2.

Structure Of Atom
Sub-atomic particles: Name Electron Proton Neutron Symbol e p n Charge/C 1.6022 1019 +1.6022 1019 0 Relative charge 1 +1 0 Mass/kg 9.1094 1031 1.6726 1027 1.6749 1027

Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron:

e 1.7558820 1011 C kg 1 m

Rutherfords atomic model: Positive charge and most of the mass of atom was densely concentrated in an extremely small region called nucleus. Electrons move around the nucleus with high speed in circular paths called orbits. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. Drawbacks: Cannot explain the stability of the atom Does not explain the electronic structure of atoms Bohrs model of atom: Developments that lead to the formulation of Bohrs model of atom: Dual character of electromagnetic radiation i.e., wave-like and particle-like Only quantized electronic energy levels in atoms can explain atomic spectra. Speed of light = 3.0 108 m s1 Frequency Wave number,
Velocity c Wavelength 1

(S.I unit = m1)

Particle Nature of electromagnetic radiation Plank quantum theory E h ; E = Energy

= Frequency h = Plancks constant h = 6.626 1034 Js

Photoelectric Effect

Results:
h
h
0

1 me v2 2

h 1 me v 2 2

Minimum energy required to eject the electron (Work function, W0) Energy of the striking photon K.E of the photoelectron

Evidence for the quantized electronic energy levels:

Line spectrum of Hydrogen

109, 677 1 n12 1 cm 2 n2
1

Where, n1 = 1, 2, n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2, 109,677 cm1 = Rydberg constant for hydrogen The formula that describes Balmer series is

109, 677

1 22

1 cm n2

(n = 3, 4, 5,..)

Spectral lines for atomic hydrogen: Series Lymen Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund n1 1 2 3 4 5 n2 2, 3,. 3, 4,. 4, 5,. 5, 6,. 6, 7,. Spectral region UV Visible IR IR IR

Bohrs model of hydrogen atom The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy called orbit (stationary states or allowed energy states). Energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. Angular momentum = I I = Moment of inertia = me r 2 = Angular velocity = Bohrs frequency rule
E h E2 h E1

v (v is linear velocity) r

Angular momentum = me vr
me vr n h , n = 1, 2, 3.. 2

n = 1, 2, 3are principal quantum numbers rn

n2 a0 ; a0 529 pm

rn is the radii of the stationary states.

En

RH

1 n 1, 2,3..... n2

RH is Rydbergs constant. Energy associated with ions such as He+, Li2+, etc. (hydrogen-like species) is

En = 2.18 10 And radii, rn

18

Z2 J n2
Z pm

52.9 n 2

Limitations of Bohrs model It was unable to explain the finer details of the hydrogen atom spectrum. It was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in presence of magnetic and electric field. Could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds Dual behaviour of matter (de Broglie equation):
h mv h p

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle:

x px h 4 vx h 4 m

Or, x

Quantum mechanical model of atom: Schrodinger equation:

H E H is Hamiltonian operator.

Orbitals and Quantum numbers: Principal quantum number (n) n=1 2 3 Shell = K L M

4. N.

Azimuthal quantum number (l) For a given value of n, possible values of l are: 0, 1, 2, 3, .(n 1)

L Notation for subshell

0 s

1 p

2 d

3 f

4 g

5 h

Magnetic quantum number (ml) For any sub-shell,

ml l, l 1, l 2 .....0,1,...... l 2 , l 1 , l

Value of l Sub-shell notation No. of orbitals

0 s 1

1 p 3

2 d 5

3 f 7

4 g 9

5 h 11

Electron spin: ms

1 2

or

1 2

Five d-orbitals: d xy , d yz , d zx , d x

y2

, d z2

Three p-orbitals: px, py, p And, there are seven f orbitals. Energy of the orbitals in a hydrogen atom increases as
1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 3d 4s 4 p 4d 4f ...

Energy of the orbitals in a multi-electron atom follows the following rules: Lower the value of (n + l) of an orbital, lower is its energy. When the two orbitals have same (n + l) value, the orbital with lower value of n will have lower energy. Aufbaus principle: The orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies (in the ground state). Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.

Hunds Rule of maximum Multiplicity: Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied. Electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented as: s a p b d c ............ notation (i) (ii) Orbital diagram

Fully-filled and half-filled orbitals are the stable orbitals.

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