspaper in Goa, the O Heraldo which was critical of Portuguese colonial rule.[6] In 1917, the "Carta Organica" law was passed under which all civil liberties were curtailed. The Portuguese government in Goa practiced fascist repression of civil liberties which included press censorship. Any printed word - even invitation cards - had to be submitted for precensorship. If any newspaper disobeyed this order, the Governor was empowered without any reference to the judiciary, to suspend the newspaper, close down the printing press and impose heavy fines. Newspapers and periodicals were permitted to function only as publicity for the government.[7] Menezes Braganza organized a rally in Margao denouncing the law. For some time, the Goans received the same rights as mainland Portuguese.[8] The Portuguese Patriarch of the Catholic Church in Goa issued approximately 60 official letters addressed to the priests of the Archdiocese instructing them to preach to their congregations that salvation lay with the Portuguese and in dissociating themselves from cultural-political relationship with the rest of India.[9]

1920 - 1940
In 1928, T.B. Cunha founded the Goa National Congress. At the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress the Goa Congress Committee received recognition and representation in the All-India Congress Committee.[10] In May 1930, Portugal passed the "Acto Colonial" (Colonial Act) which restricted political rallies and meetings. Goa was again relegated to the status of a colony. Compulsory conscription was introduced in Portuguese India. This added to the resentment in Goa.[8][10] The Portuguese Government pressured the Indian National Congress to disaffiliate the National Congress (Goa). The Goans in Bombay city formed the Provisional Goa Congress in 1938.[10]

1940s
By the 1940s, the movement had gained steam, taking cue from the Indian independence movement which had entered its crucial phase. In 1946, the British announced their intention to grant India independence. This boosted the efforts of the counterparts in Goa. With Independence finally in sight, Indian leaders also turned their attention to the freedom movements in Portuguese India and French India. T.B. Cunha was arrested in 1946. A.G. Tendulkar became the president of the Goa Congress and organized a meeting in Londa (outside Goa).[10] On 18 May 1946 Ram Manohar Lohia held a demonstration in Margao, despite being threatened at gunpoint. He was arrested and this motivated the people to hold large-scale protests. About 1500 people were arrested and incarcerated.[5] Goan leaders like T.B. Cunha, Purushottam Kakodkar and Laxmikant Bhembre were deported to Portugal.[8] From October to November 1946, a series of Satyagrahas were held in Goa. Many of the leaders were arrested and the movement died down. The Goa Congress began operating from Bombay[6] This period also saw the creation of new political parties, each having a different agenda about where the allegiance of the people of Goa lay. While one party called for Goa's merger with Maharashtra post liberation, another harked back to its links with the South. Other supported an independent Goa and one group pursued the idea of autonomy within Portuguese rule.[10]

Sensing that the various identifications would harm the cause of Goa's freedom Gandhiji suggested that all should unite for the cause of civil liberties. Responding to this call, in June 1947 all Goan political parties met in Bombay and requested the Portuguese government to Quit India. The Goan leadership felt that with Britain on its way out of India, the Portuguese would soon follow. However on 3 August, Lohia said that Goa's freedom would not coincide with India's and that the Goans would have to continue their struggle, not just for civil liberties but for freedom itself.[10] The failure to see Goa liberated along with India and the mixed signals from the new leadership in New Delhi; along with harsh repression by the Portuguese led to a temporary lull in the movement. The partition of India and the war between India and Pakistan forced the Indian leadership to turn attention away from Portuguese and French colonies.[10] During this time, a separate demand for independence was being raised by Dr. Froilano de Mello, a prominent Goan microbiologist and MP in the Portuguese National Assembly. de Mello sought independence for Goa, Daman and Diu as a separate entity, but within the framework of a Portuguese Commonwealth, similar to the British Commonwealth.[11]

Demand for Autonomy

There were periodic demands for autonomy for Portuguese India either as a permanent settlement or as a step towards eventual freedom. In July 1946, a public meeting was held which openly petitioned the Salazar administration to grant autonomy to the Estado da India. The meeting was presided by Jos Incio de Loyola. A committee formed by Uday Bhembre was proposed to pursue autonomy. Their attempts failed to get any response from the Portuguese administration. The last such demand for autonomy was made by Purushottam Kakodkar in early 1961.[12] [edit]Diplomatic efforts In December 1947, Independent India and Portugal established diplomatic ties. In January 1948, the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru met the Portuguese Consul and raised the issue of Goa's integration into the Indian Union. The Portuguese were unwilling to negotiate as they had no desire to leave their colonies. In 1948 the freedom movement came to a near standstill.[10] In January 1953 the government of India sought to negotiate with Portugal on the issue of its territories in India through the Indian Delegation in Portugal. The Indian government offered a direct transfer but the Portuguese refused. Diplomatic relations deteriorated. on 11 June 1953 the Indian Delegation in Lisbon was closed down[6] and ties were formally severed.In July Nehru openly stated that the Indian government's position: the French and Portuguese Possessions in India should be integrated into larger India.[10] Subsequently India made many efforts to persuade the Portuguese to leave peacefully through the UN.[5]

Revolutionary Groups
A revolutionary group called Azad Gomantak Dal was formed which vowed to fight the Portuguese by any means. They carried out raids on police stations and factories and ambushed patrols; attached troops stationed at the border and blew up ammunition dumps. In response the Portuguese increased their military presence by bringing in white and African troops[citation needed]. Another group was the Goa Liberation Army founded by Shivajirao Govindrao Desai.[5] [6]

1953 onwards: Intensification of Satyagraha movement

In order to co-ordinate the various liberation groups working independently in Bombay , Dr. T.B. Cunha formed the Goa Action Committee in 1953. A number of Goans and non-Goans came forward to offer Satyagraha.[6] In Goa the freedom movement took two distinct forms. The National Congress Goa directed a peaceful satyagraha while the Azad Gomantak Dal spearheaded violent methods. On 15 August 1954 a huge satyagraha was begun . The authorities arrested and beat many.[5] P.D. Gaitonde

was arrested for publicly protesting the Portuguese stand the Goa belonged to Portugal in perpetuity.[10] A year later another protest was organized on the same date, this time, including a large number of Indians from outside Goa. About 3000 protesters including women and children entered Goa through various points on the border. The security forces baton charged them or opened fire resulting in a few deaths and hundreds injured.[5] The Indian government did not react to the situation because Portugal was now part of NATO. NATO member nations had a pact to protect each other in case any of them was attacked. Although the treaty did not cover colonies, Portugal's stand that its overseas possessions were not colonies but an integral part of the Nation of Portugal itself. India had to act cautiously and diplomatically if it didn't want to run the risk of NATO forces being involved in Goa.[10] In 1954 the Goa Vimochan Sahayak Samiti (All-Party Goa Liberation Committee)was formed to continue the civil disobedience movement and provide financial and political help to the Satyagrahis. The Maharashtra and Gujarat chapters of the Praja Socialist Party assisted them with the intention that Goa would be merged into Maharashtra. These parties organized several satyagrahas in 1954-55.[10] The Portuguese government charged India with violation of it territorial sovereignty due to the Satyagrahas and appealed to various international powers; forcing Nehru to announce that India disapproved of the Satyagrahas.[10] This stopped the impact of the Satyagraha. A group of satyagrahis planned to cross the border at Terekhol fort , but very few of the expected 500-odd Satyagrahis turned up. The small band managed to seize the fort but the Portuguese recaptured it the next day. The freedom movement lost its momentum with the exception of small satyagrahas and the activities of the All-Goa Political Party Committee.[10] On June 18, 1954 , some Satyagrahis from India managed to infiltrate Goa and hoist the Indian flag there. The demonstrators and suspected sympathizers were arrested. Dr. Gaitonde and Shriyut Deshpande were deported to Portugal.[8]

Liberation of Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Main article: Liberation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli The United Front of Goans, led by Francis Mascarenhas drove out the Portuguese from Dadra; a small landlocked enclave bordering Nagar Haveli; on 21 July 1954. A group of volunteers of National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO), Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Azad Gomantak Dal commenced an attack on the larger enclave of Nagar Haveli on 28 July 1954 and liberated it on 2 August.[13] India did not assimilate these enclaves immediately and they existed as a de-facto independent body, administered by the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The liberation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli gave the dormant Goa liberation movement an impetus. [6] On August 15, 1954, mass Satyagrahas were launched where hundreds of people from all over India entered Goa, defying a ban by the Indian Government. The Portuguese killed many Satyagrahis and injured hundreds.[8] In 1955 the Satyagrahas continued and the Portuguese replied with brutal repression. Borders were sealed leaving people form each side stranded in the other territory. The attitude of the Indian Government towards the Goan situation was clear : that they supported the movement and intended to liberate Goa. Between 1955 and 1961 six political parties were formed to fight for freedom: Azad Gomantak Dal, the Rancour Patriota, the United Front of Goans, Goan People's Party, Goa Liberation Army and Quit Goa Organization.[10] The Portuguese had portrayed a falsified image to the world of Goans as being entirely LusoIndian or Portuguese. P. D. Gaitonde, after his release from prison conducted a series of lectures around the world to dispel this notion. The armed struggle in the Portuguese African colonies also served to draw international opinion in favour of India's position.[10] In 1961 India reasserted its stand that Goa should be liberated "either with full peace or with full use of force". In August 1961 India began military preparations. On 1 December Nehru publicly asserted that India would not remain silent regarding the Goa situation. Troops were concentrated at the important towns near Goa.[10]

End of Portuguese Rule

With few options left Nehru finally ordered the Indian Armed forces to take Goa by force. In a military operation conducted on 18 and 19 December 1961 Indian troops captured Goa with little resistance. The Governor General of Portuguese India signed an instrument of surrender.[5]

Subsequent Events
Major General Candeth was appointed as the military Governor of Goa. In 1963 the Parliament of India passed the 12th Amendment Act to the Constitution of India, formally integrating the captured territories into the Indian Union.[5] Goa, Daman and Diu became a Union Territory. Dadra and Nagar Haveli which was previously a part of the Estado da India, but independent between 1954 and 1961, became a separate Union Territory. In October 1962 Panchayat elections were held in Goa followed by assembly elections in December 1962. On 16 January 1967 a referendum was held in which the people of Goa voted against merger with Maharashtra. Portugal recognized Goa's accession into the Indian union only in 1974. In 1987 Goa was separated from Daman and Diu and made a full fledged-state. Daman and Diu continued as a new Union Territory.[5]