ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION Types of Errors Single-Bit error -only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,

character, data unit, or packet) is challenged from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Multiple-Bit Error -2 or more nonconsecutive bits in a data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Burst Error -2 or more consecutive bits in a data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Detection Redundancy -a shorter group of bits may be appended to the end of each data unit. -because extra bits are redundant to the information, they are discarded as soon as the accuracy of the transmission has been determined.

Detection Methods

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) -often called a parity check -a redundant bit, called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so that the total number of 1s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes either even (if the system is checking for even parity) or odd (if the system is checking for odd parity). Even Parity

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) -this is just VRC in two dimensions. -a redundant unit is added after a number of data units. The bits in the redundant unit are calculated from the corresponding bits in the data units using VRC.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) -based on binary division -a sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC or the CRC remainder, is appended to the end of a data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number. -must have two qualities: o have exactly one less bit than the divisor o appending it to the end of the data string must make the resulting bit sequence exactly divisible by the divisor. CRC generator and checker

The CRC Generator -uses modulo-2 division

Polynomials -the CRC generator (the divisor) is most often represented not as a string of 1s and 0s, but as an algebraic expression.

Checksum -the error detection method used by the higher layer protocols

To create the checksum, the sender does the following: The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits. Sections 1 and 2 are added together using ones complement. Section 3 is added to the result of the previous step. Section 4 is added to the result of the previous step. The process repeats until section k added to the result of the previous step. The final result is complemented to make the checksum. Checksum Checker -if the extended data unit is intact the total value found by adding the data segments and the checksum field should be zero (T plus T is -zero)

Error Correction Single-Bit Error Correction -to correct the error, the receiver simply reverses the value of the altered bit. -it must know the location of the invalid bit. Hamming Code -a technique developed by R.W. Hamming that provides a practical solution to discover which state has occurred. Redundancy Bits (r bits) -to calculate the number of redundancy bits (r) required to correct a given number of data bits (m), we use the relationship: 2r m + r + 1

Positioning the Redundancy Bits -these bits are placed in positions 1, 2, 4, 8,, 2n.

Responsibility of each Redundancy Bit -each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits:

Pattern: The r[1] bit is calculated using all bit positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the rightmost position. The r[2] bit is calculated using all bit positions with a 1 in the second position, and so on.

Calculating the r Values -we calculate the even parities for the various bit combinations. -the parity value for each combination is the value of the corresponding r bit.

Error Detection and Correction Example Single-bit Error:

-the receiver takes the transmission and recalculates four new VRCs using the same sets of bits used by the sender plus the relevant parity (r) bit for each set. -then it assembles the new parity values into a binary number in the order of r position (r[2n],, r[8], r[4], r[2], r[1] ). Example Solution: