Powder

Technology,

40 (1984).&7

- 42

17

Revlew Paper Dry Beneficiation

N C LOCKHART

of Coal

CSIRO Institute of Energy and Earth Resources, Ryde N SW 2112 (Australia)

Dz&isionof Fossil Fuels, Hernzitage Site, 338 Blarland Road,

SUMMARY

The quantrties of coal bemg benefrciated and the IeveLs of benefzciation required are mcreasing while the quality of raw coals LS decreasing_ Although coal is currently cleaned
wrth the mmrmum processing, are already adequate available. and critical of size reductron, and fine tailings Furtherare work of not Is an is a topzcs comprising particle disposal more, always review relevant recovery, major Dry water

problems

resources benefrciatron The present of coal,

alternative

approach_

assessment

to dry processing

commrnuhon, SLZ classification, characterlsation and analysis, sorting at coarse sizes, mechanrcal benefzclatzon according to density at medium benefzclatzon sLzes, and at fine electrical particle and sLzes_ magnetic

INTRODUCTION

Dry separation technques are certainly available. Indeed, pneumatic density separation (air cleanmg) of coal was widely used m the past. Dry beneficiation of coal is not, however, an established industrial process, nor is it a recognised research field. The various dry separation techniques have developed independently, and the available information is uncoordinated and widely dispersed in the literature. Magnetic separation seems to be the only area that is adequately reviewed, while aspects such as commmution are rarely consrdered in connection with beneficiation, whether wet or dry. The present work is a broad survey of topics which seem relevant to dry beneficiation of coal. The overall theme is a critical assessment as much as a review. The reference list is m sequence with the text and is organized according to the subject headings, but reference numbers or authors names
0032-5910/84/$3 00

are omitted from the text except where these are essential_ This procedure eliminated multiple and/or repetitive referencing, and enhanced the readabihty of the text. In addition, because of the large number of techniques covered, diagrams have not been included_ However, the most appropnate sources of diagrams are so designated in the reference hst. Many references include extensive citations to any earlier work that IS not listed. It was unpractical and unnecessary to comprehensively cover Comminution or Charactensation and Analysis of coal; rather the status of these areas in relation to dry beneficiation was assessed. Ahhough a significant literature relevant to dry beneficiatlon was identified, the fact that the present survey was a feasible exercise illustrates that the volume of work on dry beneficiatlon worldwide is small compared with that in mature fields like froth flotation or electrostatic precipitation_ The dominance of wet processing methods means that dry beneficiation is only likely to be considered in cases where wet techniques are not feasible, are inefficient, or cause handling and disposal problems_ Before considenng such cases, it is helpful to summarise the present status and future trends m coal benefrciation generally_

BENEFICIATION

OF

COAL

The market distinguishes two main types of coal coking or metallurgical coal, used mainly m the iron and steel industry, and steaming or thermal coal, used mainly in electric power generatron. Oil is also an important fuel in the power industry, but wrth past price escalations there has been a trend to convert to coal in many countires Coal is also used in smaller quantities for special purposes such as chemical feedstock @
Elsevier SequoialPrinted in The Netherlands

18

for gasification, conversion to liquids, manufacture of graphite and electrode carbon, and in coal-oil or cod-water slurries_ For use as a feedstock or for admixmg wrth oil, coal should generally be rather pure - from some 3% down to below 1% ash, with very little sulphur Specifications for coking coals usually range from 6 to 10% ash. Power station fuels should be low in sulphur, also, with the increasing awareness of the slagging and fouling of boilers and other problems caused by abrasive mineral particles, the high ash level of many run-of-mine steammg coals is now seen as a liabihty- Thus the beneficiation of thermal coals, as well as the traditional cleaning of coals for coking, is becoming important. Even where benefrciation of coal IS not essential technically, it helps to reduce the volume of product and to increase its value so that the impact of freight charges is mimmised. The mcreasing importance of coal beneficiation is coupled with a decreasmg quahty of run-of-mine coal constituting the raw feed to coal preparation plants. Raw coal is dirtier, wetter, and fmer than in the past because (i) lower quality coals and more friable coals are being mined, (ii) large-scale continuous minmg techniques break up the coal more and also estract more non-coal material than before, (ill) water is extensively used to mimmise dust. The average ash level of mined coals has increased significantly, while the average particle size has decreased considerably. The major problem in coal preparation technology (and indeed in mineral processmg generally) is the cleaning, recovery, and dewatermg of fine particles_ The difficulties are such that much fine coal, hke other fine minerals, has simply been rejected_ A major effort 1s under way to improve froth flotation of coal. Other established wet processmg techniques lrke gravity separation and water-only cyclones are also receiving greater attention. The well-known oil agglomeration technique may yet fmd commercial apphcation in situations where the agglomerates are used as a cod-011 mixture that substitutes for a pure oil fuel (especially for fme coal that would otherwise be discarded as tailings), or -where the agglomeratronbeneflciation is integrated with pipeline transportation It is of interest that agglomeratron of fme coal from water slumes has

recently been carrled out using fluonnated organic liquids instead of hydrocarbon oils. The main advantage claimed is the ease of recovery of the low-boiling Freons by established refrigeration technology, compared to a high-temperature oil recovery step in conventional agglomeration This 1s known as the Otisca-T process. The original Otisca process was concerned wrth heavy-hquid density separation of coal (all srzes) from mineral matter using fluorotrichloromethane of specific gravity 1.5. This process dces not use water, but is not a dry process and IS therefore not considered in this review. An alternative approach to the problem of coal beneficiation mvolves the vanous (wet) chemical coal cleaning and chemrcal commmution processes being studied m the USA. Many of these are intended more for sulphur reduction than to remove ash-formmg minerals; all seem to be expensive and none IS yet commercial. Another alternative is dry beneficiation.

DRY

BENEFICIATION

BACKGROUND

Resource developments such as the mining of fossil fuels and ores (mcluding solutron mining), mineral processing, coal preparation, coal combustion in power statrons, 011 shale recovery and retorting, and coal conversion to liquid and gaseous fuels, involve large quantities of water. Much of this water is lost, evaporated, or tied up in tailings, whrle the water remaining may be polluted and unsurtable for recycling or disposal to watercourses In addition, the residues such as fly ash, coal wastes, salty water from brown coal, metal ore tailings, spent orl shale, overburden and waste rock dumps, and the mines themselves (producing or abandoned), are sources of contmuing pollution such as salinisation, acid drainage, heavy metal leaching, etc. Water demands and water pollution are in fact major problems for many present and future developments, irrespective of their technical or economic feasrbrhty Research on water resources and management is clearly important. Such research should include work on dry beneficiation, particularly for application in the semi-and west of the USA and Canada and in a country like Australia, which is the worlds dnest continent and where the

TABLE

1
in which dry bencflclntlon .-could be connldrrcd whorcvcr wotcr 6upphes arc limited or 6omc combination of :hcse for pnrt of the yeur.

Glrcumntnnces

(1) (2) (3)

rchtivo to the damnnd,

factam. In 6rea6 where

In nrld or aembnrid

arc116where water Is not nvnllnblc. Mom gcncrolly, or 6rc cxpenslvc to obtnin, or aro low quolhy, la below the freoxlng point of w&or

the temprrnturo

clr yr sre present ;

Where wet processing Is incfriclcnt, due (for cxnmplr) to (I) chcmlcnl breakdown of the mntcrinl; (ii) phyriaet degrndation leading to excessive Ilnea - this I6 common

wiLh vary

friable materials and lassos -

and when

(&ii) handlingproblems,onvironmantsl hazards,

(iv) inaufficlant denrity dlWc+renco between components; (v) difficult floatability; (vi) oxccasive energy sonsumptlon nnd/or high co&s for chomlcals

excessive

wntor consumption

see (4) below;

u6cd in flotation.

(4)

Where wet procassing CrOBte6 fine slurrie6 OF pmduct6 nndlor tailings that are difficult 2nd expensive to h6ndlc nnd downter -this is common particulnrly when clays are present, and is especially serious with awelling clayr. The quality of the recovered writer mny also be seriously affected. Whenever Pine crushing In nccdcdto liberateproductfrom limltcd and lower grade mnterinla must be uncd. gangue. e.g. when high-grade deposits are very

(6) (6)

Whenever F&no crunhtng is cnrrlcd out for ronsons other than liberation, as in pulverized fuel for power statlons (80% < 76 pm). Power station boilers also provide considerable waste heat that can be used if required to dry Lhe fuel particles for dry benoficiation. Besides, dust containment and ash collection problems 6re alreadydealt with at power stations, whether dry beneficiation is used or not.

rainfall is unpredictable and highly variable. In mineral processing and coal preparation, dry material is almost always the required end-product, so that it is incongruous in principle to use wet treatment even where water supply or quality is not a problem. This is especially true for beneficiation of power station fuels. However, because wet processing methods are so well established, dry beneficiation is only likely to be considered in the first instance for situations like those listed in Table 1. It is instructive to set out possible advantages and disadvantages of dry beneficiation. Firstly, dust control and the disposal of dry tailings should be easier than the handling and treatment of large quantities of aqueous slurries with the attendant water pollution and recovery problems. Secondly, while partial drying of feed material may often be needed for dry beneficiation, this could be more than compensated by not having to dewater and dry wet products and tailings. In any event, run-of-mine material, especially in arid areas and from open cuts, may be dry enough or may possibly be air-dried during storage and transportation. Besides, dried tailings are said to be a good fuel for fluidisedbed combustion that could dry the feed coal and provide heat for other purposes. Thirdly,

there are few of the high-cost ancillary operations associated with wet processes, since items like thickeners, flotation reagents,
flocculants, cyclones, filter machines and

media, centrifuges, etc., are largely eliminated. Fourthly, air-cleaned coal does not freeze, it flows freely, and it sheds rain in transportation and storage, whereas wet-washed coal may soak up water like a sponge. The perceived shortcomings of dry beneficiation include inferior separation, non-routine operation, lack of adjustability and high sensitivity to changes in feed (rate, size, moisture), the need for drying and greater attention to dust control and safety, tine necessity for prescreening into narrow size fractions, and low capacities. It is suggested that some of these criticisms apply at least to a certain extent to wet methods as well. Besides, some shortcomings can be the result of poor practice, insufficient knowledge, or factors that are not intrinsic deficiencies of any dry separation process. For example, poor separation or inefficiency is often a consequence of inadequate liberation of the components and/or of dampness that causes sticking and aggregation of particles. Air concentration or pneumatic cleani& of coal reached a peak of 25 million tonnes p.a. in :he USA in 1965 and has declined

20

steadily since then Srmrlar trends occurred in the UK, Canada and the USSR, where some 30% of the total feed to preparation plants was dry-processed in 1966. The decline of dry mechanical methods in spite of their lower costs is attributed to the increasing moisture content of mined coal and the sharper separations possible w:th wet processes. Pneumatic cleaning has not been esplored in detail for anthracite, hgnite, or sub-bituminous coals. Even esistmg au cleanmg technology should be applicable for de-shalzng, particularly of power station coals and of rejects from conventional coal preparation_ Since this would be carried out at a high density (say l-9), the problem of mispIacing good coal into the reject fraction would be mmirnised_ High density separation for power s:ation coals has also been advocated by HorsfaJl, although this refers to conventional wet separations. It IS conceivable that with new dry beneficiation technology the decline ~111 be reversed in the future. Dry beneficiation could be regarded as a partial substitute as well as a complete replacement for wet methods, z-e. as an alternatrve to only the fines treatment section of a coal preparation plant, or perhaps for recovering fine coal that wouId otherwise be reJected. In this context, it is relevant that coal cleaning plants in West Germany de-dust raw coal before wet treatment; in 1970 the 1~1 million tonnes of dust so collected was regarded as a candidate for dry beneficiation. -4 similar practice existed in the USSR, as dust is easier to handle than sIime. This philosophy still apphes at some wet preparation plants today where fine coal bypasses the washer-y to avoid being wetted. It must be stressed that beneficiation processes for fme particles are generally of low capacity, so that It IS sensible even with dry beneficiation to mn-umlse the quantity of fines and to separate at coarse sizes as far as practicabIe.

COMMINUTION The feed to a typical coal preparation plant comprises run-of-mine coal broken and/or crushed to a top size in the range 150 - 30 mm, then screened into size fractions that are appropriate for cleaning in coarse, medium and fine coal circuits The probIems with fine

coal and tarlings, outlmed in Table 1, arise despite this mimmal level of comminution. Size reduction of coal other than prelimrnary breakage or crushing may be carried out for applications like pulvensed fuel (-80% <75 pm) in power stations, fluidised-bed combustion, coal-~11 and coal-water slurries, pipeline transportation, and coal conversion However, this has generally been done after cleanmg or without cleamng. Clearly the current practrce of coal comminution is oriented to market requirements rather than to the liberation of mineral matter from coal. In the future, size reduction may be employed to integrate coal preparation with end-uses, to ensure adequate liberation, and to optimise fhe use of different wet (or dry) cleaning asses. There should be scope for greater cation of existing comminution technology, which has become well-developed in mmeral processing, specifically to coal preparation_ It is important, however, that the particle sizes in run-of-mine coals should not be reduced unnecessarily. The author (unpublished work) has found that the coarse fraction of several run-of-mine coals or rotary breaker outputs contained appreciable proportions of low-density, low-ash matenal and/or highdensity, hrgh-ash material. Crushing of such fractions is superfluous for benefrciation purposes_ In principle, only the intermediate density mlddhng fractron should be crushed, or recycled for further crushing_ This of course imphes that a two-density. three-fraction separation system be used There IS also scope for more fundamental studies on the comminution of coal and of minerals generally. In the current practice of comminution, even when it IS done for the purpose of separation, liberation tends to be considered only in the automatic sense that the greater the degree of size reduction, the higher the chances of producmg particles of one type. This philosophy may have a hrstoncal origm; even today, much of the liter-Lure on size reduction is concerned with singlecomponent materials, for whrch the concept of liberation is meaningless There 1s an urgent need for new, more energyefficient methods of breakage, mvolvmg studies of comminution in relation to mechanisms of fracture and energy utilisation (e g. Van Brakel) and of methods whereby applied forces can be focussed at grain boundaries.

21

The regions close to dispersed impurity particles (or the regions close to the valuable mineral particles m the case of a low-grade ore), could be among the most flawed parts of a material Fracture could therefore propagate from around these flaws, along grain boundaries that link them, with a mimmum of fracture in other regions not contammg impurity particles. Thus, If a method for preferential gram boundary fracture could be developed, not only would it improve the energy-efficiency but presumably it would also help achieve liberation without excessive size reduction Irrespective of the means of achievmg liberation, it would be useful to know the top-size and/or the size distribution needed to just reach a desired degree of liberation of either the wanted component or the gangue or both The philosophy should be to liberate and beneficiate as much material as possible at coarse sizes, to recycle middlmgs for further commmution, and to reject gangue material and also middlings where the impurities are too finely dispersed for economic liberation. A quantitatrve description of this situation would be valuable_ Unfortunately, while the manner in which ores are comminuted to smaller sizes has been studied in detail, far less attention has been given to the liberation and separation that occurs during size reduction and associated size classification procedures Part of the problem is the difficulty of both defining and accurately charactensing the degree of liberation. Expenmental techmques have only recently become available which provide liberation functions for mineral ores. A statistical model of liberation, based only on size reduction, of a solid made up of similar numbers of equal size cubes of two materials having equal grindablllty, shows that grinding to l/lOOth of the cube size is necessary for almost complete liberation. Obviously, different materials do not m practice respond equally to commmution, and any theory of size reduction plus liberation needs to take this into account. Unfortunately, there is no fundamental quantitative basis for predicting relative comminution behaviour from material charactenstics Even the empirical Gnndability Indexes do not predict the results of comminutlon, and they certainly cannot quantify the liberation of the

components of coals or of ores in general It would seem that at present the only realistic way of mcorporating relative material charactenstics mto size reduction-liberation models is to establish liberation functions via empmcal characterisation and analysis of run-ofmme samples and of particles resulting from actual comminution procedures It needs to be remembered that layers and bands of non-coal material, and also mineral matter located m cracks and fissures along which coal tends to separate, will be released when the coal is crushed, whatever their hardnesses or gnndabilitiea relative to coal. It is mostly these impurities that are removed in traditional coal cleaning_ This aspect of material characteristics would seem to be particularly difficult to quantify by other than empirical means. On a qualitative basis, coals are generally softer than rock and shale, of the common ash-formmg minerals, quartz and pyrite are hard, carbonates have variable hardness, and clays are soft, with bentonitic clays being softer than coals. The harder components should concentrate m the rser sizes and the softer components in tr&z finer sizes. Selective breakage at coarse sizes combmed with screening is in fact already used to reject lumps of hard rock from coal before it enters a preparation plant. Selective breakage also occurs in the secondary crushing or gnnding of coal to the desired sizes for coking or electnc power generation. Furthermore, the different hthotypes or organic macerals present m coal undergo seiective breakage_ Breakage occurs preferentially across vltram bands in many coal seams, smce most vitrain is brittle and it fractures and sphnters easily. The fine coal fraction therefore tends to be ncher m vltnmte and also in fusinite, from the weakest part of the coal (fusam). On the other hand, duram is difficult ro crush, being rated over seven times harder than fusain, so that duram (dull coal) tends to be depleted m the fines fraction. Duram also has relatively poor coking charactenstics, unlike vltrain. It 1s thus possible in some preparation plants to extract a coking coal fraction by a low-density separation on the finer sizes of a steaming coal feed. There is certainly scope for greater apphcation of selective breakage m coal cleaning, with respect to both mmerals and macerals

22 CHARACTERISATION AND ANALYSIS

In studymg commmution and benaficiation (and in developmg theones for size reduction and liberation), three aspects of characrerisatlon a-d analysis would seem important: (i) the size distnbution and composition of the particles and lumps present in run-of-mine samples - this reveals the degree of liberation that already exists and the extent of any further liberation required; (ii) an assessment of liberation of the components for each of the particle size fractions resulting from comminution of larger particles, especially those classified in (i) as middl mgs, (iiij the mineralogy and petrography of concentrates, middlings, and rejects resulting from beneficiation, such actual separation data should be compared with the potential separation indicated by the results of (i) or (ii)_ Coal preparation at present is concerned largely with the removal of non-coal material which existed as layers or bands above, below, and within coal seams, together with some of the larger size mineral inclusions in the coal itself. A limited degree of characterisation and analysis in the form of laboratory float-sink separations (washability tests), followed by high-temperature ashing, has been adequate for this purpose_ The more detailed information on mineral matter and macerals in coal, that is available from optical and electron microscope esamination and other techniques, has rarely been applied to benefrciation. Certainly, characterisation and analysis is seldom associated with, or used as feedback for, comminution and liberation studies on coal. Float-sink separation is very convenient for assessing the gross distribution of mineral
matter in any of the particulate fractions

for evaluating the performance of other beneficiation techmques. The organic macerals in coal also have somewhat different densities, so that the maceral composition as well as the mineral content can vary in different density
fractions tions)_ (as well In fact, as in different size frac-

listed above. Separations are carried out in organic liquids at a sequence of relative densities between that of pure coal (minimum RD 1.23) and that of mineral matter (RD usually 12.5). The author uses fluonnated organic liquids and their mixtures for this purpose, these have advantages over the fraditional organic liquids including cheapness, non-tosicity, and low boiling points_ The float-sink test not only quantifies the overall liberation, it also serves as a standard

when selected density fractions of coarse coal are finely crushed, the high degree of liberation makes it possible to isolate different maceral concentrates by float-sink separation_ The quantity of mineral matter in any sample IS most readily determined by ashmg, preferably at 400 C or lower or by the radiofrequency plasma technique, m order to 2qrgely preserve the mineral components The coal substance can also be isolated for further exammatron if required, using demineralisation with acids or alkalis, although preservation of the coal is less certain. More detailed mmeralogical and/or petrographic analysrs, depending on the technique used, can be carrred out wrth or without removmg the coal or mineral matter from samples Optical reflectance and transmission microscopy, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy, particularly with energy dispersive X-ray detectors (EDX or EDAX) or backscattered electron detectors or both, are among the techniques being used for analysis In recent years, automated scanning and image-processing procedures have been developed to overcome the tedious and timeconsuming nature of the measurements_ The need to prepare polished blocks for reflection techniques and thin sections for transmission techniques is still a limitation Most work with automated optical equipment has mvolved determination of the petrographic composition of coals Automated electron beam techniques have mostly been applied to sulphide minerals. primarily to establish liberation functions. The studies on coal have been purely for characterisation of macerals and minerals. An mtereskng example IS the use of Mtissbauer spectroscopy together Wth scanning electron microscope image analysis, or Mossbauer spectroscopy alone, to discnrninate the iron-contaming mmmals in coal and to analyse for pynte in coals. The SEM/ EDAX technique and the electron microprobe have also been employed to determme orgamc sulphur in coal. These approaches were developed partly because of a perceived

23

unrehabi!;+y of standard procedures for analysmg and classifymg pynte, sulphate, and organic sulphur in coals. Reliable analysis will be essential m assessing the performance of beneficiation techniques, whether wet or dry, for sulph-u- rtiuction.

DRY

BENEFICIATION

METHODS

The separation (wet or dry) of components m a mrxture relies on some difference in the properties of the components_ This may be an optical, physical/mechanical, magnetic, electncal, or surface/colloidal property In most cases the property also provides the means of carrying out the separation, but m separation by sorting the property usually only labels the components, while mechanical deflection (e g- air jets) separates the different labels. Dry sorting has been applied to a variety of minerals, using reflectance, photometnc, in&a-red, fluorescence, X-ray, radiometric, electrical conductivity, and magnetometric methods. Coal has beer, sorted by X-ray, y-ray, and electrical methods, and this field seems worthy of re-exammation m the light of the modem high-speed technology used for sorting mineral ores. There is a significant effort to develop and improve on-line and zn situ ash analysis of coal using X-ray and nuclear techniques, and perhaps this technology could be adapted to reject high ash particles from coarser coal The sections which follow are concerned with dry separation using mechanical, magnetic and electrical techniques_ Mechanical beneficiation of coal IS probably effective down to 1 mm particle size, while electrical and magnetic techniques are most applicable to fine coal below 1 mm. Even allowing for this generahsation, all beneficiation techmques respond to differences in particle size between the components present as well as to differences in the particular property involved. Indeed, the word separation can mean size classification and/or beneficiation, of singlecomponent materials as well as mixtures Beneficiatlon means partition of a mixture into its components, irrespective of particle size. Sm-nlar techniques and equipment are used for size classification and beneflclation, so that either the particle size range or the composition of the feed must be

controlled in order to achieve a pure beneficiation or pure size classification. The distinction is important. Much of the literature on dry processing by mechanical or electrical techniques refers only to size classification, often of single-component matenals, and even this may only be a sunple separation into coarser and finer fractions using one cut point Even in cases where dry processing does mean beneficiation, the result may have been achieved purely by size classification, because the components happened to have different particle sizes. Thus, care is necessary in planning and interpreting dry separation expenments.

MECHANICAL

SEPARATION

General The term mechanical is not used to describe separations in mineral processing or coal preparation. It IS the authors choice to encompass various operations such as screengravity concentration, Ing, classification, heavy media separation, etc., which are based on the same physical/mechanical properties and which often overlap m function_ Mechanical separation is here taken to involve the response of particles to gravitational, inertial, or centrifugal forces, while m the presence of at least one other force which is usually the viscous drag of water or air. The particle size, shape, and density, the fluid density and viscosity, and the solids concentration m air or liquid suspension, all have a bearing on mechanical separation_ The termmal velocity for free-settling particles is related to their diameter and to the difference in density between the particles and the fluid in which they are settling The settling ratio 1s the ratio of particle size required for two materials to fall at equal rates. In the case of clean coal and pure mmeral particles, the maximum ratio (based on Newtons Law for coarser particles), at specific gravities of 1.3 and 2.6 respectively, is 2 for air (S G = 0) and 5.3 for water (S.G. = 1). This illustrates that to achieve classification according to density, the diameters of the component particles need to be within a 211 ratro m the case of settling in air and 511 for water, unless of course the denser component also happens to have the larger particle size. In practice, tneie

24

is an added buoyancy effect from particle interactions such that the actual ratio is higher. Nevertheless, density separations in au are clearly less efficient and more sensrtive to feed size than the wet equivalents. Both air and water are less dense than coal or mineral matter, so that these density separatrons are relative ones. When a fluid is used with density intermediate between the components involved, the separation becomes absolute and is, m principle, independent of particle size because all particles see an intermediate density around them and they float or smk accordingly_ The only limitation is that the rate of floating or sinking for fine particles is very low, although this can be increased by using a cyclone or centrifuge_ Not surprisingly, dense-media separation using magnetite suspensions is popular in coal preparation, and float-smk testing using heavy liquids is a standard laboratory procedure_ This philosophy also underlies the original Otisca process mentioned in the Introduction_ Furthermore, the most promising approach to dry mechanical beneficlation of coal is based on the intermediate density provided by an air-fluidised bed of heavy particles (see later) Screens and classrfrers The simplest srze-classifrcation technique, and the only one that is largely independent of particle density, is screening_ The screen material has traditionally been woven wire mesh, but rubber and polyurethane have come into use on account of reduced wear, less noise, fewer blinding problems, and greater flexibility to cope with damp particles_ An increasingly popular technique is probabrhty screening through a system of oscillating and sloping screens, all with a mesh size larger than the biggest particle to be treated Screening (dry or wet) is not routinely used in industry below 250 - 150 pm, but laboratory screenmg is a standard technrque down to 37 pm, and it 1s possible to reach 5 pm with specral electroformed sieves. An important development in industrial screemng is the British National Coal Boards Roating Probability Screen_ This 1s a rotatrng spoked wheel without a rrm, with the centrifugal force moving particles along increasing gaps from the hub to the outside. Damp coal can be successfully

classdred using different operating parameters over a total size range of 10 cm to 2 mm Dry size classification can also be carried out in aerodynamic classifiers of different types - in inertial, free or forced vortex, countercurrent, and crossflow classifiers. Some classifiers use a combination of mechanisms Size classification is commonly associated with size reduction, so that undersize is removed and only the oversize 1s either returned for further grinding or collected separately_ Components of different hardnesses are often partially beneficiated by this procedure_ Au classifiers, as distmct from de-dusters (that, for example, extract fine coal below 0.5 mm), are most used for particle sizes below the limits of industrial screenmg Most equipment operates below 100 pm, with different models for specific size ranges down to as small as 3 pm. The feed size has to be compatible with the product size range desired. Generally, there 1s only one cut point, giving rll-defined oversize and undersize fractions, although this cut point can often be adjusted by varying the au velocity or changing certam dlmensrons Manufacturers of classifiers quote definite size ranges and cut points only for particles of specified densities, because small dense particles can respond in the same way as large light particles The dependence on density as well as size suggests that many devices that are basically classifiers can and do function as benefrciatmg devices The US Bureau of Mines used a zrg-zag classifier to benefrcrate mica in the size range from 40 mm to about 0.25 mm. The mica and gangue were first classified by size on screens, resulting in mica flakes that we-e much hghter than the spherical gangue particles_ These equal size components were then separated in the zig-zag on the basis of their different weights Tables and pgs Although the current research and development m dry mechanical benefrcratron of coal seems to be concentrated on fluidised bed devices, the only industrial operating experience is for air tables and jigs. The pnncrples of pneumatic tables and jrgs are srmrlar to those of wet tables and Jigs, and are not therefore described here_ This information is readily available in the mmeral processmg and

25

coal preparation literature. There is only a small amount of literature on the dry devices, much of it manufacturers data, and scmetimes different sources describe the Same piece of equipment as a table or a jig. Butcher and Symonds review of dry mechanical coal cleaning is helpful Both devices utihse the difference in settling velocltres of particles in air, and If the feed is pre-classified into narrow size ranges, they function primarily as density separators. A pneumatic tabIe has recently given good results in dry beneficiation of power plant coal with Hugh ash levels, m West Germany_ It is known that pneumatic separators are used in the USSR on a commercial scale for coal and other minerals, but the hterature is not easily accessible and the nature and variety of these devices are uncertam The FMC Corporation dry table is a recent development in this area It IS difficult to categorise, because it uses no an flow (no blowers, ducts, or filters) and therefore is not an air table. It operates by vibration and gravitational forces, with the feed material acting somewhat like an autogenous medium. It therefore seems similar to the fluidised bed autogenous medium separators described below, except for the fact that all the fluidised bed separators involve air flow. The FMC table has an inclmed deck with a wedge shape, tapering from the feed to the drscharge end_ The coal apparently moves m a spiral path to the discharge lip, whrle the denser shale and rock move in a smaller spiral to the back wall. At the discharge lip, mineral particles that are strll present in the coal tend to be conveyed back up the deck because of a lower resiliency and greater surface roughness. The table operates over a wide size range, but any particular feed should be within a 4.1 size ratio. Butcher an3 Symonds assess this device as less efflcrent than an air table or jig, but with the advantages of a simple design and few ancillaries_ Azr-fluzdised particle beds As was pointed out earlier, the arr-fluidlsed particle bed, where the apparent fluid density reflects the density of the solid particles and their volume fraction or voidage, is (m theory) the best dry mechamcal separation process. Air fluidisation IS also an excellent method of drymg particles. A fluldised bed

procer: (for coal) was first described by Freer and Yancey as early as 1925, and the method has been applied occasionally to coal beneficiatlon since then. However, apart from one short-lived commercial device using fluidised sand, no large-scale uses seem to have developed When a fluidismg medium is chosen of narrowly sized particles that are appreciably finer than the feed material to be separated, then the segregation seems to depend largely on density The feed can span a wide srze range, the hmlts being determined by the difficulty of maintaining the air velocity above the minimum needed to fluidise the largest particles yet still below the terminal settling velocity of the finest particles, which would otherwise be entrained out of the bed. Alternatively, fine particles that are to be separated can themselves constitllte an autogeneous fluldised medium, and they float or sink according to then- size and density. Moisture greatly affects the fluidising charactenstics of particles, especially for fine particles, but this is a consequeace of sticking and aggregation and IS not a deficiency of the fluidisatlon techmque. Practical flurdised-bed devices (see Iohn 1971) use continuous flow conditions, whereas the early work and two more recent studies (Asthana, Deurbrouck) on coal mvolved batch laboratory tests The conventional separators apparently used magnetite for air-fluidised bed densities over the range 1 7 to 2.2, and sand for the 1.2 - 1 4 range. Mixtures of sand and magnetite can cover the mtermedlate range, but then the particle sizes of each material have to be chosen appropnately to balance the different densities. Yourovsky m the USSR reported dry bezeficiation of 50 - 3 mm coal using magnetite and sand The Warren Spring Laboratones (Douglas et al.) m Britain developed an inclined trough that combined the eflect of fluldisation with that of a vibrating table. Magnetite was the fluidismg medium, and coal was beneficiated in the 75 - 0.7 mm range Other mmerals also separated well. A commercial version was tested in a British colliery and commercial equipment is avarlable, but according to Butcher and Symonds there have been no details of actual applications. Warren Spring also developed a complementary device for

26

the below O-7 mm fraction. This dry pmched sluice mvoived fluidismg the feed matenal itself, it was simple, had no moving parts, needed little maintenance, and had a high capacity_ The pmched sluice gave good results for several mmerals, including coal, but again there is no evidence of any commercial application. A slorted pinched sluice was recently developed (Laskowski and Lupa) m which the slots acted like riffles to improve the density separation - this equipment appears to be of the autogenous medium type and was used for 6 - 0 mm coal at a capacity of 8 t/h_ In his work on electrical beneficiation of coal, Caita reported good results for coal cleanmg down to 0 2 mm usmg a DryFlo (pneumatic sluice) separator, but no details of the equipment or results are given. Baran devised a downflow-fed fluidiser, apparently an autogenous type, which produced a fme and/or hght overflow with a coarse and/or heavy underflow. The fluid velocity was below thzt for conventional fluidisers, givmg appreciable power savmgs. Coal m the 1.7 - 0 25 mm size range was studied in five size fractions_ A pilot-size device is said to be under construction The Counter-Current Flurdlsed Cascade The most recent development in dry flurdised separators has been the CounterCurrent Fluidised Cascade (CCFC), by Beeckmans and co-workers at the University of Westein Ontario (UWO) in Canada. Fluidising air, at a velocity only slightly above the mmimum needed, mduces vertical segregation according to density in a particle bed An enhanced separation is achieved by creating opposing horizontal motions in the upper and lower strata of the fluidrsed bed, by means of moving baffles or paddles atrached to an endless chain, whereby a re-cuculation of partially separated components occurs. This counter-current enrichment apparently resembles a fractional distillatron column, in which small differences in composition between liquid and vapour phases are magnified to create large differences in composition between the boiler and the condenser outlet. If there is no feed and no product withdrawal from the CCFC, the system is said to be under total reflux, and a theory for this is ava& able. The CCFC used a fluidising medium of limestone or sand mixed with hematite or

magnetite, to separate coal and mineral matter ranging from 25 - 0 6 mm. For separations m the size range 1.0 - 0.1 mm, the fine raw coal was used as its own fluidismg medium, but m this case fmes below 0.1 mm (100 pm) were removed before feeding to the CCFC, and the remaining material was preclassified into narrower size ranges to be treated separately on the cascade A fluid-bed device for mineral separations, mcorporating somewhat different prmciples to the CCFC, has recently been patented. The publications of the UWO team do not refer to the previous work on dry fluidised beds. However, Butcher and Symonds at the Alberta Coal Minmg Research Centre (CMRC) reviewed some of the earlier work on dry mechanical beneficiation, and chose the CCFC as the most promising technique for full-scale development_ In collaboration with Beeckmans, the CMRC built a pilot machine that operated successfully at up to 11 tonnes per hour per metre width of cascade for 25 - 0.6 mm coal. For 25 - 3 mm, the CCFC was as good as a wet heavy medium separator, and for 3 - 0.6 mm it was similar in performance to a wet jig, there was stall a useful separation for 0.6 - 0.1 mm. It is notable that the tests included a coal which had a high content of the swelling clay montmorillonite. All pilot and laboratory tests were done with dried feeds, and the developers suspect that drying from an as-mined 4 - 8% surface moisture to below 2% will be necessary in practice_ Butcher and Symonds review established the following targets for a commercial CCFC unit: capacity 40 t/(h.m), feed top-to-bottom size ratio at least 4~1, probable error factor 0 08 for 25 - 6 mmroal, and capability to clean down to 1 mm size They expect the CCFC to surpass these targets and are arming for a pilot mine-site plant to operate in 1983 - 5 and a full commercial plant in 1986.

MAGNETIC

SEPARATION

High-Gradient Magnetic Separation (HGMS) The field of magnetic separation, and more specrfically the area of high-gradient magnetic separation, has mushroomed in the last decade. In the late 1950s and early 197Os, a method for generating very high magnetic

27

field gradients was devised by Kolm and Marston at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, apparently in connection mth efforts to capture the elusive magnetic monopole In combination with high field this provided magnetic force intensities, density (intensity multiplied by gradient of intensity) more than two orders of magnitude above that previously avdable, sufficient to attract very weakly paramagnetic materials or very fine particles of ferromagnetic or paramagnetic matenals. HGMS now supersedes or is likely to supersede earlier devices m many existing applications, as well as bemg capable of separations not previously possible. Pnor to HGMS, efforts to beneficiate coal by magnetic sepamtion involved enhancing the magnetic properties of weakly pamm agnetic pyrite by chemical conversion, via direct heating, selective dielectric heating, iron carbonyl treatment, or some combination of these The Magnex process is an example. The key to HGMS is the placement of a fine filamentary structure of ferromagnetic mater&, such as stainless steel wool, knitted wire mesh, or expanded metal discs, within a fairly uniform magnetic field The steel becomes strongly magnetlsed, but because of the small size of the flbres, the magnetic intensity dtiinkhes rapidly with distance from the fibres That IS, the field wlthm the matrix is intensely non-undorm, and the smaller the fibres are the higher the field gradient will be Values up to 10 Gs/cm are quoted At the same tune, the flbres in the matnx have a high surface area, yet overall there 1s still around 95% open space. Therefore, there can be a high trapping efficiency with only a low pressure drop and little tendency towards plugging, such that high throughputs are possible, as long as mechanical entrapment does not interfere. The initial development of HGMS arose out of a need in the kaolin clay industry, and the technique is now also prominent in water treatment and ftitration, both with and without seedmg by magnetic particles- These applications involve only small amount5 of magnetic material and high throughputs zae indeed achieved, the machines operating 57 a batch mode with the matrices flushed periodically (at zero field) to remove ac-_umulated magnetic particles_ Applications and potential apphcatlons such as beneflclatlon of

taconite (at least 25% iron oxides), fly ash enrichment (-15% magnetic content), and coal demmeralisation (say 20% ash), present a much more difficult problem. Batch operation 1s impractical, and continuous Carousel separators, with a number of matrices that rotate in sequence through a magnetic field region and then a flushing region, are necessary The emphasis of HGMS 1s on wet separations Dry HGMS of coal was probably studied after economic penalties associated with wet HGMS became apparent Both dry and wet HGMS studies on coal and coal products have been concerned primarily wltb pynte removal because of the unportance of sulphur reduction m US coals. Coal is weakly diamagnetic, while most of the ashforming miner& are weakly to moderately paramagnetlc. The coal macerals also have different magnetic characteristics (see OGMS of coal) The scope for research on basic magnetic properties of coal components, in support of magnetic separation studies, is ultlmateiy limited by the fact that magnetic susceptlblllty is a bulk property and cannot be varied significantly except by chemical change or by attachment of magnetic material Electrical properties, on the other hand, cover a wide range and can be varied rather easily, especially at the surfaces of particles. HGMS depends strongly on particle size, partly because the magnetisation of particies 1s proportional to their volume and partly because the size of the region where the high field gradient exists IS about the same as the size of the fibre that generates the gradient A magnetic attraction force range of only 0.1 mm 1s often quoted for HGMS. The fibre diameter and mterflbre distance have to be matched to the size of the particles to be collected, and different matrices with fibre diameters from 10 to several hundred microns are available to deal with different particle size ranges. Overall, HGMS always seems to be restricted to fme particles, for coal the maxnnum particle size studied 1s about 700 pm. There is a strong theoretical effort on particle capture and bulld-up m HGMS matrices.. One particularly relevant aspect is the design of matnx arrays for more selective separation. Apparently, a magnet&d wire is capable of capcunng both paramagnetic and diamagnetic particles, but a fundamental

understanding of the magnetic field pattern enabIes a matrix to be designed to capture one species and repel the other. Dry HGMS of coal The considerable work on wet HCMS of coal and coal derivatives is covered in some of the reviews in the reference list Satisfactory results for the dry beneficiation of coal by HGMS were frrst reported by Luborsky of GeneraI EIectric, in colIaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology_ Further studies were carried out at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Hise and coIIeagues) and at -4ubum University (Liu and coworkers)_ Oak Ridge (ORNL) and MIT adopted gravity feeding of the coal to the HGMS matns, assisted by vibration or a Iowvelocity air flow, while Auburn devised a fluidrsed bed matrix technique. ORNL reported a large number of tests with a small cyclic separator and subsequently scaled this up to 1 t/h using a pilot-size contmuous Carousel separator_ Auburn started with a laboratory cyclic fluidised bed HGMS and progressed to pilot-size units. Note that while HGMS work has been published by Oak Ridge, their esperimenta1 programme was actually carried out by SaIa Magnetics, a commercial supplier of HGMS equipment A Canadian study of HGMS (Mathieu) was also based on work by Sala. Other dry HGMS studies are included in the reference hst. Results for the conventional HGMS technique vary considerably among the different coals studied, the ash contents of which ranged from 10% to 28%, with sulphur contents up to 6.5%. The proportion of pyrite (or morgamc sulphur) removed in all work spanned 14% to 94%, whiIe ash removal ranged from 15% to 85% The higher removals were usually associated with a low recovery of coal, i-e- much of the trapped material was middlings particles_ In the ORNL-Sala work, it was claimed that some of the HGMS results nearly paralleled those for laboratory floatsmk tests, but the evidence for this is not clear, and the initial degree of liberation was not high It was implied that better liberation through finer gnnding would improve these HGMS results. This would be difficult to prove, since nearly all workers have reported that fine particles are detnmental to dry HGMS of coal, apparently because fines

adhere to the surfaces of larger particles and promote agglomeration. (This is a separate issue from the dependence of HGMS on particle size referred to earlier ) All the conventional HGMS studies mvolved prior removal of fines, which were vanously stated as anythmg from below 10 pm to below 75 pm Mathieu considered the coarser fraction (600 - 150 pm) es mar;: suited to HGMS and even this size range was too wade to be treated by the same filamentary matrix. The best ORNL-Sala results were also obtamed for coarser classified size fractions (after pnor removal of ultra fines). It appears that dry HGMS m conventional form certainly cannot be relied on to beneficiate coal crushed to pulverised fuel specifications, say 80% below 75 pm. This problem was the main reason for the fluidised bed approach at Auburn Umversrty A sufficient air velocity was used to entrain fmer material through and \> t of the fluu idised-bed/HGMS matrix to Live a top clean coal product This a~ 3ow also maintained the relatively coarse sizes in the fluidised state for long enough to ensure a high degree of capture of magnetic particles by the magnetic forces that peak near the fibre surfaces, leaving a bottom clean coal Froduct The advantages claimed for this process were avoiding external size classification or prior coal drying. Liu quotes typical results for cne coal of 6.3% ash and 1.5% pyrite to be 87% pyrite removal anti 52% ash removal for the 150 to 75 ;rm size fraction_ Eight coals with ash level up to 13_3%and sulphur up to 7.1% were studied under a variety of experimental conditions, but there are no liberation data with which to fully evaluate the results. The beneficiation of pulverised fuel sizes is stated only m terms of 55 - 70% reduction of sulphur emissions at 85 - 95% coal recovery. Capacities are given only as matrix loading factors of 0.13 to 0.25 g of coal/g of matrix, while fluidisation times in the matrix are 0.5 to 5 min. The significance of these seemingly adverse figures m relation to full-scale viability is not discussed in Lms extensive publications and no scale-up or cost data have been forthcoming. No high-ash coals seem to have been studied. Japanese workers have also used fluidised bed HGMS to beneficiate small quantities of coal of - 7% ash. The best result was 33% ash reduction at 86% coal recovery

for the 105 - 210 pm size fraction, with poor results for >210 pm or >44 pm particles. Agam there are no liberation data to properly assess these apparently unattractive results. There does appear to be potential for HGMS in beneficiation of coal, at least for pyrite removal, but much remains to be done to improve the techmque and to evaluate technical and economic feasibility. Open Gradient Magnetrc Sc_2aration (OGMS) The alternative to trapping particles in a magnetlsed structure IS to spread particles m a falling stream into a spectrum according to their magnetic characteristics. Since there IS no trapping, OGMS can run continuously, splitting a stream of particles into appropriately located exit channels. The process offers resolution and selectivity that are not achieved in the attraction/repulsion operatron of HGMS The OGMS technique is much less pubhclsed than HGMS. It was developed largely because of the simphcity and flexibility shown by the well-known Frantz Isodynamic Laboratory Separator (Open Gradient) in assessing the magnetic behaviour of feed coals as part of the HGMS work at Oak Ridge. In OGMS, solenoids are arranged such that the magnetic field has cusps where there is strong non-umformity. The magnetic force is much smaller than in HGMS but the distance over which the force acts is greater the separation achieved depends on the product of force and distance at any point integrated over the path length of particles falling through the field region. Dry OGMS of coal The ORNL work progressed from laboratory tests on the Frantz Isodynamic Separator to pilot-size (300 kg/h) studies. The feed coals and the test results seem to be much the same as in the HGMS programme; the 600 150 pm size was used. Up to 10 fractions could be isolated across the expanded beam of particles, and the vitrmite content was highest m the diamagnetic fractions, while the mertmite and mmerals concentrated in the paramagnetic fractions. The more dlamagnetic fractions gave the best coal liquefaction response, so that OGMS can selectively concentrate reactive macerals for the purposes of coal conversion. No cost estimates at all seem to be available yet for OGMS.

ELECTRICAL

SEPARATION

General Electrical separation in mineral processing dates back to the turn of the century, but with the exception of works m Russian, there has only been one book (by Ralston), and that was over 20 years ago There have been no comprehensive reviews since that time despite significant progress, especially m triboelectric charging and separation. The current research on dry electrical beneficiation of coal is not as new or as original as it might appear to be to the general reader, although it has certainly advanced the state of the art Dry electrical separation involves charging and discharging of particles. Chargmg is achieved by corona bombardment, contact or friction, conductive induction, or some combination of these processes. Charges may be dissipated by gaseous ions (produced for example by radioactive o-emitters), by sparking, treatment with alternating corona fields, or simply by capacitative/resistlve leakage to an oppositely charged surface or to earth. Both the charge and discharge characteristics of particles depend GZ the conductivity and permittivity, especially at the surface, and on the work function or Fermi level. There is considerable scope for understanding and optimising electrical separations, particularly in the sense of modifying or controlling the surface electrical properties of the components to be separated_ These properties depend on temperature, relative humidity, moisture content, adsorbed gases or organic vapours, various surface modifiers, etc. In this context, the measurement of dielectric properties (conductivity and permittivity) is an appropnate starting point, as this is undoubtedly more accurate and reproducible than the measurement of charging and discharging characteristics. Coal IS generally less conducting than mineral matter, except perhaps in the case of brown coal which has a high water content and also often a high ion content. Pyrite is the most conductmg mineral that is commonly found m coal. Furthermore, vitram IS known to be less conducting than fusain and durain. In corona charging, all particles take the same sign of charge and it is the different rates of loss of this charge, which depend mainly on

30

the relative conductivities, that permits separation In triboelectric charging (friction or contact), clean coal generally charges positively and ash-forming minerals or highash coal charge negatively Vitram and fusain also tend to take opposite charges. Tnboelectric separation is based on the deflection of these differently charged pdrticles in opposite directions_ When the results of electrical separation esperiments are analysed, it is desirable to determine maceral as well as ash contents in the fractions, because otherwise organic material going into the highash fraction might be interpreted as poor separation performance Conductive induction is the development and/or leakage of charge for a material placed m an electric field or on a charged surface_ Induced charge can contribute to separations involving corona charging, but is only important for conductors and semiconductors Separations involving conductive induction alone or triboelectric charging are collectively termed electrostatic methods Triboelectric separations are most useful for mixtures of insulating materials, since these can acquire and hold sufficient charge for an electric field deflection step to work There is no magnetic equivalent of unipolar electric charges The electrical equivalent of is dielectrophoresls, magnetic sepaiation which involves the polarisation of particles into uncharged electric dipoles under the influence of an electnc field, and movement of these dipoles along an electric field gradient. Ferroelectnc fibres that produce highgradient electric fields are available_ The dielectrophoretic force on dipoles is much weaker than the Coulomb force on particles with free charges. At present, there seem to be few esamples of dielectrophoretic separation in air (see Hatfield 1924 for results for coal), but practical devices for electrostatic and electrodynamic separations often have non-umform electric fields, so that dielectrophoresis may be unintentionally contributing to the separation. It is also of interest that the electric susceptibility rs always positrve, unhke magnetic susceptibilities_ Dielectrophoresis can only imitate the attraction of paramagnetics and repulsion of diamagnetics in magnetic separation, if a fluid, with permittivity and/or conductivity mtermedrate between those of the particles to be separated, is employed_

Particle size effects Electrical separation IS strongly dependent on particle size and density, both directly because charging and discharging are related to particle size and indirectI- because of the associated forces of grdvity, VISCOUS drag, centrifugal force (rotating drums), or molecular adhesion_ Therefore, electrical separation can mean size (or density) classification, or beneficiation, or both. If beneficiation largely on the basis of electrical properties is desired, then the particle size and density of the components concerned must not be greatly different, or these parameters must be such that they aid rather than oppose the electrical beneficiationElectrical classiftcatzon is described m Ralstons book, and is considered in detail by Naremskii for single-component powders. Olofinskii et al. discussed the use of coronachamber, tnboadhesive-drum, and flurdisedbed electric separators for benefrciation, size classificatron, dedusting, and dust recovery in a variety of metallic and non-metallic minerals, including coal Ash levels were reduced and maceral separations were also achieved However, close exammatron reveals that any benefrciations were mainly a consequence of size (and density) classification, the resulting coarse and fine fractions having different mineral and maceral contents_ The performance statistics reported by Olofmskii et a1 were impressive: sizes 10 - 0 mm could be handled at up to 5% moisture with capacities around 1.5 tonne per hour per metre of electrode, cut pomts were adjustable down to 20 pm or less, efficiencies of size classification were 90 - 9876, and power consumption was only a few tenths of a kilowatt-hour per tonne Unlike magnetic separation, power consumptron in all dry electrical separations is low Another classifier was recently described by Inculet for sizing particles in the 1000 2 pm range. It used en hltemating, nonuniform electric field with one electrode insulatorcoated, and was said to operate via trrboelectrificatlon and/or conductive mduction. These conditions are typical of experiments on dielectrophoresis, but this mechanism was not discussed. Turning now to beneiciation aspects, Ralstons book deals with granular materials, rather than with fine particles that tend to be blown away by the convection associated with drum rotation, and also by the ion wind

31

from the corona electrode, in a coronarotating drum separator_ Minimum sizes quoted by Ralston and m subsequent hterature on this technique were in the range 50 - 100 pm; presumably the lower figure refers to denser materials Top sizes up to nearly 1 c.n have been successfully beneficiated by electrical techniques. Advanced Energy Dynamics (AED), located at Natick near Boston, USA, is currently developing the corona-rotating drum method to cope with coal particles below 150 pm, such as pulverlsed fuel. AED uses a knife blade and plastic shields to strip off the boundary gas layer just ahead of the particle feed stream, thereby allowing adhesion of the fine coal particles. Also, spunous charges (presumably of triboelectnc ongm) which caused clumping and agglomeration of the fme particles m the feed, were eliminated by an a c _corona discharge. The AED process is effective for the 250 37 pm size range of pulverised fuel, and an undisclosed development has extended the capability down to 1 pm. It IS noteworthy that, long before the AED modifications, Dyrenforth and associates claimed to have achreved separations on the corona-rotating drum separator of particles (not coal) down to 5 pm by means of higher drum rotation speeds, supplementary deflecting fields, and a

corona discharge pulsed at 1 igher than the

normal frequency_ There seem to be no other results (except Podkosov 1963) for fzne particles using the corona-rotating drum technique Carta did attempt to overcome the fme particle problem using pulsating voltage along with reduced air pressure to mmimise the turbulence, but the results were disappointing Inculets research group at the University of Western Ontario (UWO) also rejected the corona-rotating drum method (m favour of triboelectric processes), again on the basis of a perceived mabllity of the former technique to treat fine particles. This group developed three devices for different sizes of fine particles. It should be noted that tnboelectric separation of fme particles had been achieved before, and that triboadhesion separation in the USSR was developed specifically for fme particles Elec trodynamic (corona) separa tzon The corona technique IS also known as electrodynamic or high-tension separation,

the latter term should be drscouraged as high voltages are employed in non-corona techniques as well. Most early designs have become obsolete and a rotating drum (earthed) is now almost invariably used, together with a small diameter or pointed electrode that provides the corona discharge. Feed pai-ticles enter at the top of the drum and become charged by ion bombardment and are pinned to the drum surface. When they leave the corona region they give up charge to the earthed drum and fall off. The higher conductivity particles lose charge faster and fall off first, and are thereby separated from the more msulating particles. Modem machines usually include a larger diameter non-iomsmg electrode after the corona electrode, which lifts the particles off the drum and deflects them, and so improves the selectivity of the separation. The large diameter electrode can also be used without the corona electrode, for electrostatic separation depending purely on conductive induction and sometimes on triboelectric charging_ The corona-rotating drum separator has been widely used to separate metals from glass, ceramics, plastics, and polymers, plastics from paper and other plastics, and for removing contaminants from grams and processed foods In mineral processing, the major commercial applications are in concentration of heavy mmerals (rutile, zircon, ilrnenite, monazite) from beach sands and alluvial deposits, beneficiation of iron ore, and separation of tin ores from gangue mmerals. There has been little scientific work on this techmque since Ralstons book appeared in 1961, and there would seem to be scope for detailed research into corona techniques applied to mineral beneficiation generally_ An interesting suggestion (Horowitz) was to superpose a radio-frequency electnc field onto the direct field of a drum separator, such that the effective conductivity of particles on the drum included dielectric loss, thereby presumably permitting conductive separation of some insulators. Recent work in Poland (Szczerbmski) has used a similar idea to extend the conductance range for separations. Electrodynamzc (corona) separation of coal Most of the early laboratory work is adequately discussed in Ralstons book (1961) and in Fraass review (1962) One exception is Gray and Whelan (1956), who

32

studied a variety of coals drffering in rank, particle size, and water content over the size range 2 mm to 125 pm (in several size fractions) using different eiectrodes, different drum materials, different drum speeds, and various voltages_ They illustrated the diversity of conditions under which good separation of coal and shale was achieved. Ralston mentioned that all ranks of coal from German brown coal to Pennsylvania anthracite had been studied, both to obtain low-ash, lowsulphur products and to fractionate the macerals Olofmskiis 1957 book refers to the use of corona techniques only for size classification of coal; the beneficiatlon is incidental. Scientific studies were also carried out by Mukai in the 1960s on Japanese coals ranging from 6.5% to 10% ash. The range 1700 L100 , _n was tested m four size fractrons at up to SO% relative humidities. A product with an ash level of 2 5 - 3% and enriched in vitrmite was achieved, and recoveries were 96 - 98% relative to washabIlity curves. More recent work on corona beneficiation of coal (mainly pyrite removal) was described by Monosrory and by Abel At present, there are no known commercial applications of dry elcctncal beneficiaticn of coal, except possibly in the USSR. A pilot plant was extensively tested m Germany 40 - 50 years ago on coal feeds 2 - 0.1 mm in size, and a larger plant was constructed m the Ruhr Valley but never operated due to bomb damage in the war. Advanced Energy Dynamics have carried out extensive tests on pulverised coals using a Carpco laboratory/ pilot-size machine that differs from the fullsize module only m the length olthe rotor. XED expected to have a commercial moduIe ready for testmg in 1983, to be mstallid between an existing pulveriser and one boiler at an electric power station. A detailed design and economic analysis for a full-scale AED plant at a power statron has been carried out by enginetring consultants AED IS also interested in a variety of applications other than to power stations; it IS not clear if the feed materials would still be fi?ely pulverised. The results for the AED process are quoted mainly in internal company reports that give httle detail of the procedure or the condltions used. The AED technique, when used to clean coal down to 37 pm size, is reported to remove more ash-forming minerals and more

sulphur than any conventional beneficiation method, with higher recoveries and appreciably lower costs. There was 65 to 89% removal of ash particles above 50 pm, which were the primary cause of boiler downtime due to slagging, fouling, corrosron, and erosion. A further AED development (details undisclosed) is said to have cleaned some 15 coals pulverised to the 100 - 1 pm size range, including lignite and high inherent-ash coal. In addition, using better quality feeds or conventionally-cleaned coals, a superclean product of 1 - 3% ash was obtained_ In relation to the contnbutlon of conductive induction to electrical beneflciation of coal, Gray and Whelan found that the deflectmg electrode used without any corona was best for damp, hrgh-rank coal, wh& the combination of corona and deflecting electrodes was best for coals of intermediate ranks and moisture contents The pure corona technique was most suited to fine, dry coal of all ranks. Olofmskiis 1957 book mentions rotating drum techniques --=:?h deflecting electrodes that gave good separations of ash and macerals via conductive induction and/or triboelectnfication Szczerhinskii was able to separate coal macerals and minerals, but the interpretation of the results is not clear and the role of tnboelectric charging is not acknowledged.
Triboelec trrc separation

Tnboelectric separation involves charging of particles via contact or friction with other particles or with a thud matenal, usually the walls of a container or pipe, followed by transport or free-fall through an electric field that deflects the particles according to the magnitude and sign of their charge. The deflection step IS relatively simple and most of the research and development effort has been aimed at obtaining adequate selectivity and a sufficient degree of charge in the charging step, and also at solvmg the aerodynamic problems of charging and tmnsoorting fine particles. Early tnboelectnc separators used the charges generated by particles shdmg down, or transported through, chutes, pipes or nozzles. As mentioned earlier, rotating drum separators have been used (without the corona electrode) for triboelectrified particles; these are pinned to or repelled from the drum according to the sign

33

of their charge_ Lowever, see-fall and &her arrangements that differentially deflect the triboelectrified particles are more common. Besides, cyclones and fluidised beds are now popular for improvmg the chargmg as a result of more frequent and better particle-particle and/or particle-wall contacts. This variety of charging arrangements is reflected in the variety of triboelectric separation devices that have been used The most important application of tnboelectnc separation is undoubtedly in the potash mineral salt industry of West Germany (Singewald, Fricke, Bock)_ There are few cmations to, or acknowledgments of, work in this area, outside of the industry itself. Deflectmg electrodes -10 m long are used to separate mixtures of salts at 200 - 300 t/h (projected to increase considerably in tl. future), with -100 kV apphed and currents of - 1 mA. The salt grams become charged through heating and mutual contact; conditionmg agents are also used. It is said that this dry triboelectric separation eliminates 30 - 35 million cubic metres of liquid waste annually _ The author is not aware of any commercial applications involving cyclone cr fluidlsed bed charging. Cartas group at the University of Caghari in Sardmla has used cyclone tribocharging to beneficiate barite, feldspars, fluorspar, and several coals, while the Warren Spring Laboratories (Pearse ef al ) in England used it for calcite, dolomite, apatite and various other minerals and for polymers_ Cartas devices - the tnboelectric cyclone separator and the electrocyclojet date back to the early 1960s and are said to have been developed to pilot scale. Apparently, they can handle particles down to 20 - 30 pm. It is notable that provision was made for corona charging in the electrocyclojet. Cartas work on coal or other minerals has rarely been acknowledged by other researchers, despite a considerable number of publications, some of which are in Engiish. The actual progress made by Cartas group (or by Inculets group - see below) IS rather difficult to gauge, since the same or similar data appear in many papers, and information on throughputs or electrical power requirements for separation or air pumping seems to be lacking Early work on fluidised bed techniques (Robert, Tauveron, Morel, Bendfeldt, Douglas)

mostly involved corona charging, and to a lesser extent conductive induction chargmg, of particles which were subsequently extracted by an electrode (static or moving) above the bed. The function of the bed itself appeared to be mainly for mechanical segregation of particles according to their size and/or density, prior to the selective charging and extraction of some of these segregated particles Inculet modified the fluidised bedextractive electrode technique to cope with fine particles (not coal) by combinmg very low gas flow rates with mechanical vibration. However, the UWO group concentrated their efforts more on the triboelectric charging function of the fluidised bed, in order to obtain better selectivity of charging, especially when dealing with mixtures of relatively insulating particles such as coal Two techniques not involving extractive electrodes were used by the UWO group for coal, these are described here rather than under Tnboelectric separation of coal for the purpose of illustrating the principles involved_ In one apparatus, a fluidlsed bed was used to pre-charge the particles triboelectrically, and they were then allowed to flow dcwnwards into a region between vertical highvoltage deflecting electrodes, at the bottom of which were a number of containers for collecting the deflected fractions. This was known as the Tower; it was 4 m high and its throughput of coal was stated as between 6 and 14 g/s. This figure did not seem to allow for the need to recycle middlmgs that were insufficiently charged or inadequately liberated to be deflected mto product and reject fractions. Such a capacity seems low m relation to the size of the equipment. In addition, the tower was apparently only used for the narrow size range of 80 - 180 pm The other apparatus was a dilute-phase loop for particles below some 50 pm. The loop was 8 m tall and mvclved complete entrainment of particles into a gas suspension where they formed thin streamlines_ The particles were deflected from one streamline to another by an electric field within the loop, according to their charge characteristicsThe actual charging step was apparently open to choice - a fluidised or vibrated feeding devrce for pre-charging the partrcles prior to entrainment into the loop, charging through contact with the copper wall of the loop and/

34

or a copper hoikeycomb within the loop together with particle-particle collisions; charing by corona electrodes within the loop; or some combmatron of these methods The loop is similar m pnnciple to the cyclone devices used by Cma and others It should be noted that laboratory tnboelectric separators, using gas entrainment through a sinous path, then freefall electrical deflection, were devised to handle dusts below 40 pm and 75 pm by Frads and Ralston m the 1940s Besides, one of the size classification devices described by Olofinskii in 1973 involved air entrainment of fine particles from a fluidisation chamber followed by electric focussing - this apparatus resembles the UWO loop device. The loops throughput also seems small relative to the size of the device. Triboelectrrc separatron of coal Work on trlboelectric beneficiatron of coal using traditional contact or frlctlon (not cyclone or fluidised bed) techmques includes that of Olofinskii, Von Szantho, Herzderfer and Singewald. Smgewald applied the techniques used in the West German potash Industry to coal beneficiation. He clalmed that his device, operating at 5 t/h on coal 57% pure and with a feed size below 800 pm (10% (100 ,um), produced (after recycling of middlings) a concentrate of 94.7% pure coal at 88% recovery along wrth a reject containing 14% coal The throughput was said to be forty times that for the corona-rotating drum technique, but no direct evidence was given to support this claim. Triboelectric separation of coal has also been studied in Poland (Ciesla, Firek), but few details or practical results seem to be available_ Cartas work on cyclone tribocharging and separation of coal has been mainly concerned with pyrite elimination, and good results were achieved_ As regards ash removal, feed coals of 17 - 20% ash (size below 1 mm) were said to give 76 - 82% recovery of 5% ash products along with 39 - 71% ash rejects. Another coal sample, ground (micronized) to a topsize of 15 - 25 pm, apparently separated well (only the coarser fraction was separated electrically), but the cost of such fme micronization would have to be justified_ All pynte and most shale and quartz were rejected, and unpurities m the product tractron were found to be u&berated. The

product was mainly vitrmite, with fusimte and exinite going to the rejects. Cartas feed material was actually benefrciated to some extent prior to triboelectnc separation because selective breakage and size classification were used to eliminate some high ash or high pynte particles which were found in the coarse and fine fractions. Haga et al , m a socalled new version of the UWO fhudised-bed work, employed cyclone tnbochargmg to beneficiate coals up to 47 7% ash, and also considered the problems involved in scahngup to a capacity of 350 t/h. Flurdised beds with corona and/or tribocharging combmed wrth extractrve electrodes were used to benefrclate black and brown coals by Koncar-Djurdevic and by Bendfeldt. The UWO tower device (deflection electrodes) was said to upgrade poorly coking feed coal to a high vitrinite product low in fusinite, pyrite, and ash. High-ash coal contaming swelling clay also separated reasonably well. There 1s a need for recycling or multiple stages to adequately charge all the coal, and perhaps for higher deflecting fields. The UWO dilute-phase loop apparently yielded similar results to the tower, on finer feed particles, ash was reduced from 10% to Z-Z%_ The loop was ongmally designed for separating the macerals in coal, for which very fme crushing of a fairly clean feed coal was required. The loop was also used for beneficiation of power station fly ash, containing about 10% carbon, into a concentrate of 35 - 37% carbon and a tailing of 2 - 2.6% carbon. The present author IS not aware of any larger scale developments in the UWO work on triboelectric beneflciation of coal.

CONCLUDING

REMARKS

There IS a significant, if limited, research and development effort under way in several aspects of dry beneflciation of coal. This effort should expand in the future, particularly rf any of the techniques being pursued achieves commercial status. Dry benefrclaiion is attractive wherever water supplies are restricted, and also where wet processmg is inefficient or leads to problems in handling and dewatermg of the products and tarlings. It seems less radical to suggest dry benefrciation for only the fme particles rather than for

35

all sizes of a feed coal. The logic of this would depend on the extent to which wet processing of the coarser material caused breakdown into fme coal and fme mineral matteI_ Irrespective of the nature of the beneficiation procedures adopted, it seems sensible to minimise the quantity of fines and separate as far as practicable at coarser sizes to take advantage of higher capacity techniques Although the literature cited in this report rarely even mentions the subject, coal dust 1s undoubtedly a fire and explosion hazard, and careful attention to dust control md potential sources of ignition will be essential in dry beneflclation, particularly by electrlcal techniques. The problem must, however, be kept in perspective. For example, pulverised fuel has long been used safely m power stations and other installations worldwide. There 1s also a rapidly expandmg market (e.g. West Germany) for dned brown coal as a substitute for gas and heating oil, the product being obtained mainly from the dust electrostatically precipitated from briquette factory dners.

10

11

D. V Keller, Otisca-T Process, a New Coal Beneficiation Approach for the Preparation of CoaZ SZurries, COGLAG Conference 8th. August 1982. D_ V_ Keller. in Y. A_ LIU (ed.). The Otiscu
ProcessAn Anhydrous Hea-uy-&urd Seporatron Process for CZeanrng Cocl, Physical Cleaning of Coal -Present and Developing Methods, Dckker,

12

New York, 1982, pp_ 35 - 85_ D. W. Ho&all and Z Z~tron,

BenefrciaLion of Coal. 6th ICCR

Hugh Demlty Conference,

1982,

paper D2

Dry
13

beneficzatron

-Background

14

K K Humphreys, J W. Leonard and R. L Llewellyn, m J. W. Leonard (ed ), Dry Concentration, Coal Preparation, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 4th edn., 1979. S G Butcher and P.L Wright, in A M. Al Taweel (ed.), The Purpose and Practrce of Coal Preparatron zn Canada, 135. Proc CIC Cool Symp. 64th, 1982.

See also Refs

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158,

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Commznution
15 L. G. Austin and J. D. McClung. in J_ W. Leonard (ed.), Sue Reduction of Coal. Coal PreparaCion, American Institute of Mmmg, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 4th edn., 1979. L. G Austm and P. T. Luckie, Cool Grrndrng Technology, Report FE 2475-25, 1979. V. Choudry, A New Approach for CZeanmg
Difficult Co&, gress 9Ch, 1982, Internat Coal Preparatzon Con-

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16 47

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37

61

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63 64

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67

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84

Fluidlsed

Cascade

(CCFC)

Tables
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70

71

S G Butcher and D. F Symonds, A Reuleur of Dry Cleanmg Processes. Alberta Coal Minmg Research Centre Report CMRC 81/21-T March 1981 H. Ditzler and J. Gross, Dry Processing of Power Plant Coal Hugh in Inerfs, Report BIVFT-FB-T101, 1982. (Chemrcal Abstracts 98 20i042n, 201043~) V I. Belokryletskii, Effrczency of Preparafron Processes. Irv. Vyssh Uchebn Zoued. Gom Zh 5 (May 1982) 110. (Coal Absfracfs, -7744 (1983)) D C W&on, FMC Dry Table. Sot Mining Engrs. AIME Annual Meeting. 1976. 13, 56,76, 138

85

86

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90

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35 94 J. I DlJkhuis, C B W. Kerkdrjk. R. P. A. P. van Kleef, H. R. Segal and H. A vander Sloot, HGMS of Fl_v Ash, IEEE Tr;lns. hfAG , IS (1982) 85% Y A. Liu and M. J. Oak. SCrrdws rn Xogncfochemrcal Cngmeering, A I Ch E J, 29 (1983) 771. and A. Shalom, D- R_ Kelland, E- Maxwell PortWe Size Dependence ir, HGMS IEEE Trans 1293. 111,xG . i 7 (1981) D. Kelland, C. De Latour, E Maxwell and G Schmltz, Desrgnmg HGIIIS AIatr?.v -4rrays for Szlectiue Fdtratron IEEE Trans. MAG _ 19 (1983) 2127. Also 17 (1981) 2810.

Open-Gradrent (OGMS)
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Separation

95

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95 99

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J. Kopp, The Physrcs of Fallrng Curtain Dry Mognetlc Separotlon Intern& J. Min. Proc , IO (1983) 297 J A. Good and J Kopp, The Physics of High Intemxty Dry Magnetic Separatron IEEE Trons MAG. 18 (1982) 633. H. E Cohen and J. A Good, fllagnefx Seporatron of Mineral Slurries by a Cryogenic Magnetic System F1ltratlorl and Separation, 1977, pp 346 - 348. H K. Collan. M. A Kokkala, T. Meinander and O- E Toikka, Superconducting OGMS Trons Inst_ Mw. MetalI. 91 (1982) C!i-11. HGMS reviews.

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111

112

F. E_ Luborskyv G E Reports to U S. Bureau of Mines SRD 77-047 .lnd 77-147 1977. J M Doulm E C. Hose and I. Wechsler, Tlw Corl~i~luous Separalror~ of Dry Crushed Coal at I ton/hour 6y HGIIS ORNL Report 5763, Dec. 1981 J Al_ Doulln, E- C- Hise and I. Wechsler, Seporation of Dry Crushed Coal by HGMS ORNL Report 5571, 1979. D_ M- Eisenberg, E C Hose and M. D Sdverman, ORAL Program for Deuelopment of ~llagnetzc Berzefrcmttorl of Dry Prdoerrsed Cool. CONF 580756-1,197s. D. R_ Kelland, A Reurew ofHGA1.S IWethods of Coal Cleonmg IEEE Trans dI_4G I IS (1982) S-41 W H. Slmons and R. Treat. fmplicotzons of rlnoysrs of HGJIS to Cool Related _-lpplications CONF 7751109, 1979. G. I Illathicu. m A_ M. Al Tawrel {cd-). Wet and DQ FIGM Cleanmg of Eastern Coals Proc_ CIC Coal Symp txth, 1982. 188 J- I DiJkhuis and C. B- XV- KerkdiJk. Upgmdmg of Caal Usrng C~ogcnic HG.WS IEEE Trons Jf_4G 17 (1981) 1503. C. P. van Drlcl. C B XV. Kerkdljk and H. R Se& MGI~IS Related to Burnrrzg of Coal IEEE Tram Ji.qG 18, 1982, contents pages R E_ Hucko, US Government Research in Physical Coal Cleonmg Auslralian Coal Prepamtlon Conf 2nd 1983, 63. Y A. Liu, in Y. A LIU (ed.:. HGMS for Coal Desulphunzalroz, Physical Clenn~ng of Cool Present and Dewloping Methods, Dekker, New York, 1982. pp_ 133 - 254 Y. A. Liu. Novel HGMS Proceses for Desulphunzation of Dry Puluerc;ed Coal for Ufilrty -4pplicotion.s. Report DE 82021888, 1982 Y- A LIU, in N. N. Li (ed.), Novel HGMS Processes for Desulphurrrairon of Dry Pulverised Coal. Rrcent Deuelopmerzts in Separation Scrence 6 (1981) 149. Y. Kunisue. S. Masuda and T Oda. Puluerised Cc01 Beneficratron by Dry-Type HC-MS Process IEEE Trcns MAG., Z9 (19S3) 2121. T. Fujlta, Y. Kummatsu. S. Masuda and T. Oda, CooI Powder Beneficiatron by Dry-Type HGMS Nihon Oyo -Jrbt GakkaEhi 6 (1982) 259. 53

See also

Dry
117

OGMS

of coal

118

;19 120

121

L. A. Harris, E C Hose, M. L Poutsma, R. M. Whan and J R Wortman, Znitml Exploration of OGMS of Coal to Benefrciation of Lrquefactlon Feeds ORNL Report TM8529. Feb. 1983. E. C Hise, A S Holman and J E Jones, Inrtmt InoestIgation of OGMS, ORNL Report 5764. Aprd 1982. E- C. Hise, Deuelopnwnt of HGMS and OGMS IEEE Trans MAG.. I8 (1982) 647. E. C Hose and A. S Holman, Selective Seporatron of Cool Feedstocks for Conuerslon by Magnetrc Separotron Techniques. CONF 8108i4, 1981 W. M Kester, J W Leonard and E. B. Wilson, Reductzon of Sulphur from Steam Coals by Magnetrc Methods Mm Cong J. 53 (1967) 70. 158

See also Ref.

EIec frical separation General

122 a_ C Ralston, Electrostotrc Separation of Mixed Granzdar Solids, Elsevler, Amsterdam, 1961. F. Fraas, EIectrostotrc Separation of Granular Mmerals. US Bureau of Mines Bulletin 603 (1962) A. I. Mesenyazhin, Electrical Separation m Strong Elect=-c Fields, Nauko I978. N F. Olofinskii, Electrrcal Methods of Ore Dressmg. Nauka 19 77. N. F Olofinskli, Electric Corona Seporatran 0; Coal Fines and Certam Mmerals. Moscow_ 1957, Translated by Israel Program for Scientific Translations 1969 W. P. Dyrenforth and J. E Lawver, m A. D. Moore (ea.). Electrostatw Separation, Electrostatrcs and Its Applications Wiley-Interscience, 1973, pp 221249 T. M Howe and M I. Pope, The Effect of Conditroning Agents on the Surface Conductruity of Powder in Relotton to Electrostottc SeparatLon. Internal Mineral Processrng Congress 9th 1970, 59.

123

124 125 126

127

128

See aIso Ref.

39 S J. Gregg and M I Elech-zcal Conduchon Metal 147 Concentrates, Soviet J. of Non-Ferrous . Metals. 4 (1963) 11. G. Alfano, M_ Carta, C de1 Fa and G. F. Ferrara. Contrrbution to thp Electrostatic Separation of Minerals, Internat Mmeral P. ocessrng Congress 7th. 1964, 427. 122 - 126,18_? - 185, 203 - 210

129

Pope, by

Factors InfZuencing Compacted Coal

130

131 132

133

134

Powders. Fuel. 39 (1960) 301 S. J. Gregg and M. I Pope, The Specrfic Elect~+cal Conductiurty of Coals Fuel 40 (1961) 123. H A Pohl, Dielectrophoresis. Cambridge University Press, 1978 B. E Davis, C E Jordan, G. V. Sullivan and C P. Weaver, A Continuous Dlelectnc Separator for Mzneral Beneficration. U S Bureau of Mines Report RI8437, Z.480. L Benguigai and I. J Lln, Hugh Intensity Hrgh Gradwnt Electric Separation and Dwlectric Fillratron of Partrculate and Granular MotenaZs d Electrostatics. 13 (1982) 257. H. S. Hat:ield, Inzprouemenls ,rz EZectrosfol~c Separatron of Particles, British Patent 218354, 1924. and the references of coal.

See also Refs.

Electrodynamic
148

(cororta)

separation

149

1.50

See also Refs. 93, 172, 175 - 177 listed under ElectrIcal separation

151 152

Particle
135

size

effects

136

137

138

139

140 141 142

143

144

145

146

N_ K. Naremskn, Cy&c Chsstf~cotion of Micropowders in a Variable Electrzc Field Sowet Powder Metallurgy and Metallurgral Ceramics. Xo. 3 (1979) 200. See also No. I-7 (1977) 918 and No. 8 (1975) 614. V. I. Belov, V. A. Novlkova and N. F Olofinskn, AppZrcotron of Electrrcal Methods of Sepnrntzon to Close Sizrng of FlneZy Dispersed Mmeral Particles, Internot Mineral Processmg Congress 1ot11, 1973.929 N. F. Olofinskir and I. N. Plaksin, Reurew of EZectricaZ Separatron Methods in Mrneral Technology, Instn. &fming and Metallurgy Trans. No. 712 (1966) C57-64. N. F. Olofinsku and I N. 2laksm, Deducting and Classrfymg :llrneraIs m the Fme Sre Range rurth corona-type Separators. Instn. illming orzd Metallurgy Trans. 69 (1960) 613 G. S P. Castle, I. I. Inculet and Y. Murata, A New EZectrostntm Separator and Surer for Small Particles I E E E Trans IA. 19 (1963) 318. CZeanmg Puloerrsed Coal-Dust Free ChemrcaZ Week (December 23. 1981) 32 D R. Whitlock, High Terulon Electrostntlc Separators, U S Patent 4325820, April 1982. S Ft. Rich, Process fcr RedacIng the SuZphur Content of Coal. U S Patent 4260394, Apn1 1981. W. P. Dyrenforth, in A. L. Mular and R. B. Bhappu (eds.), Electrostatrc Separatron ~~f~neral Processmg Plant Desrgn, American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1978, pp. 179 - 489. R. L Breakiron and W. P. Dyrenforth. High Tension Scpnratlon of MateriaLs U.S. Patent 3322275, May 1967. J. H. Carpenter and W. P. Dyrenforth, Aduances m Technique and Equrpment for Iron Ore Separation Annual Mining Symposium Universlty of Mmnesota, 1965. L G Podkosov, Intensificat[on of the Process of Electrrcal Separa:~orz for Fme Crarned Rare

153

151

E- G. Kelly and D J Spottiswood, Introduction to Mineral Processing Wrley-InterscIence, New York, 1982. V- V Smirnov~ PurifwaLlon of Plastic Waste Mater&s by Electroseparatron Soviet PZastrcs I (1979) 49. M. R. Grubbs and K. H. Ivey, Recouery of Plastrcs from Urban Refuse by Electrodynamic Techniques U.S. Bureau of Mmes Report TPR 63,1972_ Soda Ash ProductIon U S. Pat. 1341 744 (July 1982) ;o R. J. Brison and M E Webher. T A. Ring, il~meral Eenet?ciation of Or1 Shale. University of Kentucky, IMMR Report 82/066, 1982. pp. 305 - 309. Drfferentral Separatron of Partrculotes by Combined Electrostatic and Radro-Frequency Means. U.S. Pat. 3 293 786 (1966) to A S Horowitz M Szczerbmskl, EZectrodynamic Conductance Separatron wrth Use of _-IZternatrng Fields. J Electrostatics 14 (1983) 175. 122 - 126,147 Diagram. Ref 148.

See also Refs.

Electrodynamic
155

(corona)

separation

of coal

156

15i

158

159

V. R. Gray and P. F. Whelan, Electrostatrc Cleaning of Low Rank Coal by the Drum Separator Fuel. 35 (1956) 184. T Ishlkawa, S. Mukai, Y Shlda and T Xakamats, Study on the Electrostatic Concentration of Low =Ish C~?ol rn Corona Drrcharge Freld. Sot Xrning Engx. AiME Trans. 238 (1967) 205. T Ishikawa, S. ML kai and T. Wakamatsu, Effect of Humidity on ttze Electrostatic Separation of Coal. kryoto Umocrsity Faculty of Engmeering Ilfemorrs 29 (1966) 66. See dS0 25 (1963) 334. F P. Monostory, n. Pickhardt, W Simonis and E. van Szantho, Separation of Pyrite from Cool Dust in EZectn-c and Magnetic Fields, Aufbereitungs-Techmk I I (1970) 207 and 599 W. T. Abel, G. J. Gauntlett and M Zulkoski, Dry Seporatron of Pynte from Coal, Ind Eng. Chem Prod Res Deu II (19i2) 342. 122 - 126, 140 - 142, 154, 201 and

See also Refs. 202

Triboelectric
160

separation

161

I. K Kramarev and B. A. Vasilev, Using EZectrostotrc Separation to Purrfy Quartz Raw Materrol Glass and Ceramrcs USSR. 37 (1980) 115 A. I Mesenyashin, Separating High Potash Feldspars from Pegmat~tes Using Electrosepara-

40 tion. Glass and C~ramrcs USSR. 35 (1978) 602. A P. Korzilova and T. B. Tarosova, Selectron of Seporatron-Resistunt Pyrochlore ProdL,cts by Tnboelectroseparatron, Soviet J Non-Ferrous Metals, 10 (1975) 84. E A Khopunov, V Ya Kosova, S B. Scmenova and A. A TItov, Tnboelectnc Properties and Separatron of Chrorntte Ores. Obogashchenie Rrrd Chernykh XctolIov. No. 4 (1975) 101 A Smgewald, Beneficratron of Potasstum and Maqnesrunz Dlineral Salts m Electric Fields, halz und Steinsalz, S (1982) 252_ G Fncke and A. Singewald, AIinrrals m a High Voltage Field Umschau m Wrrsenschaft rrnd Technrk. 81 (1951) 272. L Ernst and -4 Smgexrald, Selectrue Separation of ~llmeral Salts Lisrng Surface Condrtlonmg Z Pllvs Chern , 114 (1981) 223. R Bock, Electrostattc Separatron of Potash Salt Components Chem Ing Tech , 53 (1981) 916. G. Frlcke, The Use of Electrostatic Separatron Processes 111the Beficfrczatron of Crrlde Potas.sltlm Salts Phosphorus and Potassrum No. 90 (1977) 43 _;\ E Khopunov and V 1. Revnitsev In P. Somzsundnran (cd.), Frmdamentals of TriboelectlIc Separatron of Fine Partrcles Fme Particles Processrng. Amencan Institute of hllnmg, bletallurg~cal and Petroleum Engineers, 19so. pp 1325 - 1311 A I. Angelo%, A. V Degtyarenko, V I. Fotorocha, V. I. Rrvnltsev, E A. Smirnov and N S. Ulyanov, Theoretical Basis and Applrcatlon of Tnboelectrrc Seporatron for Dielectrrc lllmerals Internot Mmeral Processing Congress 9111 1970, i9 G. Alfano, P Carbim, %I_ Carta, R. CICCU and C. Del Fa, Tnboelectnc Phenomena zn filmera Processing Thcoretlcal Ftrr~darnentals and Applicatlons J Electrostatics IO (1981) 177. hI Carta, R CWCU. C. Del Fa, G. Ferrara, M. Ghrani and P Rlasaccl, Improvement in Electrical Separation and Flotation by diodifjcation of Energy Lsoels m Surface Layers Internat. SImeral Proccssrng Congress lot:-. 1973, 349. See also 9th, 1970, 47. M Carta. R. CICCU, C. Del Fa and C- Ferrara, Progress in tize Theorv and Appllcotlon of Trlboelectrrc Separatton r;f Mrnerok. Revue de LIndustrre Mmdrale. 51 (1969) 490 M Carta. R Ciccu. C. Del Fa and G. Ferrara Electric .?eparatron.of Minerals in Ga5 SuspenSIOR. Internat. AImera Processing Congress 8th. 1968, B-l. T J Hickeq and M. J. Pearse, The Separation of Mued Plastics Using a Dry. Tnboelectnc Technrqrre Resource Recovery and Conservation. 3 (1978) 179. hl. J. Pears and M. I. Pope, The Triboelectric Sepnratlorz of Quartz-Calcite and QuartzApatite Powders after Chemical Conditzonmg. Powder Technol , I7 (1977) 83. IM. J. Pe-rse and M. I. Pope, The Separation of Quartz-Dohmite Powders using a Tnboelectric Technrque, Powder Technol . 14 (1976) 7. 178 D. Robert, Electrostatic Separatron in Fluidrred Beds of Minerals Condztioned by Catronic Purfactants. Revue de LIndustrie MinBrale, 50 (1968) 363: P Tauveron, Electrostatic Seporatlon in a Flurdrsed Bed, Revue de LIndrrstrre Mmerale, 49 (1967) 442. R. Morel,. Electrostatic Sortrng m a Flurdrsed Bed. Statzc Electrification Conf Proc , Institute of Physics gnd the Physlcal Society, May 1967, pp_ 165 - 168. I I. Inculet, Electrostahcs m Industry, J_ Electrostatics 4 (1977/78) 175. M. A_ Bergougnou and I. I Inculet. Electrostutrc Benefrciatron of Fine hlmeral Partrcles zn a FZuidued Bed, Internat. llfrneral Processing Congress 10th. 1973, 377_ S. Bauer, M. A. Bergougnou and I. I Inculet, Electrostatic Benefrcratlon Apparatus for Iron and Other Ores, I E E.E Industry Applications Socrety Annual hleeting, 6 (1971) 185 M A Bergougnou, K I Burgess and I I Inculet, Ore Beneficiatlon in a Flurdrsed Bed by Mes-s of an Electric Field, Chem Eng Symp Ser. 66 (1970) 236. M A. Bergougnou, J D. Brown, I. I. Inculet and C WY. Kiexxt, Electrostatrc Separation of Fine Particles In Vibrated Fluldised Beds, IEEE Trans on Industry Applications, IA-14 (1978) 526. F Fraas and 0 C. Ralston. Electrosfatzc Separatron of Solrds. Indust. and Ena. Chem.. 32 (1940) 600. F. Fraas and 0. C. Ralston, dn Electrostatic Separator for Fme Powders US_ Bureau of Mmes Report RI 3667,1942. 136 and 188 - 211 182, 185. 198, 199.

162

179

163

180

164

181 182

165

166

183

167 165

184

169

185

li0

186

187

171

77, 122 - 126, See also Refs Diagrams, Ref. 168. 174, 181. 203, 20-l

172

lhboelectric
188 189 190

separation

of coal

173

191

1i-z

192

175

176

193

177

194

E. van Szantho, Electrostatrc Separation of Brown CoaLs. Braunkohlenarchru. 56 (1949) 29. E. van Szantho, Cleaning of Brdwn Coal Containing Clay. Braunkohle, 52 (1939) 803. S Herzderfer and J. KraJewski, Electrostatic Separation of Coal, Przeglad Cor-rrczy, 7 (1951) 355. Process for Electrostatic Separatron of Pynte from Crude Coal. U S Pat. 3 941685 (1976) to A. Smgewald K Chudyba, A. Clesla, J Furgal and A. Wywl~as, The MePrurement of Some Electrical Properties of Coal Grains and their Trrboelectric Charge from the Vrewpoint of Uhlrration m Electroseparation Zesryty Naukowe Akademii Gorniczo-Hutnlczej m Stanulawa Staszrca, No 762 (1980) 9_ K. Chudyba and A Clesla, Contrrbutrou to the Investlgatzons of Electriflcatron of Coal Grams by the Triboelectric Method, Archrwum Elektroteckntki, 27 (1978) 71. S. Drys and A. Flrek, A Study on a Method of Protection of Cool-Dust Explosion Durrng ah

-41
Electrostatrc Separation of Coal, Zeszyty Naukowe Akademzr Gomiczo-Humiczej in Stanislawa StasEICP., No 551 (1977) 101;&0 A. Firek, personal communication to the author M. Carta, Some Examples of Electrostatic and Magnetic Procedures for Elrmmatmg Pyrite from Coal, Industrie Mrnrirale - Serie les Techniques. No. 1 (1982) 43 M. Carta, Electrostatic Removal of Pyrite from Cool. L Industria Mmerana, 5 (1982) 9. P Carbmi. M Carta. R CICCU. C_ Del Fa. M. Ghiam and G Rossi.~in A M_ AI Taweel (ed ). Beneficiation Methods for Coal DesulphurzzaCion, Proc CIC Coal Symp 64th. 1982, 164. M Agus, M Carta, R C&cu, L..Curehi and C Del Fa, Technical and Economic Prcblems Connected with the Dry Cleaning of Raw Coal and in Particular with Pynte Removal by Means of Electrrc Separation. Internot. Coal Preparation Congress 7th, 1976, 220_ K. Haga, S Masuda. T. Takahashi and M. Toraguchi, Electrostatic Beneficiation of Coal Using a Cyclone Tribocharger, I EE E Trans. IA, I9 (1983) 789_ K. Haga and M Toraguchi, The Electrostatrc Screening of Coal, Serdenkr Gakkarshr, 6 (1982) i39 (Coal Abstracts 2755 (1983)) H. Bendfeldt and W. Konig, Fundamentcl Studies on the Separation of Fine Particle Mixtures into their Components, Especrolly Applicable to Brtuminous Coal, Energre, 21 (1969) 319. S. Koncar-Djurdevic and D. Vukovic. Separation in Flurdised Systems by Means of Drelectric Chargrngof Mafenals, Nature. 193 (1962) 58 M. A Bergougnou, J. D. Brown and I. I Inculet, in Y. A. Liu (ed.), Electrostatic Beneficiation of Coal. Physical Cleaning of Coal - Present and Deuelopmg Methods. Dekker. New York, 1982, pp_ 87 - 131 M. A_ Bergougnou, J. D Brown, D. K_ Faurschou, I. I. Inculet and R. M. Quigley, Electrostatic Beneficiation of Hat Creek Coal in the Flurdlsed State, Canadian Mming and Metallurgrcal Bulletin, 73 (1980) 51. M. A. Bergougnou, J D. Brown, I. I. Inculet and R M_ Quigley, Fluidised Electrostatic Remoual of Mmeral Matter from Coals Mmed at Hat Creek. British Colunbia. Canada, I_E E-E Industry Applrccttons Socrety Annual Meeting, 14 (1979) 112_ M. A Bergougnou, J. D. Brown, I. I. Inculet and D. S. Montgomery, Electrostatic Fluidrsed Bed Techniques Applied to the Benefzciatron of Canadian Coals and Fly Ash, World Energy Conference IOth, 1977, 1.3-2. J Anderson, M A. Bergougnou, I I Inculet and L. Parobek, Electrostatrc Beneficiation of Coal in a Fluidised State, J. Powder Bulk Solids Technol_, I (1977) 22. M A. BergoGgnou, J. D Brown and I I Inculet, Electrostatic Separation of Portrcles Below 40 pm in a Drlute Phase Conbnuous Loop, I_E E.E. Trans, IA-13 (1977) 370 J. M. Anderson, M. A Bergougnou, I. I. Inculet and L Parobek, Electrostatic Separation of Coal Macerat, I-E E-E Transactions, IA I5 (1979) 291 Z Gongguo, Chemical Conditioning for Coal Electrostatic Beneficration, M Eng_ Sci Thesis, University of Western Ontario, August 1982. M. A. Bergougnou, J D. Brown and I I. Inculet, An Apparatus for.Srmultaneous Grinding and Sieving of Coal, Canadian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Bulletin, 68 (1975) 82.

210

195

211

196

197

See also Refs_ 122 - 126.

198

Additional references Beneficiatron of coal

212 R. N. Gould and C A. Hutton, Cleanmg up Coal -A Study of Coal Cleaning and the Use of Cleaned Coal, Ballinger Publ. Co., Cambridge, MA, 1982_ E C Holt, R. E. Hucko and R. P Killmeyer Jr, in R_ A Meyers (ea.), Coal Preparation. Handbook of Energy Technology and Economics, Wiley-Interscience, 1983. D E Jenkmson, R. L. Skelton and UT. G. Wade, Developments in Coal Beneficration Techniques, Ironmakrng and Steelmaking, 10 (1983) 205 A Bahr, E. Fellensiek, H. Ludke, F. W Mehrhoff and P. Wdczynski, Recent Developments and Research in the Separation of Frne Coal below 2 mm, Internat. Cool Preparation Congress 9th. 1982. C6. G Hambleton and G_ Norton, Cleaning to Zero Seldom Pays, Coal Age, 88 (1983) 50

199

213

214

200

215

201

216

202

203

Dry
217

bensficiation

Bcckground

S G. Butcher and M. W. Mikhail, Nouel Technrques Applied to the Beneficratron of Western Canadian Coals InternaL Coal Preparation Congress 9th, 1982, F3.

204

Comm inu tion

218 219 A. B. Holland-Bat& Liberation Analysrs. Trans. Instn. Min Metall., 92C (1983) 129. J_ A Finch and W. Petruk, Testrng a Solutron to the King Liberation Model. Internat. J. Min Proc., 12 (1984) 305_ V. I. Revnitsev and six others, Selectrue Lrberntron of Mmerals in Inert& Cone Crushers, Powder Technol.. 38 (1984) 195. R Carlson. E_ Forssberg and S. Sundberg, Effects of Benefrciation of Steam Coal at the Power Plant, Internat. Coal Preparation Congress 9th, 1982, E3. G G. Sarkar and seven others, Effecciue Beneficiatron of Difficult Washing Coals by the Combined Application of Jig and Or1 _+&omeratron Systems, Internot. Coal Preparation Congress 9th, 1982,Gl_ 0 S Morozov and six others, Rational Preporation of Indrnn Coals for Coke Making, Steel India. 5 (1982)1,97 E. Tompos, in A M Al Taweel (ed ), .4n Applicatron of Coal Petrography to Coking Coal

205

220

206

221

222

207

208

223

224

209

42 Prcparal~on, 74. Proc. CIC Coal Symp 64th. 1982.

Dry HGMS 237 S. E. Male, 238 239

of coal

Characterisation
225

and analysis

226

W. Riepe and M Sreller, Chnmcterrsallon of Coal and Coal Blends by Aulomatrc Image Anolysrs. Fuel. 63 (198-l) 313. B R. Jackson, A. F Reid and J. C. Wlttenberg. Rapid Produclron of High Qualrty Polisled Scctrons for Aulonatcd Image Analyszs of ~llrnerals, Proc. _4uslral~_ Inst. Min. Metoll, 289 (198-I) 93

240

Benefzciation methods 227 E N. Komova, L A. Ltber,

Magnetic Susceptlbdlty and Seporatron of InorganIc Malerial from UK Coals. JPhys D Apple Phys, 17 (1984) :55 R. E Hucko and C P Maronde, The ApphcoLion of HGMS m Coal Preparation. Internat Coal Preparallon Congress 9th. 1982, F2_ C. P van Drirl, C B. W KerkdlJk and J Slkkenga, COOL Upgrading by HGMS, 3rd European Coal Utllizntron Conference, Amsterdam, 3 (1983) 63 T. Fujlta, H. Hashimoto, S Masuda and T. Oda, HGAIS of Cool, Proc Inlernat Symp Powder Technol_, 1981 _ 797.

228

V D Petrenko and L P. Starchik, Problems of Aulornalrc Coal Quality Control, In~ernol. Coal Preparation Congress 9ih. 1982, D3. D Ba~llle. P Cammack and D E JenkInson, Trandrlrers for Coal Plant Control System, Internnl. Coal Preporatlon Congress 91h, 1982. D1.

Open-gradle.rt 2 11 M R Parker,
zn dlognelic 45C (1984)

magnetic

separation
Magnets Colloque.

Use of Superconducting Sepamtzon, J Physique 753.

Electrical
242

separation-particle

sLze effects

Screens
229 230

and classrfrers

231

J. Elmer. Cost-ReducingPrcparatron oflmported Coal _Ilufbcrert~~gs-Technik. -71 (1983) 396. H. M P.ing and K. Rldgway-, Illechanrsm of Sicr,rng Effect of Particle Size and Shape, Insl Chc~x Engrs Symp. Series, 69 (1983) 163_ S R. Shaw , The Rolatmg Probobrlrty Screen -4 _ew Concept m Screening. Mrne and Quarry

A. I. Mesenyashin and V- V. Smirnou. Electrostatrc Seporatron of Particles wrth Various Forms and Dtelectrtc Constants. Souret NonFerrous Metals Research, IO (1982) 411.

Electrodynamic 243 S. Rich. A Dry

Route f&-Y),

(corona)

separation

of coal

Electrosktrc Coal Clennmg Gels Commercial Tryout, Chem Eng. 91 (1984) 35.

12 (1983) 29.

Tables and jigs

232 A. R Brown (1984) Molyavko, Improumg Llze Quolrty Coals from Che Podmoskou Basin. 50. of Ugol. I

Electrodynamic/triboelectric coal
244

separation

of

Air-fluidised
233

partrcle

beds

J. Bouwma, B H M. Kuypers, V L Vlasblom and A. van der Waal, Coal Cleanrng Ussrng Electrostatic Separation. Internot Symp Electrrcol and Magnetic Separatron and Fdtration Technology, Antwerp. 1984

23-I

R Batmcnd and K Erdesz, Nodelling and Expcr~menlol Inrestigafron of Vibropncumatrc Separatron Hung. J Indust Chem. II (1983) 371 J. Grudzinskl. Desulphtrrizotron of Coal. Przeglad Gormcry 39 (1963) 221 Countercsrrenf

Triboelectrlc
245

separation

fluidised

cascade

246

235

J. RI Beeckmans and E W. Ghan, Scparalron of Trace Quonlrtres of Jetsam rn a CCFC. Can. J. Chcm Eng, 62 (19S4) 33.

N. Neltzel and A Singewald m R. M. McKerchner (ed ), ElecLrostotlc Sepoxtmg Procedures for Raw Ore Mmeral, 1st Intcmot. Polush Technol. Conf.. 1983. p_ 589. D Larmour, in R M McKerchner (ed_), Electrostafrc Separation of Potash - PCS Mrnmg Experience. 1st Internot Potash Technol ConT., 1983 p .59i_

High-gradlent magtietrc separation 236 R. R. Blrss and R. Gerber, Hrgh-Gradlent

neLlc Separation. Research Chester, U.K., 1983. Studies Press,

Triboelectrlc 247 M. Agus. P.

MagChl-

separation

of coal

Cerblnl. M. Carta, R. CICCU. C. de1 Fa and M Ghiam, Purlfrcatron of Sulphurous Coals Prior to their Final U~zlizatron, Internal. Coal Preparation Congress 9th. 1982. H3.