1

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS: Design of Experiments (DOE) is a complex but powerful method of validating product and process designs. Design of Experiment enables designers to determine simultaneously the individual and interactive effects of many factors that could affect the output results in any design. DOE also provides a full insight of interaction between design elements; therefore, it helps turn any standard design into a robust one. Simply put, DOE helps to pin point the sensitive parts and sensitive areas in designs that cause problems in Yield. Designers are then able to fix these problems and produce robust and higher yield designs prior to going into production. DOE provides a powerful means to achieve breakthrough improvements in product quality and process efficiency. By using Fractional factorial design or Taguchi technique available in DOE it is possible to carry out the fewest number of experiments while maintaining the most important information. From the view point of manufacturing fields, this can reduce the number of required experiments when taking into account the numerous factors affecting experimental results. Experimental design techniques are preferred over the traditional one-factor-at-a-time approach to experimentation for determining the optimal condition of any manufacturing process. DOE guides experimenters through making several simultaneous changes or testing more than one factor at a time. Overall, less time and resources are spent doing fewer experiments, and the result is a better, more reproducible solution. Some of the important applications of experimental design in manufacturing environment are: Rapid understanding of the process or system behaviour over a specified region of interest to the experimenters. Determining which sets of input variables are most important in a process so that they can be separated from the unimportant ones. Identifying the key process variables which cause variation in the functional performance of products and processes and thereby minimising performance variation for better product quality.

Building quality and reliability into products and processes from the initial design stages. Determining the optimal operating condition of manufacturing processes. Setting up tolerances on the critical process variables and thereby reducing process variability. Reducing the product and process design and development costs. Reducing scrap rate, rework and other quality related costs.

1.2 GOAL OF EXPERIMENTS: Experiments help us in understanding the behaviour of a (mechanical) system. Data collected by systematic variation of influencing factors helps us to quantitatively describe the underlying phenomenon or phenomena.

The goal of any experimental activity is to get the maximum information about a system with the minimum number of well designed experiments. An experimental program recognizes the major factors that affect the outcome of the experiment. The factors may be identified by looking at all the quantities that may affect the outcome of the experiment. The most important among these may be identified using a few exploratory experiments or from past experience or based on some underlying theory or hypothesis. The next thing one has to do is to choose the number of levels for each of the factors. The data will be gathered for these values of the factors by performing the experiments by maintaining the levels at these values. Experiments repeated with a particular set of levels for all the factors constitute replicate experiments. Statistical validation and repeatability concerns are answered by such replicate data.

1.3 ISSUES IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

Identification of the objectives of the experiment in the form of specific questions.

The selection of treatments to provide answers to the questions. Statistical concepts of treatment structure are used to provide maximum information relating to these questions.

Choice of experimental units and amount of replication.

Control of the variability between sets of units through systems of blocking and/or by using ancillary information (i.e. covariate information) collected on the units.

Allocation of treatments to particular units within the overall structure of units, involving, where possible, an element of randomisation.

Collecting data that are appropriate for the objectives of the research. These may be on the whole experimental unit, or may involve sampling within the unit.

1.4 BASIC PRINCIPLES: 1.4.1 Statistical design of experiments: Statistical design of experiments refers to the process of planning the experiment so that appropriate data that can be analyzed by statistical methods will be collected, resulting in valid and objective conclusions. The statistical approach to experimental design is necessary to draw meaningful conclusions from the data. When the problem involves data that are subject to experimental errors, statistical methodology is the only objective approach to analysis. Thus, there are two aspects to any experimental problem: the design of the experiment and the statistical analysis of the data. These two subjects are closely related because the method of analysis depends directly on the design employed. The three basic principles of experimental design are Replication, Randomization and Blocking

1.4.2 Replication: Replication is a repetition of the basic experiment. There is an important distinction between replication and repeated measurements. For example, suppose that a silicon wafer is etched in a single-wafer plasma etching process, and a critical dimension on this wafer is measured three times. These measurements are not replicates; they are a form of repeated measurements, and in this case, the observed variability in the three repeated measurements is a direct reflection of the inherent variability in the measurement system or gauge. 1.4.3 Randomization: Randomization is the cornerstone underlying the use of statistical methods in experimental design. Randomization means both the allocation of the experimental material and the order in which the individual runs or trials of the experiment are to be performed are randomly determined. Statistical methods require that the observations (or errors) be independently distributed random variables. Randomization usually makes this assumption valid. Properly randomizing the experiment also assists in "averaging out" the effects of extraneous factors that may be present. 1.4.3 Blocking: Blocking is a design technique used to improve the precision with which comparisons among the factors of interest are made. Often blocking is used to reduce or eliminate the variability transmitted from nuisance factors; that is, factors that may influence the experimental response but in which we are not directly interested. Generally, a block is a set of relatively homogeneous experimental conditions. The three basic principles of experimental design: randomization, replication, and blocking are part of every experiment. 1.5 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING EXPERIMENTS: To use the statistical approach in designing and analyzing an experiment, it is necessary to have a clear idea in advance of exactly what is to be studied, how the data are to be collected, and a qualitative understanding of how these data are to be analyzed.

Guidelines for Designing an Experiment 1. Recognition of and statement of the problem. 2. Choice of factors, levels, and ranges. 3. Selection of the response variable. 4. Choice of experimental design. 5. Performing the experiment. 6. Statistical analysis of the data. 7. Conclusions and recommendations. In practice, steps 2 and 3 are often done simultaneously or in reverse order. 1.6 FACTORIAL DESIGN: Many experiments involve the study of the effects of two or more factors. Factorial design means that in each complete trial or replication of the experiment all possible combinations of the levels of the factors are investigated. Among the Factorial designs the most commonly used is the 2k design with k factors, each at two levels. The 2k design is particularly useful in the early stages of experimental work, when there are likely to be many factors to be investigated. It provides the smallest number of runs with k factors can be studied in a complete factorial design. Consequently these designs are widely used in factor screening experiments. 1.6.1 Two-Level Fractional Factorial Design: As the number of factors in a 2k factorial design increases, the number of runs required for a complete replicate of the design rapidly outgrows the resources of most experimenters. For example, a complete replicate of the 26 design requires 64 runs. In this design only 6 of the 63 degrees of freedom correspond to main effects, and only 15 degrees of freedom correspond to two-factor interactions. The remaining 42 degrees of freedom are associated with three-factor and higher interactions.

If the experimenter can reasonably assume that certain high-order interactions are negligible, information on the main effects and low-order interactions may be obtained by running only a fraction of the complete factorial experiment. These fractional factorial designs are among the most widely used types of designs for product and process design and for process improvement. A major use of fractional factorials is in screening experiments. These are experiments in which many factors are considered and the objective is to identify those factors (if any) that have large effects. Screening experiments are usually performed in the early stages of a project when it is likely that many of the factors initially considered have little or no effect on the response. The factors that are identified as important are then investigated more thoroughly in subsequent experiments. The successful use of fractional factorial designs is based on three key ideas: 1. The sparsity of effects principle: When there are several variables, the system or process is likely to be driven primarily by some of the main effects and low order interactions. 2. The projection property: Fractional factorial designs can be projected into stronger (larger) designs in the subset of significant factors. 3. Sequential experimentation: It is possible to combine the runs of two (or more) fractional factorials to assemble sequentially a larger design to estimate the factor effects and interactions of interest. 1.6.2 One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design: One half fraction factorial design can reduce the number of experiments and generates the same result it can be achieved by full factorial design. The number of experiments is reduced by eliminating the three-factor and higher interactions. For example 24 factorial design can be reduced to 24-1 = 23 factorial design. 1.7 TAGUCHI METHOD: Taguchi method is a statistical method developed largely by Genichi Taguchi to improve quality of manufactured goods. The Taguchi method is a standardized approach for determining the best combination of inputs to produce a product or service. This is accomplished through design of experiments (DOE).

1.7.1 Robust Design: The Taguchi concept of robust design states that products and services should be designed so that they are inherently defect free and of high quality. Taguchis approach for creating robust design is through a three-step method consisting of concept design, parameter design, and tolerance design. 1.7.1.1 Concept design: Concept design is the process of examining competing technologies to produce a product. 1.7.1.2 Parameter design: Parameter design refers to the selection of control factors and the determination of optimal levels for each of the factors. 1.7.1.3 Tolerance design: Tolerance design deals with developing specification limits. 1.7.2 Taguchi Process steps: Step 1: Problem Identification: First, the production problem must be identified. The problem may have to do with the product process or the service itself. Step 2: Brainstorming Session: Second, a brainstorming session to identify variables that have a critical affect on service or product quality takes place. The critical variables identified in the brainstorming sessions are referred to as factors. These may be identified as either control factors (variables that are under the control of management) or signal factors (uncontrollable variation). Step 3: Experimental Design: Using the factors, factor levels, and objectives from the brainstorming session, the experiment is designed. The Taguchi method uses off-line experimentation as a means of improving quality. This contrasts with traditional on-line (in process) quality measurement.

Step 4: Experimentation: There are different Taguchi analysis approaches that use quantitatively rigorous techniques such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), signal-to-noise ratios (S/N), and response charts. These approaches, although not always theoretically sound, are useful in engineering related projects involving engineered specifications, torques, and tolerances. Step 5: Analysis: Experimentation is used to identify the factors that result in closest-to-target performance. If interactions between factors are evident, two alternatives are possible.

Either ignore the interactions (there is inherent risk to this approach) or, provided the cost is not prohibitive, run a full factorial experiment to detect interactions. The full factorial experiment tests all possible interactions among variables Step 6: Confirming Experiment: Once the optimal levels for each of the factors have been determined, a confirming experiment with factors set at the optimal levels should be conducted to validate the earlier results. If earlier results are not validated, the experiment may have somehow been

significantly flawed. If results vary from those expected, interactions also may be present, and the experiment should, therefore, be repeated. 1.7.3 Orthogonal Array(OA): Orthogonal Arrays (often referred to Taguchi Methods) are often employed in industrial experiments to study the effect of several control factors. An orthogonal array is a type of experiment where the columns for the independent variables are orthogonal to one another. 1.7.3.1 Benefits: 1. Conclusions valid over the entire region spanned by the control factors and their settings. 2. Large saving in the experimental effort. 3. Analysis is easy.

1.8 DISC BRAKE: The motor vehicles are being now fitted with disc brakes instead of the conventional type drum brakes. In these brakes, a circular plate replaces the drum while flat pieces of friction material grip the disc instead of shoes. A disc brake usually consists of a rotating disc and two friction pads actuated by four hydraulic wheel pistons. A caliper which is an assembly of two halves contains the wheel pistons. The caliper assembly is secured to the steering knuckle in a front wheel brake and to the axle housing in a rear wheel brake. It is cast into two parts, each part containing a piston. In between each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc. passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing.

Fig 1.1: Schematic sketch of disc brake When the brake pedal is applied the fluid will be displaced from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinder pistons. This will exert equal and opposite pressure on the friction pads by forcing them against the rotating disc to grip it. More force is needed to apply the disc brakes for same brake requirement because they are not self-energizing. The pads will still maintain slight pressure on the disc although pressure on the disc relieved when the pedal is released

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In India disc brakes were used for the first time in Maruti 800 cars at the front wheels. These have now been employed in many other cars also. 1.9 BRAKE PAD: The brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Although it is commonly thought that the pad material contacts the metal of the disc to stop the vehicle, the pads work with a very thin layer of their own material and generate a semi-liquid friction boundary that creates the actual braking force. Friction can be divided into two parts: Adhesive and abrasive. Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the configuration and the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The properties that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity. The friction coefficient for most standard pads will be in the region of .40 when used with cast iron discs. Racing pads with high iron content designed for use with cast iron brake discs reach .55 to .60 which gives a very significant increase in braking power and high temperature performance.

Fig 1.2: Disc pad High iron content racing pads wear down discs very quickly and usually when the pads are worn out so are the discs. The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad material), and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that replacement is needed. Some have a thin piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are too thin, causing the brakes to squeal, while others have a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin. More expensive cars may use an electronic sensor.

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Generally road-going vehicles have two brake pads per caliper, while up to six are installed on each racing caliper, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum performance.

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CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Various journals related to design of experiments had been referred and inputs have been taken from their articles. Some of the journals are listed below: Dong-Woo Kim (2008) et al, have attempted to minimize the thrust forces in the step-feed micro drilling process by application of the DOE (Design of Experiments) method. Taking the drilling thrust into account, three cutting parameters, feed rate, step-feed, and cutting speed, are optimized based on the DOE method. The objective is to ascertain factors predominantly affecting drilling thrust in micro deep hole drilling processes. For experimental studies, an orthogonal array L27(313) is generated and ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is carried out. Through fractional experiments, optimal conditions can be determined by analyzing the S/N ratio (Signal-to-Noise ratio) as a performance measure Based on the results it is determined that the sequence of factors affecting drilling thrusts corresponds to feed rate, step-feed, and spindle rpm. A combination of optimal drilling conditions is also identified. In particular, it is found that the feed rate is the most important factor for micro drilling thrust minimization.

Luc Pronzato (2008) traces the strong relations between experimental design and control, such as the use of optimal inputs to obtain precise parameter estimation in dynamical systems and the introduction of suitably designed perturbations in adaptive control. The mathematical background of optimal experimental design is briefly presented, and the role of experimental design in the asymptotic properties of estimators is emphasized. Although most of the paper concerns parametric models, some results are also presented for statistical learning and prediction with nonparametric models.

Roberto C.Dante (2003) et al, have used a fractional experimental design, at two levels and four factors, to improve the power output of a commercial stack protonic exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell with seven graphite plates at about atmospheric hydrogen pressure. The main objective of this study is the fast performance improvement for a fuel cell specific application. In order to achieve the objective of this study, they utilized the experimental design methodology, because the fuel cell system is a complex one; indeed

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there are several factors too difficult to analyze. The factors considered were both hydrogen and oxygen pressures and flow rates. An orthogonal and fractional matrix array was used in order to reduce time execution with eight experiments instead of the full factorial design of 16 experiments. The experiments showed that not all the conditions have stable power output with the considered hydrogen pressure, but that it is possible to stabilize it especially with high oxygen flow rates. They have concluded that the experimental design methodology is a suitable tool for the improvement of fuel cell systems in a specific situation. This methodology allowed to quickly adopt a fuel cell system to a specific device, knowing the principal factors and effects that affect the fuel cell performances.

Douglas C. Montgomery (2000) et al, have used a three-phase methodology for process development and improvement based on statistically designed experiments, along with a comprehensive example for a surface mount technology process in an electronics industry. The objective of the experiment is to 1. Determine which variables are most influential on the response(s), 2. Determine where to set the influential x's so that the response(s) are almost always near their desired target values, 3. Determine where to set the influential x's so that the variability in the response(s) is small, or 4. Determine where to set the influential x's so that the effects of the uncontrollable variables on the response(s) are small. They have discussed some of the aspects of how statistically designed experiments are used in developing new processes or improving the performance of existing ones. They have identified the critical factors influencing average solder volume and solder volume variance on a stencil printing process via a statistically designed experiment. This process was subsequently optimized to minimize solder volume variance while simultaneously achieving a target average solder volume. Confirmation experiments at the optimal settings were subsequently carried out proving that a significant improvement in the process has been obtained.

Jiju Antony (1999) has explained the potential benefits of SDE (Statistically Designed
Experiments) for product and process quality improvement in a manufacturing environment. He has also described the application of SDE to a wire bonding process in order to identify the key variables which affect the pull strength. Both analytical and graphical methods are used for better and rapid understanding of the results. He has explained the importance of SDE and they are used for identifying the critical variables associated with a process and thereby determining the optimal levels for these variables for enhanced performance.

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S.Spuzic (1997) et al, have described a multidisciplinary approach to wear simulation rolling-sliding abrasion. They have found that the statistical methods were highly suitable for conceiving and analysing laboratory simulation of the wear process. They have presented a Fractional factorial design showing a procedure for simultaneous evaluation of the influence of force, temperature, material and sliding on abrasion of rolling mill tool materials. The important factor was roll wear. Various experimental strategies have been developed and applied to examine the process. A multifactorial experiemental design and complementary statistical design (eg: multi regression analysis) were selected to rationalise the experiment to detect the noise and the possible effects and interaction of force, temperature, material and sliding velocity of the wear rate. They have concluded that it is significant that low contact forces, typical for the deformation zone entry in rolling cause significant abrasion; an increase in wear rate was detected with increase in normal force from 200 to 300N. The increase of sliding velocity from 0.3 to 0.7 m s -1 decreases abrasion wear at elevated temperature.

Design of Experiments could thus be a handy tool in finding out the optimal process parameter and thereby improving a process.

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2.1 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:

There are various process stages in disc pad manufacturing. They are mixing, preform, curing, baking and finishing process. These processes have been studied thoroughly. It is found that certain percent of rejection is occurred in Ambassador Line. After thorough investigation it is found the major defects are propagation of crack. These cracks are influenced by many factors. They are flatness of the base plate, mixing ratios, pre-form shape and curing factors. In the curing stage, all raw materials will be converted into finished products and there are some factors that influence the crack from this process. They are temperature, pressure, pressure raising time, vent opening time, vent closing time, vent gap, number of vents and vent time. From these factors which has high contribution was taken as significant factors. The significant factors were arrived by using Taguchi method. From these the optimum process parameters were found. 2.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT: To find the root cause of the defects and analyze them. Reduce the percentage defectives in disc pad production (Ambassador line).

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CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY

Study the operations

Deciding response

Factors involved

Design of experiments

Conducting experiments at different levels

Analysis

Determining optimum process parameter

Fig 3.1: Flow-chart for methodology The above flow chart shows the step by step procedure for carrying out this research work.

3.1 STUDY OF THE OPERATIONS: 3.1.1 About the production schedule of Contessa: Contessa disc pads will be produced on demand. Hence it will not be produced throughout the month. 3.1.2 Process flow chart: A process flow chart of the disc pad manufacturing plant is shown in Fig. 3.2.

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Fig 3.2: Process flow chart

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3.1.3 Process Stages of Disc Pad Manufacturing: There are six main process stages in manufacturing disc pad. They are: Mixing Pre-form Curing Baking Finishing

3.1.3.1 Mixing process: There are two different types of mixes grouped together. They are: Main mix Underlay mix

The main mix in contessa is R802 HUT. This R802 HUT has some friction particles and these particles will be in contact with the disc plate. So they are called as the main mix. The underlay mix in contessa is RB 32A. This RB 32A has some fibre particles. This grade will be in between the main mix and base of the disc pad. The underlay mix is in between the main mix and base plate. The underlay mix is used in order to absorb heat dissipated from the main mix and disc plate which may otherwise damage the disc caliper and to adhere the main mix firmly to the base plate.

Fig 3.3: Positions of main mix and underlay mix 3.1.3.2 Pre-Form Process: The pre-form stage gives the shape to the abrasive particles. The shape is obtained by pressing the abrasive particles in hydraulic press machine. Both the main mix and the

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underlay mix are put into the cavity of the hydraulic press. First the main mix is put into the cavity followed by the underlay mix. Then the machine presses it. There will be two cavities in the machine so two pre-form moulds can be produced at a time. There are certain specifications according to that the main mix and the underlay mix is put. They are given below. Pre-form process specification for contessa: Press tonnage Maximum pressure Main mix Underlay mix = 45 tonnes = 200 kg/cm2 = 135 grams = 25 grams

Fig 3.4: Shape of pre-form 3.1.3.3 Curing Process: The curing process is the main stage in disc pad manufacturing. The curing machine has two jaws, the upper jaw and the lower jaw where the dies will be fixed. In the lower jaw, a number of cavities are there in to which the pre-form moulds are put and above that the base plate is placed. Then the machine presses it. The base plate has some adhesive so that it gets adhered to the pre-form moulds firmly. When the curing process is started, within a few seconds the machine starts to breathe (vent). This is done to eliminate air gaps in the moulds. Curing process specification for contessa: Temperature = 143-153C Press tonnage= 166 tonnes

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Maximum pressure = 205 kg/cm2 Minimum number of cavities in a machine = 12 Maximum number of cavities in a machine = 24 3.1.3.4 Baking Process: The baking process is done to harden the moulds. The baking process is carried out after the curing process is completed. The baking process is the longest process of all the process stages in disc pad manufacturing. The baking process for contessa model takes only one cycle. Many sets of semi-finished disc pads (after curing stage) are put into the baking machine and it gets heated there for a certain period of time. Baking process specification for contessa: Temperature = 205+/-5c Cycle time = 13 hours 30 minutes +/- 15 minutes. 3.1.3.5 Finishing Process: In the finishing process, there are two main of operations. One is grinding and another one is chamfering. A wear mark is made on the disc pads abrasive surface in order to identify that the main mix is worn out completely. It is advisable to use the disc pad until the main mix or layer is worn out because it may cause scores in the disc plate. The grinding operation is carried out in the top face of the disc pad i.e. on the abrasive surface. Finishing process specification of contessa: Total thickness of the disc pad = 17.2 mm +/- 1 mm.

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Fig 3.5: Wear mark 3.1.3.6 Painting Process: Painting process is the final stage of the disc pad manufacturing. The painting is carried out as per the specification (preferably grey) at the back side of the disc pad i.e., base plate. The abrasive surface will not be painted. After this the pads undergo baking for 30 minutes. 3.1.3.7 Technical Specification of Disc Pad: Part name Grade Underlay mix Thickness of the plate Overall thickness before finishing process Overall thickness after finishing process 3.1.3.8 Cycle time to produce a disc pad Base plate preparation = 1hr 15 mins Mixing Pre-form = 25 mins = 1 min - Contessa - R802 hut - RB 32A = 4.9-5 mm = 19 mm = 16.9-17.1 mm

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Curing Baking Painting Finishing Total cycle time

= 11 mins = 14 hrs 30 mins = 1 hr 40 mins = 30 mins 28 secs = 17 hrs 51 mins 28 secs

3.2 DECIDING RESPONSE: The main quality problem in the disc pad manufacturing is propagation of crack mainly at the corners. When the crack size exceeds 20 mm, the disc pad is considered to be defective. 3.2.1 Acceptance / Rejection Criteria: When the crack size is very large, the pads are rejected. However if the crack is hairline and if exceed 20mm, the pads are reworked. Since rejection or rework will result in loss of productivity, the presence of hairline cracks above 20mm is taken as response variable.

Fig 3.6: Propagated crack

3.2.2 Identified Problem: The disc pad production (Ambassador Line) unit has been facing a problem of producing defective pads. It is found that all the defectives have crack propagation in the walls of disc pad. To resolve this issue this project work is carried out.

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3.3 PROCEDURE FOR TAKING READINGS: The readings of vent opening time, vent closing time and pressure raising time are taken from the dial gauge fitted to the machine using stop watch. The temperature readings of each cavity are noted using digital pyrometer. The length of vent gap is measured using the vertical dial gauge.

3.4 PILOT STUDY A pilot study has been carried out to evaluate the present performance and rejection rate. The experiments will be conducted on the curing process. Table 3.1: Pilot study results No. of loads taken (A) No. of disc pads in a load (B) Total no. of disc pads (A*B) No. of defectives % of defectives

18

18

324

19

5.84

These trials are taken without adjusting given specification i.e., they are taken as per the normal conditions and are taken in the curing machine. From the observation it is found that about 6 percent are defective. This pilot study is conducted only for 18 loads i.e., for 324 disc pads. Therefore about 19 pieces of disc pads are found to be defectives with cracks. 3.5 FACTORS INVOLVED IN CRACK PROPAGATION: Flatness of the plate. Mixing ratios. Pre-form shape.

Factors in curing machine: Temperature. Vent gap. Vent opening time.

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Vent closing time. Pressure raising time. Vent time. Number of vents Pressure.

3.6 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM OF THE CRACK PROPAGATION:

Fig 3.7: Cause and effect diagram of the crack propagation 3.7 CURING MACHINE: This machine has a total capacity to produce 24 disc pads in a single load, but due some constrains only 18 disc pads can be produced. The temperature for each cavity is noted and an average of all 18 cavities is the temperature obtained for that load.

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Fig 3.8: Mould Design in 2D line sketch In the figure, D represents the dummy cavity i.e., because of certain affecting parameters. Parameters like temperature and pressure may vary, so that cavity is made dummy. 3.8 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS: Among the 8 factors in the curing machine only 5 are varying. The three factors pressure, vent time and no. of vents are held constant. But the pressure raising time cant be set in the curing machine. And hence that factor is also taken off. So for these 4 factors each at two levels the number of experiments needed is 24 = 16. 3.8.1 Reasons to reduce the number of experiments: The time taken for taking a trial is 15 minutes and the cycle time of a curing process is 11 minutes. So about 4 minutes is taken for conducting the trial experiment for a single load. Altogether for a shift 7 to 8 loads will be needed for conducting trials. Therefore it will incur in loss of production, it is necessary to reduce the number of experiments. Hence one-half Fractional factorial design and Taguchi method were used.

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CHAPTER- 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 EXPERIMENTS UNDER FRACTIONAL FACTORIAL DESIGN: Table 4.1: Shows the factors and their levels Variable A B C D Factors Temperature Vent opening time Vent closing time Vent gap Level(-) 143C - 148C 3.5 sec - 4 sec 3.5 sec - 4 sec 3 mm 3.5 mm Level(+) 148C - 153C 4 sec - 4.5 sec 4 sec - 4.5 sec 3.5 mm - 4 mm

Table 4.2: One-Half Fractional Factorial Design Run A B C D=ABC Replicate 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 4 3 4 9 5 6 8 No. of defectives Replicate 2 2 6 5 3 4 6 7 4 Replicate 3 1 3 9 6 2 4 4 6 % of crack 11.11 24.08 31.49 24.08 27.78 27.78 31.49 33.33

The above results are arrived by considering hair line cracks of 20mm and more are defective.

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Table 4.3: Results from ANOVA table Source Main effect 2- way interactions Residual error Pure error Total DOF 4 3 16 16 23 Sum of Squares 28 5.833 70.667 70.667 104.5 Mean Square 7 1.944 4.417 4.417 F-ratio 1.58 0.44 P-value 0.226 0.727

Confidence level = 95% Table 4.4: Sum of Squares for Individual Factors Factors A B C D Sum of Squares (SS) 0.667 10.667 10.667 6

4.1.1 Pareto Chart of the standardized effect:

Fig. 4.1: Pareto chart

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4.1.2 Model adequacy check using regression analysis: Regression equation = 4.75 + 0.667 B + 0.667 C Put B & C = +1 = 6.084 Put B & C = - 1 = 3.416 Put B = +1 & C = -1 = 4.75 Put B = -1 & C = +1 = 4.75

Table 4.5: Shows the observed and calculated value of the regression analysis Observed value, y 3.1667 5.000 5.000 5.833 Calculated value, 3.416 4.75 4.75 6.084 Residual e=y- -0.2493 0.25 0.25 -0.251

Fig.4.2: Shows the Normal Probability Plot From the analysis it is concluded that points on the normal probability plot lie reasonably close to a straight line, which is leading to the conclusion that B and C are significant.

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4.1.3 Results from Experiments under Fractional Factorial Design: Total no. of disc pads taken for trial Total no. of hair line cracks Total no. of disc pads with no crack Total no. of defective disc pads Total % of crack Total % of acceptable disc pad Crack % in PPM Acceptable % of disc pads in PPM = 432 = 307 = 113 = 12 = 2.8 = 97.2 = 28000 = 972000

Even though the model was found to be adequate, none of the factors were found to be significant because the sample size is smaller and more number of noise factors was present.

And factors other than curing machine were not considered to conduct experiment. Hence, it is decided to conduct the experiments further using Taguchi method by considering more factors.

4.2 EXPERIMENTS UNDER TAGUCHI METHOD: Table 4.6: Shows the factors and their levels: Variable A B C D E F Factors Flatness of the base plate Pressure Temperature Vent open time Vent close time Vent gap Level (1) 0-0.1 191-208 143-148 3.5-4.0 3.5-4.0 3.0-3.5 Level (2) 0.1-0.2 208-225 148-153 4.0-4.5 4.0-4.5 3.5-4.0 Unit mm Kg/cm2 C sec sec Mm

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Table 4.7: L8 orthogonal array (OA) A B C D E F No. of defectives Replicate 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 Total Grand total The above results are arrived by considering only defectives. 4.2.1 Results from Experiments under Taguchi Method: Table 4.8: Response table for Means Level 1 2 Diff Rank A 3 6 3 1 B 5 4 1 2 C 3 6 3 1 D 4 5 1 2 E 4 5 1 2 F 3 6 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 6 9 Replicate 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 3 % defective 2.78 0 0 5.56 5.56 5.56 2.78 2.78 3.125

Among the six factors, factors C-temperature, A-flatness and F-vent gap have the highest contribution. Total no. of disc pads taken for trial Total no. of hair line cracks Total no. of hair line cracks more than 20mm (re-work) = 288 = 53 =9

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Total no. of disc pads with no crack Total no. of defective disc pads Total % of open cracks (defectives) Total % of defectives and re-work Total % of acceptable disc pad Crack % in PPM Acceptable % of disc pads in PPM

= 217 =9 = 3.125 = 6.25 = 96.875 = 31250 = 968750

The same issue in Fractional Factorial Design is still prevailing i.e., none of the factors were found to be significant because more number of noise factors were present. Since the noise factors cant be controlled. And all the necessary factors were also taken into account. Hence confirmation experiments were conducted by considering the factors which has high contribution. Table 4.9: Optimum Level Variable A Factors Flatness of the base plate Temperature Vent gap Level 1 Range 0 - 0.1 mm

C F

1 2

143 - 148C 3.5 4.0 mm

4.2.2 Predicting results using Omega transformation: Factors C-temperature, A-flatness and F-vent gap have the highest contribution. Hence levels of these factors are used for predicting the percentage defective.
Y Predicted

= Y + ( A 1 - Y ) + (C 1 - Y ) + ( F 2 - Y )

Y = 18/288 = 0.03125 A 1 = 3/144

= 0.02083

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C 1 = 3/144

= 0.02083 = 0.02083

F 2 = 3/144

Using omega transformation the predicted defective percentage is Y Predicted = 0.9159 % 4.2.3 Confirmation Experiments: Table 4.10: Shows results from confirmation experiments No. of loads taken (A) 10 No. of disc pads in a load (B) 18 Total no. of disc pads (A*B) 188 No. of defectives No. of defectives & rework 5 % of defectives % of defectives & rework 2.65

0.53

Therefore, the predicated value is very close to the obtained value. Hence, it proves that the obtained optimum level is correct. 4.3 ECONOMIC BENEFITS: Table 4.11: Production report Year Total no. of disc pads produced (units) 1,64,490 Total no. of defective disc pads produced (units) 9,606 Total no. of disc pads re-worked (units) 10,075

2010

Total cost per disc pad Total loss from defectives Total loss from re-work [Considering only manpower] Total no. of man hours required to re-work Total no. of manpower required to re-work Total cost spent on manpower to re-work

= Rs. 80 = Rs. 7, 68,480 = Rs. 8,200 = 41 hours for 10,075 disc pads =7 = Rs. 800/4 hrs for 7 employees

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4.3.1 Cost savings: Total cost saved by reducing re-work [6.125% to 2.127%] = Rs. 3,800 Total cost saved by reducing defectives [5.84% to 0.53%] = Rs. 6, 98,800 Total cost saved from re-work and defectives = Rs. 7, 02,600

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CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION A pilot study has been conducted with the existing process settings. The results obtained from that have a percentage defective of 5.84%. Among the several stages involved in a disc pad manufacturing the curing stage is most important. It is found that in the curing stage factors like temperature, pressure, pressure raising time, vent gap, vent opening time and vent closing time are the important factors influencing the crack propagation among the 8 factors involved. Based on the experiments conducted using Taguchi technique, half of the factors which have the highest contribution were taken as significant. Confirmation experiments were conducted by keeping those factors at the optimum levels and by keeping the other factors within the current specification. Rs. 7, 02,600 can be saved per year [as per 2010 production reports].

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REFERENCES: 1. Dong-Woo Kim, Myeong-Woo Cho, Tae-Il Seo and Eung-Sug Lee Application of Design of Experiment Method for Thrust Force Minimization in Step-feed Micro Drilling Sensors 8 (2008), 211-221. 2. Douglas C. Montgomery, J. Bert Keats, Leonard A. Perry, James R. Thompson, William S. Messina Using statistically designed experiments for process development and improvement: an application in electronics manufacturing Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 16 (2000), 55 63. 3. Jiju Antony Improving the wire bonding process quality using statistically designed experiments Microelectronics Journal 30 (1999), 161168. 4. Luc Pronzato Optimal experimental design and some related control problems Automatica 44 (2008), 303 325. 5. Roberto C. Dante, Jos-e L. Escamilla, Vicente Madrigal, Thomas Theuss, Juan de Dios Calder-on, Omar Solorza, Rub-en Rivera Fractional factorial design of experiments for PEM fuel cell performances improvement International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 28 (2003), 343 348. 6. S.Spuzic, M.Zec, K.Abhary, R.Ghomashchi and I.Reid Fractional factorial design of experiments applied to a wear simulation Wear 212 (1997), 131-139.

Bibliography: 1. Automobile technology by S.Selvaraj, S.Dhanushkodi and P.Jaya prakash. 2. Design and analysis of experiments by Douglas C.Montgomery. 3. Fluid power with applications by Anthony Esposito. 4. Fundamentals of quality control and improvement by Amitava Mitra. 5. Mechanical measurements by Prof. S.P. Venkateshan, IIT Madras.

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS: 1. Pradeep Krishnan G and Samuel Raj D Reduction of Percentage Defectives in Disc Pad Manufacturing using Design of Experiments National Conference on Advances in Mechanical Sciences, Volume-III (2011), 21-24.