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Dream
Dreams are a succession of images, sounds or emotions that pass through the mind during sleep.[1] The content and purpose of dreams are not fully understood, though they have been a topic of speculation and interest throughout recorded history. The scientific study of dreams is known as oneirology.
Dream
Accumulated observation has shown that dreams are strongly associated with Rapid Eye Movement during which an electroencephalogram (EEG) shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during NREM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[6] During a typical lifespan, a person spends a total of about six years dreaming[7] (which is about two hours each night).[8] Most dreams only last 5 to 20 minutes.[7] It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind. During REM sleep, the release of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine is completely suppressed.[9] [10] [11] As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body. According to a report in the journal Neuron, rat brains show evidence of complex activity during sleep, including the activation in memory of long sequences of activity.[12] [13] Studies show that various species of mammals and birds experience REM during sleep,[14] and follow the same series of sleeping states as humans.[12] Despite their power to bewilder, arouse, frighten or amuse, dreams can often be ignored in mainstream models of cognitive psychology.[15] As methods of introspection were replaced with more self-consciously objective methods in the social sciences in 1930s and 1940s, dream studies dropped out of the scientific literature. Dreams were neither directly observable by an experimenter nor were subjects' dream reports reliable, being prey to the familiar problems of distortion due to delayed recall, if they were recalled at all. According to Sigmund Freud, dreams are more often forgotten entirely, perhaps due to their prohibited character. Altogether, these problems seemed to put them beyond the realm of science. The discovery of dreams take place primarily during a distinctive electrophysiological state of sleep, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, which can be identified by objective criteria, led to the rebirth of interest in this phenomenon. When REM sleep episodes were timed for their duration and subjects woken to make reports before major editing or forgetting could take place, it was determined that subjects accurately matched the length of time they judged the dream narrative to be ongoing to the length of REM sleep that preceded the awakening. There is no "time dilation" effect; a five-minute dream takes roughly five minutes of real time to play out.[16] This close correlation of REM sleep and dream experience was the basis of the first series of reports describing the nature of dreaming: that it is a regular nightly, rather than occasional, phenomenon, and a high-frequency activity within each sleep period occurring at predictable intervals of approximately every 6090 minutes in all humans throughout the life span. REM sleep episodes and the dreams that accompany them lengthen progressively across the night, with the first episode being shortest, of approximately 1012 minutes duration, and the second and third episodes increasing to 1520 minutes. Dreams at the end of the night may last as long as 15 minutes, although these may be experienced as several distinct stories due to momentary arousals interrupting sleep as the night ends. Dream reports can be reported from normal subjects on 50% of the occasion when an awakening is made prior to the end of the first REM
Dream period. This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings are made from the last REM period of the night. This increase in the ability to recall appears to be related to intensification across the night in the vividness of dream imagery, colors and emotions.
Continual-activation theory
Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms' findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by Jie Zhang proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode and transfer the data from the short-term memory to the long-term memory, though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called "consolidation." NREM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory). Zhang assumes during REM sleep, the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain will descend to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This will trigger the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two dreams).[19] [20]
Dream
Location of hippocampus
Dream
Psychosomatic theory
Dreams are a product of "dissociated imagination," which is dissociated from the conscious self and draws material from sensory memory for simulation, with sensory feedback resulting in hallucination. By simulating the sensory signals to drive the autonomous nerves, dreams can affect mind-body interaction. In the brain and spine, the autonomous "repair nerves," which can expand the blood vessels, connect with compression and pain nerves. Repair nerves are grouped into many chains called meridians in Chinese medicine. When a repair nerve is prodded by compression or pain to send out its repair signal, a chain reaction spreads out to set other repair nerves in the same meridian into action. While dreaming, the body also employs the meridians to repair the body and help it grow and develop by simulating very intensive movement-compression signals to expand the blood vessels when the level of growth enzymes increase.[33]
Dream dreaming metaphorically completes patterns of emotional expectation in the autonomic nervous system and lowers stress levels in mammals.[40] [41]
Dream content
From the 1940s to 1985, Calvin S. Hall collected more than 50,000 dream reports at Western Reserve University. In 1966 Hall and Van De Castle published The Content Analysis of Dreams in which they outlined a coding system to study 1,000 dream reports from college students.[42] It was found that people all over the world dream of mostly the same things. Hall's complete dream reports became publicly available in the mid-1990s by Hall's protg William Domhoff, allowing further different analysis. Personal experiences from the last day or week are frequently incorporated into dreams.[43]
Emotions
The most common emotion experienced in dreams is anxiety. Other emotions include pain, abandonment, fear, joy, happiness, etc. Negative emotions are much more common than positive ones.[42]
Sexual themes
The Hall data analysis shows that sexual dreams occur no more than 10% of the time and are more prevalent in young to mid-teens.[42] Another study showed that 8% of men's and women's dreams have sexual content.[44] In some cases, sexual dreams may result in orgasms or nocturnal emissions. These are colloquially known as wet dreams.[45]
Recurring dreams
While the content of most dreams is dreamt only once, many people experience recurring dreamsthat is, the same dream narrative is experienced over different occasions of sleep. Up to 70% of females and 65% of males report recurrent dreams.
Dream interpretations
Dreams were historically used for healing (as in the asclepieions found in the ancient Greek temples of Asclepius) as well as for guidance or divine inspiration. Some Native American tribes used vision quests as a rite of passage, fasting and praying until an anticipated guiding dream was received, to be shared with the rest of the tribe upon their return.[48] During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung identified dreams as an interaction between the unconscious and the conscious. They also assert together that the unconscious is the dominant force of the dream, and in dreams it conveys its own mental activity to the perceptive faculty. While Freud felt that there was an active censorship against the unconscious even during sleep, Jung argued that the dream's bizarre quality is an efficient language, comparable to poetry and uniquely capable of revealing the underlying meaning. Fritz Perls presented his theory of dreams as part of the holistic nature of Gestalt therapy. Dreams are seen as projections of parts of the self that have been ignored, rejected, or suppressed.[49] Jung argued that one could consider every person in the dream to represent an aspect of the dreamer, which he called the subjective approach to dreams. Perls expanded this point of view to say that even inanimate objects in the dream may represent aspects of the dreamer. The dreamer may therefore be asked to imagine being an object in the dream and to describe it, in order to bring into awareness the characteristics of the object that correspond with the dreamer's personality.
Dream
Dream hypothesis about ontology). There is a famous painting by Salvador Dal that depicts this concept, titled "Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening" (1944). The first recorded mention of the idea was by Zhuangzi, and is also discussed in Hinduism; Buddhism makes extensive use of the argument in its writings.[66] It was formally introduced to Western philosophy by Descartes in the 17th century in his Meditations on First Philosophy. Stimulus, usually an auditory one, becomes a part of a dream, eventually then awakening the dreamer. The term "dream incorporation" is also used in research examining the degree to which preceding daytime events become elements of dreams. Recent studies suggest that events in the day immediately preceding, and those about a week before, have the most influence.[43]
Recalling dreams
The recall of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming.[51] Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men.[51] Dreams that are difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little affect, and factors such as salience, arousal, and interference play a role in dream recall. Often, a dream may be recalled upon viewing or hearing a random trigger or stimulus. A dream journal can be used to assist dream recall, for psychotherapy or entertainment purposes. For some people, vague images or sensations from the previous night's dreams are sometimes spontaneously experienced in falling asleep. However they are usually too slight and fleeting to allow dream recall. At least 95% of all dreams are not remembered. Certain brain chemicals necessary for converting short-term memories into long-term ones are suppressed during REM sleep. Unless a dream is particularly vivid and if one wakes during or immediately after it, the content of the dream will not be remembered.[67]
Dj vu
One theory of dj vu attributes the feeling of having previously seen or experienced something to having dreamt about a similar situation or place, and forgetting about it until one seems to be mysteriously reminded of the situation or the place while awake.[68]
Apparent precognition
According to surveys, it is common for peoples to feel that their dreams are predicting subsequent life events.[69] Psychologists have explained these experiences in terms of memory biases, namely a selective memory for accurate predictions and distorted memory so that dreams are retrospectively fitted onto life experiences.[69] The multi-faceted nature of dreams makes it easy to find connections between dream content and real events.[70] In one experiment, subjects were asked to write down their dreams in a diary. This prevented the selective memory effect, and the dreams no longer seemed accurate about the future.[71] Another experiment gave subjects a fake diary of a student with apparently precognitive dreams. This diary described events from the person's life, as well as some predictive dreams and some non-predictive dreams. When subjects were asked to recall the dreams they had read, they remembered more of the successful predictions than unsuccessful ones.[72]
Popular culture
Modern popular culture often conceives of dreams, like Freud, as expressions of the dreamer's deepest fears and desires.[73] In films such as Spellbound (1945), The Manchurian Candidate (1962) and Inception (2010), the protagonists must extract vital clues from surreal dreams.[74] Most dreams in popular culture are, however, not symbolic, but straightforward and realistic depictions of their dreamer's fears and desires.[74] Dream scenes may be indistinguishable from those set in the dreamer's real world, a narrative device that undermines the dreamer's and the audience's sense of security[74] and allows horror movie protagonists, such as those of Carrie (1976), Friday the 13th (1980) or An American Werewolf in London (1981) to be suddenly attacked by dark forces while resting in seemingly safe places.[74]
Dream In speculative fiction, the line between dreams and reality may be blurred even more in the service of the story.[74] Dreams may be psychically invaded or manipulated (the Nightmare on Elm Street films, 19841991; Inception, 2010) or even come literally true (as in The Lathe of Heaven, 1971). Such stories play to audiences' experiences with their own dreams, which feel as real to them.[74]
References
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(1995) Making connections in a safe place: Is dreaming psychotherapy? Dreaming, 5:213-228. [40] Griffin, J. (1997) The Origin of Dreams: How and why we evolved to dream. The Therapist, Vol 4 No 3. [41] Griffin, J, Tyrrell, I. (2004) Dreaming Reality: how dreaming keeps us sane or can drive us mad. Human Givens Publishing. [42] Hall, C., & Van de Castle, R. (1966). The Content Analysis of Dreams. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Content Analysis Explained (http:/ / psych. ucsc. edu/ dreams/ Info/ content_analysis. html) [43] Genevive Alain, MPs; Tore A. Nielsen, PhD, Russell Powell, PhD, Don Kuiken, PhD (July 2003). "Replication of the Day-residue and Dream-lag Effect" (http:/ / www. asdreams. org/ 2003/ abstracts/ genevieve_alain. htm). 20th Annual International Conference of the Association for the Study of Dreams. . [44] Zadra, A., "1093: SEX DREAMS: WHAT DO MEN AND WOMEN DREAM ABOUT?" (http:/ / www. journalsleep. org/ PDF/ AbstractBook2007. pdf) SLEEP, Volume 30, Abstract Supplement, 2007 A376. [45] http:/ / www. measuredhs. com/ pubs/ pdf/ FR157/ 04Chapter04. pdf Badan Pusat Statistik "Indonesia Young Adult Reproductive Health Survey 2002-2004" p. 27 [46] Michael Schredl, Petra Ciric, Simon Gtz, Lutz Wittmann (November 2004). "Typical Dreams: Stability and Gender Differences". The Journal of Psychology 138 (6): 485. ( Abstract (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 15612605)) [47] Richard Alleyne (October 17, 2008). "Black and white TV generation have monochrome dreams" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ science/ science-news/ 3353504/ Black-and-white-TV-generation-have-monochrome-dreams. html). Telegraph. . [48] Webb, Craig (1995). "Dreams: Practical Meaning & Applications" (http:/ / www. dreams. ca/ dreams. htm). The DREAMS Foundation. . [49] Wegner, D.M., Wenzlaff, R.M. & Kozak M. (2004). "The Return of Suppressed Thoughts in Dreams" (http:/ / www. wjh. harvard. edu/ ~wegner/ pdfs/ Dream Rebound. pdf) (PDF). Psychological Science 15 (4): 232236. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00657.x. PMID15043639. . [50] Harrison, John E. (2001). Synaesthesia: The Strangest Thing. Oxford University Press. ISBN0192632450. [51] The Science Behind Dreams and Nightmares (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=15778923) [52] Quoted in La Barre, W. (1975). Anthropological Perspectives on Hallucination and Hallucinogens. In R.K. Siegel and L.J. West (eds.), Hallucinations: Behavior, Experience, and Theory. New York: Wiley. [53] Ibid. [54] Freud, S. (1940). An Outline of Psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth Press. [55] Jung, C.G. (1909). The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, translated by F. Peterson and A.A. Brill. New York: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company. [56] McCreery, C. (1997). Hallucinations and arousability: pointers to a theory of psychosis. In Claridge, G. (ed.): Schizotypy, Implications for Illness and Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [57] McCreery, C. (2008). Dreams and psychosis: a new look at an old hypothesis. Psychological Paper No. 2008-1. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Online PDF (http:/ / www. celiagreen. com/ charlesmccreery/ dreams-and-psychosis. pdf) [58] Oswald, I. (1962). Sleeping and Waking: Physiology and Psychology. Amsterdam: Elsevier. [59] Stevens, J.M. and Darbyshire, A.J. (1958). Shifts along the alert-repose continuum during remission of catatonic 'stupor' with amobarbitol. Psychosomatic Medicine, 20, 99-107. [60] Griffin, J. & Tyrrell, I. (2003) Human Givens: A new approach to emotional health and clear thinking. HG Publishing. ISBN 1 899398 31 7 [61] Griffin, J. & Tyrrell, I. (2003) Dreaming Reality: How dreaming keeps us sane, or can drive us mad. ISBN 1 899398 36 8 [62] Lucid dreaming FAQ (http:/ / www. psychwww. com/ asc/ ld/ faq. html) by 1The Lucidity Institute at Psych Web. [63] Watanabe, T. (2003). "Lucid Dreaming: Its Experimental Proof and Psychological Conditions". J Int Soc Life Inf Sci 21 (1). ISSN1341-9226.
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Dream
[64] Hajek P, Belcher M (1991). "Dream of absent-minded transgression: an empirical study of a cognitive withdrawal symptom". J Abnorm Psychol 100 (4): 48791. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.487. PMID1757662. [65] Antrobus, John (1993). "Characteristics of Dreams". Encyclopedia of Sleep and Dreaming. [66] Kher, Chitrarekha V. (1992). Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems. Sri Satguru Publications. ISBN8170302935. [67] Hobson, J.A., and McCarly, R.W. (1977). The brain as a dream-state generator: An activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1335-1348. [68] Lohff, David C. (2004). The Dream Directory: The Comprehensive Guide to Analysis and Interpretation. Running Press. ISBN0762419628. [69] Hines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. pp.7881. ISBN978-1573929790. [70] Gilovich, Thomas (1991). How We Know What Isn't So: the fallibility of human reason in everyday life. Simon & Schuster. pp.177180. ISBN9780029117064. [71] Alcock, James E. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or Magic?: a psychological perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN0080257739. via Hines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. pp.7881. ISBN978-1573929790. [72] Madey, Scott; Thomas Gilovich (1993). "Effects of Temporal Focus on the Recall of Expectancy-Consistent and Expectancy-Inconsistent Information". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (3). via Kida, Thomas (2006). Don't Believe Everything You Think: The 6 Basic Mistakes We Make in Thinking. Prometheus Books. ISBN978-1-59102-408-8. [73] Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002). Science in popular culture: a reference guide. Westport: Greenwood Press. p.56. ISBN0313318220. [74] Van Riper, op. cit., p. 57.
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Further reading
Freud, Sigmund (1994). The interpretation of dreams. New York: Modern Library. ISBN067960121X. Jung, Carl (1934). The Practice of Psychotherapy. "The Practical Use of Dream-analysis". New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp.139-. ISBN071001645X. Jung, Carl (2002). Dreams (Routledge Classics). New York: Routledge. ISBN0415267404. Lombardo G.P., Foschi R. (2008), Escape from the dark forest: The experimentalist standpoint of the Sante De Sanctis dreaming psychology. History of the Human Sciences. vol. 21, pp.4569 ISSN: 0952-6951. Klemp, H. (1999). The art of spiritual dreaming. Minneapolis, MN: Eckankar (http://www.eckbooks.org/items/ The_Art_of_Spiritual_Dreaming-81-3.html).
External links
Dream Psychology by Sigmund Freud (http://www.udreamt.com/Dream-Psychology/dream-psychology. html) The Dream & Nightmare Laboratory in Montreal (http://www.jtkresearch.com/DreamLab/b_intro. asp?lang=e/) Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism website (http://aras.org/) The International Association for the Study of Dreams (http://www.asdreams.org/) More information on the expectation fulfilment theory of dreaming (http://www.why-we-dream.com) Dreams (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/Dreams/) at the Open Directory Project Dixit, Jay (2007). "Dreams: Night School" (http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index. php?term=20071029-000003). Psychology Today. Bold text
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/