Impartiality

Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.

Philosophical concepts of impartiality

According to Bernard Gert, "A is impartial in respect R with regard to group G if and only if A's actions in respect R are not influenced at all by which member(s) of G benefit or are harmed by these actions." (Gert 1995, p.104). Impartiality does not require, however, that individuals be treated equally under all circumstances. People or groups should be treated differently if they merit different treatment according to external and objective morality. For example, most legal systems seek to treat murderers differently than innocent persons. This is not a result of partiality, however, because it appeals to an external, objective standardthe lawrather than bias or prejudice. Thus, what impartiality requires is not that everyone receive equal treatment, but rather that everyone be treated as an equal (Dworkin 1977, p. 227).

Morally admirable partiality

Philosophers disagree as to whether partiality can be morally admirable. "Partialists" believe partiality may be admirable in certain situations, such as loyalty to spouse, family, and country as against others. "Impartialists" believe that such loyalties are not morally admirable, arguing that all people should be treated equally regardless of one's relation to them. A third view holds that impartiality is only necessary when an individual acts in a certain capacity, such as that of a judge, an umpire, or a public official. Under this view, impartiality is not a universal moral imperative. For a consideration of the various external standards according to which decisions may be judged, see objective morality.

Religious concepts of impartiality

Buddhism
There are seven factors of enlightenment: clear memory, the exact investigation of things, energy and sympathy, tranquility, impartiality, and a disposition for concentration. The last four factors are the "four sublime states," and are believed to be prerequisites for escaping cyclic existence. (Occhiogrosso 96)

Christianity

"For there is no respect of persons with God." Romans 2:11, KJV

"But he that doeth wrong shall receive for the wrong which he hath done: and there is no respect of persons." Colossians 3:25, KJV "My dear brothers and sisters, how can you claim that you have faith in our glorious Lord Jesus Christ if you favor some people more than others? For instance, suppose someone comes into your meeting dressed in fancy clothes and expensive jewelry, and another comes in who is poor and dressed in shabby clothes. If you give special attention and a good seat to the rich person, but you say to the poor one, 'You can stand over there, or else sit on the floor'well, doesn't this discrimination show that you are guided by wrong motives? Listen to me, dear brothers and sisters. Hasn't God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren't they the ones who will inherit the Kingdom he promised to those who love him? And yet, you insult the poor man! Isn't it the rich who oppress you and drag you into court? Aren't they the ones who slander Jesus Christ, whose noble name you bear? Yes indeed, it is good when you truly obey our Lord's royal command found in the scriptures: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' But if you pay special attention to the rich, you are committing a sin, for you are guilty of breaking that law." Epistle of James 2:1-9, NLT

"But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere." -Epistle of James 3:17, NIV

Hinduism
"Truth, O Bharata, as it exists in all the world, is of thirteen kinds. The forms that Truth assumes are impartiality, self-control, forgiveness, modesty, endurance, goodness, renunciation, contemplation, dignity, fortitude, compassion, and abstention from injury." -- Truth, The Mahabharata, Santi Parva, Section CLXII.

Islam
"The Absolute Criterion of Justice and Equity, was sent down by Allah so that people may conduct themselves with equity." Quran, 52:25.

"Establish weight with justice and fall not short in the balance. Maintain the balance with fairness and justice, without differentiating anybody's rights and obligations." Quran 55:9.

Judaism
"You shall do no injustice in court. You shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great, but in righteousness shall you judge your neighbor." Leviticus 19:15, English Standard Version

"You shall not be partial in judgment. You shall hear the small and the great alike." Deuteronomy 1:17, ESV

"These things also belong to the wise. It is not good to have respect of persons in judgment." Book of Proverbs 24:23, KJV

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Independence
A personification of independence as represented by a statue in The American Adventure in the World Showcase pavilion of Walt Disney World's Epcot. Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. Attainment of independence should not be confused with revolution, which typically refers to the violent overthrow of a ruling authority. While some revolutions seek and achieve national independence, others aim only to redistribute power with or without an element of emancipation, such as in democratization within a state, which as such may remain unaltered. Furthermore, some countries were granted independence without any revolutionary acts. The Russian October Revolution, for example, was not intended to seek national independence; the United States Revolutionary War, however, was. Autonomy (in slight contrast) refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an overseeing authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory (see Devolution). A protectorate refers to an autonomous region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region. The dates of established independence (or, less commonly, the commencement of revolution), are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence day.

Sometimes, a state wishing to achieve independence from a dominating power will issue a declaration of independence; the earliest surviving example is Scotland's Declaration of Arbroath in 1320, with the most recent example being South Sudan's declaration of independence in 2011. Declaring independence and attaining it however, are quite different. A well-known successful example is the U.S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776. Historically, there have been three major periods of declaring independence: the years from 1776 to the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe; the immediate aftermath of the First World War with the breakup of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires; and the decades from to 1945 to 1979, when seventy newly independent states emerged from the wreckage of the European colonial empires.[1] Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many. Disillusionment rising from the establishment is a cause widely used in separatist movements, but it is usually severe economic difficulties that trigger these groups into action. The means can extend from peaceful demonstrations, like in the case of the Indian independence movement, to a violent civil war. -*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-**-*-*-*-

Volunteering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Volunteer", "Volunteers", and "Volunteerism" redirect here. For other uses, see Volunteer (disambiguation), Voluntarism (disambiguation), and Voluntary (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

In general terms, volunteering is the practice of people working on behalf of others or a particular cause without payment for their time and services. Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity, intended to promote good or improve human quality of life, but people also volunteer for their own skill development, to meet others, to make contacts for possible employment, to have fun, and a variety of other reasons that could be considered self-serving. Volunteering takes many forms and is performed by a wide range of people. Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work in, such as medicine, education,

or emergency rescue. Other volunteers serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster or for a beach-cleanup. In a military context, a volunteer army is an army whose soldiers chose to enter service, as opposed to having been conscripted. Such volunteers do not work for free and are given regular pay.

Social capital
The social capital generated by volunteering plays a key role in economic regeneration.
[citation needed]

See: Fidrmuc J., Grxhani K..: Mind the Gap! Social Capital, East and West, page 5. In: CEDI DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES, Working Paper Number 07-10. Centre for Economic Development & Institutions, Brunel University, London 2007. (http://ideas.repec.org/p/edb/cedidp/07-10.html) They cite ood sources for that particular issue.

Moral Resources, Political Capital and Civil Society

Based on a case study in China, Xu and Ngai (2011) revealed that the developing grassroots volunteerism can be an enclave among various organizations and may be able to work toward the development of civil society in the developing countries. The researchers developed a Moral Resources and Political Capital approach to examine the contributions of volunteerism in promoting the civil society. Moral resource means the available morals could be chosen by NGOs. Political capital means the capital that will improve or enhance the NGOs status, possession or access in the existing political system. [1] Moreover, Xu and Ngai (2011) distinguished two types of Moral Resources: Moral Resource-I and Moral Resource-II (ibid). Moral Resource I: Inspired by Immanuel Kants (1998 [1787]) argument of What ought I to do, Moral Resource-I will encourage the NGOs confidence and then have the courage to act and conquer difficulties by way of answering and confirming the question of What ought I to do. [2] Moral Resource II: given that Adorno (2000) recognizes that moral or immoral tropes are socially determined, Moral Resource-II refers to the morals that are well accepted by the given society. [3] Thanks to the intellectual heritage of Blau and Duncan (1967), two types of political capital were identified: Political Capital-I refers to the political capital mainly ascribed to the status that the NGO inherited throughout history (e.g., the CYL). Political Capital-II refers to the Political Capital that the NGOs earned through their hard efforts. [4] Obviously, Moral resource-I itself contains the self-determination that gives participants confidence in the ethical beliefs they have chosen, [5] almost any organizations may has Moral Resource-I, while not all of them have the societal recognized Moral Resource-II. However, the voluntary service organizations predominantly occupy Moral Resource-II because a sense of moral superiority makes it possible that for parties with different values, goals and cultures to work together in

promoting the promotion of volunteering. Thus the voluntary service organizations are likely to win the trust and support of the masses as well as the government more easily than will the organizations whose morals are not accepted by mainstream society. In other words, Moral Resource II helps the grassroots organizations with little Political Capital I to win Political Capital-II, which is a crucial factor for their survival and growth in developing countries such as China. Therefore, the voluntary service realm could be an enclave of the development of civil society in the developing nations. [6]

Skills-based volunteering
Skills-based volunteering refers to volunteering in which the volunteer is specifically trained in the area they are volunteering in.[citation needed] This is in contrast to traditional volunteering, where specific training is not required. The average hour of traditional volunteering is valued by the Independent Sector at between $1820 an hour. Skillsbased volunteering is valued at $40500 an hour depending on the market value of the time.[7]

Virtual volunteering
Virtual volunteering, also sometimes called as eVolunteering, online volunteering, is a term describing a volunteer who completes tasks, in whole or in part, offsite from the organization being assisted, using the Internet and a home, school, telecenter or work computer or other Internet-connected device, such as a PDAs or smartphone. Virtual volunteering is also known as cyber service, telementoring, and teletutoring, and various other names. Virtual volunteering is similar to telecommuting, except that, instead of online employees who are paid, these are online volunteers who are not paid.

Micro-volunteering
Micro-volunteering, is a term that describes an un-paid task that can be done via an internet-connected device and in small increments of time. It is distinct from virtual volunteering in that it typically does not require an application process or training period. [8][9][10] Micro-volunteering via smart-phone was pioneered by a San Francisco-based social enterprise called The Extraordinaries in 2008.[11][12][13]

Environmental volunteering
Environmental volunteering refers to volunteers who contribute towards environmental management. Volunteers conduct a range of activities including environmental monitoring, ecological restoration such as re-vegetation and weed removal, and educating others about the natural environment.

Volunteering in schools
School systems around the world rely heavily on volunteers and donations in order to run effectively.[citation needed] In some countries, whenever the economy is down, the need for volunteers and resources increases greatly.[14] There are many opportunities available in the school system for volunteers to take advantage of, especially if you have a special skill or trade. There are not many requirements in order to become a volunteer in the school system. Whether you are a parent, grandparent or just a community member most schools just require a volunteer form be completed. Much like the benefits of any type of volunteering there are great rewards for the volunteer, student, and school. These benefits include but are not limited to:[citation needed] School Benefits Provided with additional service without having to have added costs, Teachers are given extra time for educational purposes and planning, A positive relationship between the community and the school. Volunteer Benefits Parents become involved in their childs school and education, New talents that one never knew they had are discovered, A sense of personal satisfaction, Ability to meet new people and develop new friendships. Student Benefits Students are given a positive role model, Educational success is encouraged and improved.

Corporate volunteering and employee volunteering

A majority of the companies at the Fortune 500 allow their employees to volunteer during work hours. These formalized Employee Volunteering Programs (EVPs), also called Employer Supported Volunteering, are regarded as a part of the companies' sustainability efforts and their social responsibility activities.[15] According to information from VolunteerMatch, a service that provides Employee Volunteering Program solutions, the key drivers for companies that produce and manage EVPs is that it builds brand awareness and affinity, strengthens trust and loyalty among consumers, enhances corporate image and reputation, improves employee retention, increases employee productivity and loyalty and provides an effective vehicle to reach strategic goals.[16]

Community volunteering
Community volunteering refers to volunteers who work to improve community enhancement efforts in the area in which they live. Neighborhood, church, and community groups play a key role in building strong Cities from the neighborhoods up. Supporting these understaffed groups can enable them to succeed in a variety of areas, which connect social, environmental, and economic boundaries. Volunteers can conduct

a wide range of activities. Some choose to support a variety of groups as a "volunteer broker."

Politics
In almost all modern societies, the most basic of all values is people helping people and, in the process, helping themselves.[citation needed] However, a tension can arise between volunteering and the state-provided services, so most countries develop policies and enact legislation to clarify the roles and relationships among stakeholders and identify and allocate the necessary legal, social, administrative, and financial support. This is particularly necessary when some voluntary activities are seen as a challenge to the authority of the state, e.g. on 29 January 2001, President Bush cautioned that volunteer groups should supplement, not replace, the work of government agencies.[17] Volunteering that benefits the state but challenges paid counterparts raises the ire of labor unions representing the paid counterparts as in the case of volunteer fire departments, particularly in combination departments.

International workcamps
An international workcamp is an international voluntary project in which participants from different countries can meet, live, work, learn and exchange with local people concerning issues about environmental conservation, cultural heritage, social justice, rural and human development, etc. International workcamps can be divided into short term voluntary projects (STV) and long/middle term voluntary projects (LMTV). STV projects are international workcamps for less than 2 months, while LMTV projects are those lasting 2 months or more. The most common international workcamp lasts for two weeks with a group of 10-20 overseas and local workcamp participants.

Difficulties in cross-national aid

. Difficulties in this model of volunteering can arise when this is applied across national borders. A state sending volunteers to another state can be viewed as a breach of sovereignty and a lack of respect towards the national government of the proposed recipients. Thus, when states negotiate the offer and acceptance of aid, motivations become important, particularly if donors may postpone assistance or stop it altogether. Three types of conditionality have evolved: 1. Financial accountability: Transparency in the management of funding to ensure that what is done by the volunteers is properly targeted.

2. Policy reform: Requesting governments of developing countries adopt certain social, economic, or environmental policies, the most controversial relating to the privatization of services traditionally offered by the state. 3. Development objectives: Asking developing countries to adjust specific timebound economic objectives Some international volunteer organisations define their primary mission altruistically as fighting poverty and improving the living standards of people in the developing world, e.g. Voluntary Services Overseas has almost 2,000 skilled professionals working as volunteers to pass on their expertise to local people so that, when they return home, their skills remain. When these organisations work in partnership with governments, the results can be impressive. However, when other organisations or individual First World governments support the work of volunteer groups, there can be questions as to whether their real motives are poverty alleviation or wealth creation for some of the poor or policies intended to benefit the donor states. This confusion exists because experience shows[who?] that what is volunteered can distort the foreign and economic policy of the country receiving the aid[further explanation needed]. The economies of many low-income countries suffer from "industrialisation without prosperity" and "investment without growth". This arises because "development assistance" guides many Third World governments to pursue "development" policies that have been wasteful, ill-conceived, unproductive or even so positively destructive that they could not have been sustained without outside support.[18] Indeed, some of the offers of aid have distorted the general spirit of volunteering, treating local voluntary action as "contributions in kind", i.e. as conditions requiring local people to earn the right to donor "largesse" by modifying their behaviour. This can be seen as patronising and offensive to the recipients because the aid expressly serves the policy aims of the donors rather than the needs of the recipients. The track record shows that making any aid conditional on policy reforms is often ineffective.[citation needed] Conditionality only works when there is a strong domestic commitment to reform and the recipient governments are democratic, i.e. they are accountable to their own electorates.[citation needed] Volunteer organizations and their funding donors should respect the governments of the countries they wish to help and build on the deep-rooted traditions of people to help one another, and thereby provide an important ingredient for social and democratic development.[citation needed]

Criticism
In the 1960s, Ivan Illich offered an analysis of the role of American volunteers in Mexico in his speech entitled, "To Hell With Good Intentions". His concerns, along with critics such as Paulo Freire and Edward Said, revolve around the notion of altruism as an extension of Christian missionary ideology and the sense of responsibility/obligation driving the concept of noblesse oblige, first developed by the French aristocracy as a moral duty derived from their wealth. Simply stated, these both propose the extension of power and authority over indigenous cultures around the world.

Recent critiques of volunteering come from Westmier and Kahn (1996) and bell hooks (ne Gloria Watkins) (2004). The field of medical tourism (referring to volunteers traveling overseas to deliver care) has recently attracted negative criticism vis-a-vis the alternative notion of sustainable capacities (working in the context of long-term, locally-run but foreign-supported infrastructures). A preponderance of this criticism has appeared largely in the scientific and peer-reviewed literature.[19][20][21] Recently, media outlets with more general readerships have published such criticisms, as well

Unity is Strength
In a word, unity means oneness, or togetherness. When there is oneness there is likely to be more strength in opinion, more strength in action, and more strength in character. This is a very simple and obvious fact that, if one person tries his hands on some job, he will manage much less than what a group effort will achieve. This, in all simplicity what unity is all about. Let us peep into different spheres of our existence and we can adjudge the truth of this statement. Let us first discuss the smallest unit of our society the family. If all members of a family go on divergent roads, the very semblance of a family disappears. A family indicates oneness, they live together, they work together they enjoy together they share their woes together, and this is the basic strength of the unit, each member pumping in vigour and confidence in all others, all this on the simple vasis of being one. When we lose this oneness, as of to day we break the family, i.e. the very edifice of our construction. From this smallest unit, we go to the bigger horizon of society. Where is our society to day? It is broken into fragments, and each segment i.e. an individual family just looking after itself, as if we sternly believe in the adage, everyone for himself, and God for all. This has become the motto of the society at large. This has lead to the loosening of the ties of the society and this is the cause of the growth of so many social evils. When there is no strong bond in different segments of a society, it is bound to break into factions, and thus lose its strength, both moral and social. From the society, let us move on to the position of the country. This is the saddest side of our appearance, a complete lack of unity in the country, thereby the creeping in of evils in the very fabric of the system. The country is, to day seen crumbling under its weight of separationism, each state is desirous of a new younger cousin, so

instead of getting together, we are continuously moving on the path of disintegration and thus weakening our system. The best example of unity that India has ever portrayed has been during its struggle for independence, Even though the struggle lasted for almost a century, the Indians clung together as one single unit unmoved and what happened to the great British Empire is for all of us to see. This is all what unity is about, and this is the magic that unity can play on a country. I am sure that, if India had not depicted its great unity in this war, our History would have been different. India has undoubtedly got an inbuilt strength of unity, which it shows off and on then why can it not always stand as one entity, and become a power to reckon with. Let us consider and understand that, unity is the password which heals all bruises big and small. It is this that helps us enjoy few happy moments of life. In the good moments of a marriage, in the sad moments of sickness and death, it is the unity of the well wishers that makes the pleasure great and despair less. This is the unique power of unity. A lone individual or community can achieve nothing and neither can they enjoy the fruits of any achievement. The secret power of unity is strength, which is built up by mutual trust and faith and love for each other, and the oneness of a single well formulated goal. To achieve or even to destroy, we need unity, for example, if the terrorists had no unity even they would not have been able to cause as much destruction as they have succeeded in achieving. From Kashmirr, lakhs of people have migrated just because the terrorists have their unity in action, thought and spirit and so they are able to destroy as per their target. Thus in order to make any significant achievement, the most necessary ingredient is unity. Your targets may be good or bad, but success is assured if you have a united consolidated group to work up to the goal.