The Emergence of Pakistan * Radcliff's Award (August 16, 1947) * Indian Princely States * Initial Difficulties of Pakistan * Indus

Basin Water Dispute Examine critically the Radcliff's Award with special reference to Punjab. Radcliff's Award (August 16, 1947) The Indian Independence Act, 1947, provided among the provisions the appointment of two Boundary Commissions for the division of Punjab and Bengal between Pakistan and India. Each boundary commission was to consist of an equal number of representatives of India and Pakistan and of one or more impartial members. Accordingly, Sir Cyril Radcliff was appointed as the chairman of both boundary commissions who would have the poor to make the Award. The members of the Punjab Boundary Commission were Din Mohammad and Mohammad Munir on behalf of Pakistan, and Mehar Chand Mahajan and Tej Singh on behalf of India. The members of the Bengal Boundary Commission were Abu Saleh Mohammad Akram and S.A. Rahman on behalf of Pakistan and C.C.Biswas and B.K.Mukherjee on behalf of India. All of them were High Court Judges. The members of the commission had acute differences of opinion regarding the setting up of the boundaries. It was then mutually agreed that in case of conflict the chairman should give his verdict. Here again the Muslim League was made to play a losers game. Radcliff gave his verdict in favor of India and against the interest of Pakistan. In consultation with Mountbatten the partial arbitrator sliced away further areas from Pakistan and handed them over to the Hindus. As for an illustration, in Gurdaspur District of Punjab, the distribution of population was as follows (1941 Census Report): * Hindus 21.2% * Sikhs 19.2% * Muslims 51.1% * Indian Christians 4.4% * Scheduled Castes (Non-Hindus) 4.0% In particular in the Tehsil of Batala of Gurdaspur District, the Muslim population was 70% and their boundaries were contiguous to that of Pakistan. The Christian and the Scheduled Caste people of the District also expressed themselves in favor of Pakistan. But the expressed wish of the people was turned down; the inherent right of majority was denied; and Radcliff robbed the Muslim homeland of these fertile regions and handed them over to India. Mr. Din Mohammad, one of Pakistan's representatives on Boundary Commission stated before the West Pakistan High Court on 24th April, 1958, that Sir Cyril Radcliff, Chairmanof the Boundary Commission, had awarded Ferozpur, Ferozpur Head-works and some other areas to West Punjab, but consequently that Award was altered. This was later confirmed by another member of the Boundary Commission, Chief Justice Mohammad Munir in the Course of a speech on 22nd April, 1960, he said I was told by Radcliff in the most unequivocal terms that three Tehsils of Ferozpur, probably, Zira and Fazika, were coming to Pakistan and that it was unnecessary for me to discuss this part of the case with him.

In Bengal, by for the most important question was related to the future of the great city of Calcutta. It was the capital of the province, its only major port, and its centre of industry, commerce, communication and education. In the city of Calcutta itself, Muslims formed only a quarter of the population, but the hinterland, on which the life of Calcutta as a city and port depended and of which it formed an integral part, was a Muslim majority areas. But Radcliff assigned Calcutta to India, and along with Calcutta, he also assigned to India the whole of the Muslim majority district of Murshidabad and the greater part of the Muslim majority district of India. Nearly 6,000 square miles of territory with a population of 3.5 million Muslims that had been provisionally assigned to East Bengal were severed from it and transferred to West Bengal. The result was disastrous. The major part of the irrigated areas went to Pakistan, but the headwords of some of the largest canals were left with India. Similarly the award of Gurdaspur District to India was most unkind. The basic unit in the partition was the district and, according to 1941 census, Gurdaspur, was a Muslim-majority district. Had the district been awarded to Pakistan, there would have been to Kashmir dispute. On 30 October, 1947, Mr. Jinnah felt so pained that he said We have been the victims of a deep-laid and well-planned conspiracy, executed with utter disregard of the elementary principles of honesty, chivalry and honor.
Write an essay on the accession of the Indian Princely States. The Accession of Indian Princely States The Indian states, numbering 562, comprised roughly a third of India's territory and a quarter of the population. They were outside the administrative set-up of British India and were ruled by Indian princes who had accepted the United Kingdom as a paramount power. Most of them were small and exercised limited powers of jurisdictions, but there were 140 fully empowered states. The largest, such as Hyderabad, Meysore and Kashmir, were in extent of territory and population, comparable with british Indian provinces. At the time of India independence, these princely states were given the option to accede either to India or to Pakistan or to remain independent. All the states amicably acceded either to India or Pakistan. However, the future of three princely states (Hyderabad, Junagadh and Kashmir) remained undecided and created conflict between India and Pakistan.

(a) The Recalcitrance of Hyderabad Hyderabad was the most important state of India. It had an area of 82,000 square miles, and a population of 16,000,000. Its annual revenue were Rs. 260 million, and it had its own currency and stamps. The majority of its people were Hindus, but its ruler, the Nizam was a Muslim. By virtue of its size, resources, importance and prestige. Hyderabad felt entitled to the status of an independent sovereign state. On the announcement of the June 3 plan the Nizam declared that he would not accede to India or Pakistan. He hoped to secure Dominion Status for his state, and sent a delegation to the Viceroy on July 11, 1947. Mountbatten told the delegation that the British Government would not agree to Dominion Status for Hyderabad. Instead, he pressed Hyderabad to accede to India. This, however was not acceptable to the Nizam. When the delegation hinted that if India pressed the Nizam too hard he might consider joining Pakistan Mountbatten replied. There was no doubt that Nizam was legally entitled to do so, but the mechanical difficulty presented by the facts of geography was very real. Without implying any king of threat, he foresaw disastrous results to the State in five or ten years if his advice were not taken. Lord Mountbatten left India on June 21, 1948, without having achieved his ambition of securing Hyderabad's accession. The pressure against Hyderabad increased in intensity. An economic blockade was imposed. Military preparation was begun. Nehru was reported to have said, "When we consider it necessary we will state military operations against Hyderabad". On August 24, 1948, Hyderabad filed a complaint before the Security Council of the UN. But before the Security Council could arrange a hearing, India forced a military decision on Hyderabad. After a brief resistance, the Hyderabad army surrendered on September 17, 1948.

(b) The Junagadh Affair Junagadh was a small maritime state, 300 miles down the coast from Karachi. It had an area of 3,337 square miles, and a population of about 7,00,000. The majority of its population was Hindu and the ruler was a Muslim. On September 15, 1947, this State acceded to Pakistan. "Nothing was wrong in the Accession", as Sir Francis Observed; but India refused to acknowledge it and claimed the state by inheritance. A few weeks later India laid violent hands on this State "to force it to accede to India. Its warship lay off the coast under the pretext of combined operations exercises, its troops stood on the border of the State". On November 7, 1947 an Azad Fauj, or liberation army, of 20,000 men with armored cars and other modem weapons entered Junagadh. The Azad Fauj consisted largely of trained military personnel organized and equipped by order of the Government of India. Two days later control over the entire state was assumed by India. Pakistan at that time was in no position to defend Junagadh. Her armed forces were in the process of organization. The array was faced with innumerable problems arising, from refugee movements. There was only the nucleus of a navy and an air force. A complaint lodged by Pakistan with the Security Council of the UN is still pending.

(c) Conflict in Kashmir Kashmir or to give its full name, the state of Jammu and Kashmir, is the northernmost part of the Indo-Pakistan sub continent. Its area of 84,471 square miles was the biggest of any state in India. Its International boundaries with Tibet, China, Afghanistan and but for a small intervening strip with Russia gave it great strategic importance. The total population of the state according to the 1941 census was about 40,00,000 of whom 77 percent were Muslims. The Muslim were in a majority in every province of the state; there was a 93 percent Muslim population in the Kashmir province, 61 percent in Jammu province, and almost 100 percent in the northern region of Gilgit. The people of Kashmir wanted to accede to Pakistan but the ruler of Kashmir was Maharaja Sir Hari Singh of Dogra Hindu dynasty. He wanted to align with India. Thus on the eve of partition, there occured in Kashmir a clash of interests between Hindu ruler and the democratic aspirations of 77 percent of his devout Muslim subjects. The Maharaja Hari Singh miserably failed to suppress the mass upsurge and ultimately approached the Indian Government for help. The Indian Government lost no time in complying with their own heart's desire, the Indian forces entered in Kashmir. The Maharaja signed an instrument of accession to India on 26 October, 1947, in which action Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah head of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference who subsequently became de facto Prime Minister, collaborated with the Maharaja. This created a dispute between India and Pakistan a "Muslim population was fighting for the State accession to Pakistan. Pakistan's Foreign Minister Zafarullah Khan summed up the position as follows in 1948". Pakistan would have been justified in sending her troops in October last, but she had not done so in the hope that an amicable settlement would be arrived at. India took the Kashmir issue to the United Nations in January 1948. The Security Council, after hearing both India and Pakistan's complaints, unanimously decided that the future of Kashmir should be settled according to the wishes of its people. A plebiscite was to be held under the supervision of the UN. India later on went back its promise and refused to hold a plebiscite. Pakistan has repeatedly supported the UN Resolution. Nothing however, has come of it so far due to the uncompromising attitude of India.

Examine the problems faced by Pakistan just after the independence. Introduction The emergence of Pakistan, after a long and arduous freedom movement, was infact a great victory of the democratic idea of life. The Indian Muslims happily and valiantly laid down their lives and properties to achieve a destination in which they saw the fulfillment of their dreams of living an independent life free from Hindu and British dominance. Quaid-e-Azam on 15th August, 1947 said My thoughts are those valiant fighters in our cause who readily sacrificed all they had, including their lives to make Pakistan possible.

Initial Difficulties of Pakistan From its very inception, Pakistan faced a large number of problems. Some of the initial difficulties were 1. Choice of Capital and Establishment of Government The first problem that Pakistan had to face was to choose a capital to form a Government and to establish a secretariat. Karachi was chosen as the capital of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam took the office of the Governor General, Liaquat Ali Khan was appointed as Prime Minister and a Cabinet of experienced persons was selected. Arrangements were to be made to bring the officials who had opted for Pakistan from Delhi to Karachi. 2. Unfair Boundary Distribution A boundary commission was set up under a British Chairman, Sir Cyril Redcliff. He misused his powers and handed over Muslims majority areas like Gurdaspur, Ferozpur and Junagadh to India hence providing them a gateway to Kashmir. Quaid-e-Azam called it an unjust, incomprehensible and even perverse award. 3. The Massacre of Muslim Refugees in India On the birth of Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs became more furious. In a planned move, Muslims properties were set on fire and they were compelled to leave India for Pakistan with nothing but their lives. Millions of refugees were killed before they reached Pakistan. Many migrants were looted and had to be provided boarding immediately as they reached Pakistan. 4. Division of Military and Financial Assets In order to embarrass Pakistan financially, India did a lot of honesty in the matters of Pakistan which were concerned with its benefits. Pakistan was promised to get Rs. 750 million but the Indian Government refused to give. Pakistan received only 200 million. Pakistan also did not receive the due share of the military assets. This dishonest attitude put Pakistan into great difficulties. 5. Canal Water Dispute Most of the rivers flowing in Pakistan have their origin in India. In 1948, India stopped water supply to Pakistani canals to damage the Pakistani agriculture. However on 9th September, 1960 on agreement called Indus Basin Treaty was signed between the two countries. 6. Kashmir Dispute Kashmir dispute is the most important and unsolved problem. Kashmir is the natural part of Pakistan because at the time of partition 85% of the Kashmir's total population was Muslim. The Hindu Dogra Rule, who was secretly with the Government of India, declared Kashmir as a part of India. Pakistan has continuously insisted that Kashmir must get their right of self determination but due to noncooperation of India, Kashmir issue still remain unsolved. 7. Constitutional Problem The constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even in eight years. Lack of a permanent constitution created chances of unscrupulous interference in democratic progress of Pakistan.

8. Annexation of Princely States All Indian princely states were given the right to link up with either of dominions. However, the fate of some states remained undecided. The Muslim Nawab governing Junagadh favoured in acceding to Pakistan. But Indian Government sent Army troops towards Junagadh and occupied the State by force in November, 1947. Hyderabad Deccan was the largest and richest state ruled by Muslim leader Nizam who decided to remain independent. But pressure tactics began to the applied by Indian Government and Mountbatten. India attacked Hyderabad on 13th September 1948 and forcibly annexed this state to India. 9. Economic Problems When Pakistan came into existence, it mostly consisted of economically backward and underdeveloped areas. The agricultural system was obsolete and outdated which added to the economic backwardness of the areas forming part of Pakistan. Before partition the Hindus, with the blessings of the British Government, had acquired complete monopoly in trade and commerce. The entire capital was in the hands of the Hindus. Unfortunately, the banks and other financial institutions were located in Indian territory. The major industries were also in those areas which were part of India. Besides these factors the technical experts and labourers, who operated the industries, were all Hindus because the Muslims extremely lagged behind in education and financial capabilities. The inadequate system of transportation and communication also made its adverse affect on economic development of the country. The railway system and river transportation in East Pakistan was in depleted condition. The roads were in shabby and irreparable condition. The communication and transportation system in West Pakistan, comparatively, was in better position. The power resources in the two wings were scarce and negligible which were insufficient to meet the national requirement. 10. Administrative Problems Pakistan came into being under the most appalling conditions. The Government of Pakistan could not get enough time to set up workable administrative machinery because of the great difficulties created by Congress. The Indian Government adopted delaying tactics n transferring the Government servants and official record which aggravated the situation. Therefore the immediate task before the nation was to establish a workable administrative and Government machinery to run the affairs of the newly born state. The biggest administrative problem facing Pakistan was the acute shortage of competent and experienced personnel in the Central and Provincial Governments. Furthermore, there weren't enough chairs, tables or even stationary and paper pins for administrative purposes. However, Quaid-e-Azam paid his immediate attention towards setting up of administrative machinery and took a number of steps to overcome the administrative problems of the new state. 11. Constitutional Problem At the time of establishment of Pakistan the Government of India Act 1935 became the working constitution of Pakistan with certain adaptions. But the need of a constitution framed by the elected representatives of the people was necessary for free people. So the first constituent assembly was formed and was given the task to frame the constitution for the country. But the constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even in eight years. Lack of a permanent constitution created chances of corrupt interference in democratic progress of Pakistan. On the other hand, the constituent assembly conferred extra ordinary powers on Governor General which afterwards led to future constitutional crisis. 12. Electricity Problem Due to transfer of Muslim majority areas to India and of unfair demarcation, electricity system of West Punjab was disrupted, because all power stations were at Mundi, a predominantly Muslim majority area, gifted to Bharat but Quaid-e-Azam said If we are to exist as a nation, we will have to face the problems with determination and force

Conclusion Pakistan came into being as a free Muslim state in quite unfavourable circumstances. It had no resources, it had to build up its administrative machinery from a scratch. But Supreme efforts were made by the Quaid-e-Azam and his colleagues to grapple with the situation. His golden principles Unity, Faith and Discipline gave way to Pakistan for a bright future of a strong and well developed country. In his last message to the nation on 14th August 1948, he told the nation. The foundation of your state has been laid and it is now for you to build and build as quickly and as well as you can.