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Gilbert Newton Lewis químico estadounidense que en 1938 formuló la teoría del enlace covalente donde propuso que no
todas las reacciones ácido-base implican transferencia de protones, pero sin embargo forman siempre un enlace covalente
dativo.
Propuso la escritura de fórmulas utilizando puntos para resaltar los electrones.
Ácido: Sustancia que puede aceptar un par de electrones de otros grupos de átomos, para formar un enlace covalente
dativo. (H+)
Base: Sustancia que tiene pares de electrones libres, capaces de ser donados para formar enlaces covalentes dativos. (OH-)
El ácido debe tener su octeto de electrones incompleto y la base debe tener algún par de electrones solitarios. La reacción
de un ácido con una base de Lewis da como resultado un compuesto de adición.
Todas las sustancias químicas que son ácidos o bases según las teorías de Arrhenius y de Brönsted Lowry también lo son de
acuerdo con la teoría de Lewis; pero muchos ácidos de Lewis, no lo son de Brönsted, ejemplo:
(BF3 + :NH3 → F3B NH3).
Bases de LEWIS
Las definiciones de Arrhenius o de Brönsted - Lowry son por lo general adecuadas para explicar las reacciones en solución
acuosa.
También existen sustancias de Lewis, que pueden actuar como ácidos y bases a la vez, es decir, son anfóteras (ej: óxido de
aluminio).
Según la teoría de Lewis, un ión hidrógeno (H+), invariablemente será un ácido, y un ión hidróxido, (OH-), siempre será una
base; pero las definiciones de Lewis amplían el modelo ácido - base por lo que tienen gran importancia en la química orgánica
ya que el concepto de Lewis además identifica como ácidos ciertas sustancias que no contienen hidrógeno y que tienen la
misma función que los ácidos comunes que contienen hidrógeno.
Ej: SO3 + (O)-2 --> (SO4)-2 donde el SO3 actúa como ácido y el (SO4)-2 como base.
O en la reacción AlCl3 + Cl- --> AlCl4- donde el tricloruro de aluminio actúa como ácido y el ion tetracloruro de aluminio
como base.
Muchos de los ácidos de Lewis, son importantes catalizadores en diversas reacciones orgánicas.
Lewis determinó una base como una sustancia que posee un par de electrones sin compartir, con el cual puede formar un
enlace covalente con un átomo, una molécula o un ión. Un ácido es una sustancia que puede formar un enlace
covalente aceptando un par de electrones de la base.
Para los ácidos y las bases de Lewis, existen reglas cualitativas que nos permiten poder predecir la fuerza de una sustancia, y
estimar incluso, que tipo de base preferirá un ácido concreto o viceversa. Estas reglas se pueden dividir en:
Bases fuertes, son aquellas sustancias que tienen un átomo que cede, cuya densidad electrónica se deforma difícilmente
(polariza), debido a esto, por lo general, el átomo dador es de pequeño tamaño y bastante electronegativo. Ej: F-, OH-, O-2
Bases débiles, en cambio, son aquellas sustancias que poseen un átomo dador cuya densidad electrónica se deforma
fácilmente. Dichos átomos suele ser menos electronegativos, y de mayor tamaño que en las bases fuertes. Por ejemplo: Br-,
I-, CN-, CO-
Las sustancias que son bases en el sistema de Brönsted también son bases de acuerdo con el sistema de Lewis. No obstante,
la definición de Lewis de un ácido amplía el número de sustancias que se clasifican como ácidos.
Un ácido de Lewis posee un orbital desocupado capaz de aceptar pares de electrones de la base.
En general, los ácidos que forman mejor los enlaces con las bases fuertes, reciben el nombre de ácidos fuertes, y los ácidos
que forman mejores enlaces con las bases débiles, reciben el nombre de ácidos débiles.
Ácidos fuertes de Lewis: H+ Li+ Na+ K+ Be+2 Mg+2 Ca+2 Sr+2 Sn+2 Al+3 Si+4
Ácidos débiles de Lewis: Cu+ Ag+ Au+ Ti+ Hg+ Cs+ Pd+2 Cd+2 Pt+2 Hg+2
1. ¿Cuál es la estructura de Lewis del oxígeno?
a. O:
b. :O:
c. :Ö:
Respuesta correcta: c.
El oxígeno posee 6 electrones de valencia, por lo que se representa con dos puntos en tres lados del símbolo O.
2. La estructura de Lewis del cloruro de sodio NaCl es la siguiente:
a.
b.
c.
Respuesta correcta: b.
El sodio Na tiene un electrón en su última capa de valencia mientras el cloro Cl tiene 7 electrones. El Na cede su electrón,
quedando con carga positiva (+), al Cl, que queda con una carga negativa extra (-). Así, el Cl puede cumplir con la regla del
octeto, quedando rodeado por ocho electrones.
4. ¿La estructura del Lewis del hidrógeno es igual a cuál grupo de elementos?
a. Litio, sodio y potasio
b. Magnesio, calcio y bario
c. Helio, neón y argón
Respuesta correcta: a. Litio, sodio y potasio
El hidrógeno posee un único electrón, por lo que su diagrama de Lewis muestra un punto al lado de su símbolo H.. Los
elementos litio Li, sodio Na y potasio K tienen un electrón en su última capa de valencia, por lo que se representan, como el
hidrógeno, con un punto:
Li., Na., K.
5. El nitrógeno molecular N2 se representa con la siguiente estructura:
Respuesta correcta: c.
El nitrógeno N tiene 5 electrones de valencia. Para formar el N2, cada nitrógeno comparte 3 electrones, formando un triple
enlace entre los dos.
6. ¿Esta estructura de Lewis He: corresponde a qué elemento?
a. Hermenio
b. Helenio
c. Helio
Respuesta correcta: c. Helio
El helio es el segundo elemento de la tabla periódica con número atómico 2 y dos electrones en su capa de valencia. Su
símbolo es He y su estructura de Lewis, por lo tanto, es He:
7. El modelo de Lewis del metano CH4 es:
a.
b.
c.
Respuesta correcta: a y b
El carbono C comparte sus cuatro electrones de valencia con cada uno de los hidrógenos para formar el metano CH4. Se puede
representar con dos puntos entre cada hidrógeno con el carbono, o con una raya, que significa que se establece un enlace.
Vea también Enlace covalente.
Respuesta correcta: c.
El aluminio Al tiene tres electrones en su última capa de valencia, mientras el flúor F tiene 7 electrones. Entre el Al y el flúor
se produce un compuesto iónico, donde el aluminio cede sus tres electrones a los tres flúor para forma el fluoruro de aluminio.
10. El científico que desarrolló las estructuras de Lewis fue:
a. Lewis Hamilton
b. Gilbert Newton Lewis
c. Lewis Carrol
Respuesta correcta: b. Gilbert Newton Lewis
En 1916, el químico norteamericano Gilbert Newton Lewis elaboró los diagramas de Lewis, o diagrama de punto, para explicar
la formación de los enlaces químicos entre átomos.
¿Qué son los métodos anticonceptivos?
El método anticonceptivo es cualquier método usado para prevenir el embarazo. Otra forma de decir método anticonceptivo
es "anticoncepción".
Si tiene relaciones sexuales sin métodos anticonceptivos, existe la posibilidad de que pudiera quedar embarazada. Esto es así
incluso si aún no ha empezado a tener períodos menstruales o si se está acercando a la menopausia.
La única forma segura de prevenir el embarazo es no tener relaciones sexuales. Pero encontrar un buen método
anticonceptivo que pueda utilizar cada vez puede ayudarla a evitar un embarazo no planeado.
¿Qué tipos de métodos anticonceptivos hay?
Hay muchos tipos de métodos anticonceptivos. Cada uno tiene ventajas y desventajas. Aprender acerca de todos los métodos
la ayudará a encontrar uno que sea adecuado para usted.
• Los anticonceptivos reversibles de larga duración (LARC, por sus siglas en inglés) incluyen implantes y dispositivos
intrauterinos (DIU). "Larga duración" significa que prevendrán el embarazo por años. "Reversible" significa que usted
puede hacérselos extraer si desea quedar embarazada más adelante. Algunas opciones de LARC usan hormonas.
o Los implantes se colocan debajo de la piel del brazo.
o Los DIU los coloca en el útero un médico. Existen dos tipos principales de DIU: el DIU de cobre y el DIU
hormonal.
• Los métodos hormonales incluyen las pastillas anticonceptivas, las inyecciones, el parche cutáneo y el anillo vaginal.
Los métodos anticonceptivos que utilizan hormonas son muy buenos para prevenir el embarazo. Los implantes y los
DIU hormonales también usan hormonas para impedir el embarazo.
• Los métodos de barrera incluyen condones (preservativos), diafragmas y esponjas. En general, estos no previenen el
embarazo tan bien como los DIU o los métodos hormonales. Debe usar métodos de barrera cada vez que tenga
relaciones sexuales.
• La planificación familiar natural (que también se llama método del calendario de fertilidad) puede ser eficaz si usted
y su pareja son muy cuidadosos. Tendrá que mantener buenos registros para saber cuándo es fértil. Y durante las
épocas que sea fértil, tendrá que evitar tener relaciones sexuales o usar un método de barrera.
• Los métodos anticonceptivos permanentes (esterilización) le proporcionan una protección duradera contra el
embarazo. Un hombre se puede realizar una vasectomía o una mujer se puede realizar una atadura de trompas
(ligadura de trompas). Pero esto es solo una buena opción si se tiene la certeza de que no se desea tener hijos (o no
se desean más hijos).
• Los anticonceptivos de emergencia son un método de respaldo para prevenir el embarazo si no usó un método
anticonceptivo o si se rompe un condón.
Para que los métodos hormonales y los de barrera funcionen mejor tiene que utilizarlos exactamente como su médico o las
instrucciones lo indiquen. Aun así, pueden ocurrir accidentes. Por lo tanto, es recomendable tener métodos anticonceptivos
de urgencia a la mano como protección de respaldo.
¿Cómo elegir el mejor método?
El mejor método anticonceptivo es el que la protege cada vez que tiene relaciones sexuales. Y con muchos tipos de métodos
anticonceptivos, depende de lo bien que los use. Para encontrar un método que funcione para usted cada vez, algunas cosas
a considerar incluyen:
• Su eficacia. Piense lo importante que es para usted evitar el embarazo. Luego vea la eficacia de cada método. Por
ejemplo, si de todas formas planea tener un hijo pronto, es posible que no necesite un método muy confiable. Si no
quiere tener hijos pero cree que no es correcto poner fin a un embarazo, elija un método anticonceptivo que funcione
muy bien.
• Cuánto esfuerzo se necesita. Por ejemplo, las pastillas anticonceptivas pueden no ser una buena elección si olvida a
menudo tomar medicamentos. Si no está segura de si se detendrá y usará un método de barrera cada vez que tenga
relaciones sexuales, elija otro método.
• Cuándo quiere tener hijos. Por ejemplo, si desea tener hijos en el próximo año o el siguiente, las inyecciones
anticonceptivas pueden no ser una buena elección. Pueden hacer que sea difícil quedar embarazada durante varios
meses después de dejar de aplicárselas. Si no quiere tener hijos nunca, la planificación familiar natural no es una
buena opción, ya que muchas veces falla.
• Cuánto cuesta el método. Por ejemplo, los condones son baratos o gratuitos en algunas clínicas. Algunas compañías
de seguros cubren el costo de los métodos anticonceptivos recetados. Pero el costo puede ser a veces engañoso. Un
DIU cuesta mucho inicialmente. Pero funciona durante años, por lo que a lo largo del tiempo su costo es bajo.
• Si la protege contra infecciones o no. Los condones de látex pueden protegerla de las infecciones de transmisión
sexual (STI, por sus siglas en inglés), como el VIH. Pero no son la mejor manera de prevenir el embarazo. Para evitar
tanto las STI como el embarazo, use condones junto con otro método anticonceptivo.
• Si usted ha tenido problemas con un tipo de anticonceptivo. Es posible que encontrar el mejor método
anticonceptivo implique probar algo diferente. Además, podría tener que cambiar un método que le ha funcionado
bien en el pasado.
Si está usando un método ahora con el que no está contenta, hable con su médico acerca de otras opciones.
¿Qué problemas de salud podrían limitar sus opciones?
Dependiendo de su salud, algunos métodos anticonceptivos podrían no ser seguros para usted. Para asegurarse de que un
método sea adecuado para usted, su médico necesita saber si usted:
• Fuma.
• Está o pudiera estar embarazada.
• Está amamantando.
• Tiene problemas de salud graves, como enfermedad cardíaca, presión arterial alta, migrañas o diabetes.
• Ha tenido coágulos de sangre en las piernas (trombosis venosa profunda) o en los pulmones (embolia pulmonar), o
tiene un familiar cercano que los ha tenido.
• Alguna vez ha tenido cáncer de seno (mama).
• Tiene una infección de transmisión sexual.
¿Cómo puede obtener un método anticonceptivo?
Puede comprar:
• Condones, esponjas y espermicidas en farmacias sin una receta médica.
• Algunas formas de anticoncepción de emergencia sin receta en la mayoría de las farmacias.
Necesita ver a un médico u otro profesional de la salud para:
• Obtener una receta médica de pastillas anticonceptivas y otros métodos que usan hormonas.
• Que le coloquen un implante o un DIU, incluyendo el tipo de DIU que se usa como anticonceptivo de emergencia.
• Que le pongan una inyección hormonal.
• Conseguir una receta para un diafragma o un capuchón cervical.
• Conseguir una receta para ciertas clases de anticonceptivos de emergencia.
What are the contraceptive methods?
Contraception is any method used to prevent pregnancy. Another way to say birth control is "contraception."
If you have sex without birth control, there is a chance you could get pregnant. This is so even if you have not yet started
having periods periodsmenstrualor if you're getting close to themenopause.
The only sure way to prevent pregnancy is not to have sex. But finding a good birth control method that you can use every
time can help you avoid an unplanned pregnancy.
What types of contraceptive methods are there?
There are many types of birth control methods. Each has advantages and disadvantages. Learning about all the methods will
help you find one that is right for you.
• Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs) includeimplantsYintrauterine devices(IUD). "Long lasting" means they
will prevent pregnancy for years. "Reversible" means you can have them removed if you want to get pregnant
later. Some LARC options use hormones.
o The implants are placed under the skin of the arm.
o IUDs are placed in the uterus by a doctor. There are two main types of IUDs: the copper IUD and the hormonal
IUD.
• Themethods methodshormonalThey include birth control pills, injections, the skin patch, and the vaginal ring. Birth
control methods that use hormones are very good at preventing pregnancy. Hormonal IUDs and implants also use
hormones to prevent pregnancy.
• ThemethodsbarrierThey include condoms (condoms), diaphragms, and sponges. In general, these do not prevent
pregnancy as well as IUDs or hormonal methods. You must use barrier methods every time you have sex.
• Theplanning family planningnatural(also called the fertility calendar method) can be effective if you and your partner
are very careful. You will need to keep good records to know when you are fertile. And during times when you're
fertile, you'll need to avoid sex or use a barrier method.
• Permanent methods of birth control (sterilization) provide you with long-lasting protection against pregnancy. A man
can make avasectomyor a woman can have her tubes tied (ligationtubes). But this is only a good option if you are
certain that you do not want children (or do not want any more children).
• Thecontraception contraceptionemergencythey are a backup method to prevent pregnancy if you did not use birth
control or if a condom breaks.
For hormonal and barrier methods to work best, you need to use them exactly as your doctor or the instructions tell you. Still,
accidents can happen. Therefore, it is advisable to have emergency contraception on hand as backup protection.
How to choose the best method?
The best birth control method is one that protects you every time you have sex. And with many types of birth control, it
depends on how well you use them. To find a method that works for you every time, some things to consider include:
• Its effectiveness . Think about how important it is for you to avoid pregnancy. Then see the effectiveness of each
method. For example, if you plan to have a child soon anyway, you may not need a very reliable method. If you don't
want to have children but think it's not right to end a pregnancy, choose a birth control method that works very well.
• How much effort is needed . For example, birth control pills may not be a good choice if you often forget to take your
medicine. If you're not sure if you'll stop and use a barrier method every time you have sex, choose another method.
• When do you want to have children ? For example, if you want to have children in the next year or so, birth control
injections may not be a good choice. They can make it hard to get pregnant for several months after you stop using
them. If you never want to have children, natural family planning is not a good option, as it often fails.
• How much does the method cost ? For example, condoms are cheap or free at some clinics. Some insurance
companies cover the cost of prescription birth control methods. But the cost can sometimes be misleading. An IUD
costs a lot initially. But it works for years, so its cost over time is low.
• Whether or not it protects against infection . Latex condoms can protect you fromsexually transmitted infections
(STIs)English), As theHIV. But they are not the best way to prevent pregnancy. To avoid both STIs and pregnancy, use
condoms along with another method of birth control.
• If you have had problems with a type of birth control . Finding the best birth control method may mean trying
something different. Also, you may have to change a method that has worked well for you in the past.
If you're using a method now that you're not happy with, talk to your doctor about other options.
What health issues might limit your options?
Depending on your health, some birth control methods may not be safe for you. To make sure a method is right for you, your
doctor needs to know if you:
• Smoke.
• You are or could be pregnant.
• You are breastfeeding.
• You have serious health problems, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, migraines, or diabetes.
• You have had blood clots in your legs (deep vein thrombosis) or in your lungs (pulmonary embolism), or you have a
close family member who has had them.
• You have ever had breast cancer.
• You have a sexually transmitted infection.
How can you get birth control?
He can buy:
• Condoms, sponges and spermicides in pharmacies without a prescription.
• Some forms of emergency contraception without a prescription at most pharmacies.
You need to see a doctor or other health professional to:
• Get a prescription for birth control pills and other methods that use hormones.
• Having an implant or IUD inserted, including the type of IUD used for emergency contraception.
• Get a hormonal injection.
• Get a prescription for a diaphragm or cervical cap.
• Get a prescription for certain kinds of emergency contraception.
Contraceptive methods
There are many contraceptive methods. Learn about the different kinds of birth control so you can choose the best method
for you. When making your choice, also keep in mind that only a condom will help protect you fromsexually transmitted
infections (STIs)English). To protect yourself and your partner from STIs, use a condom (along with your chosen birth control
method) every time you have sex.
Long-acting reversible contraceptives
There are many contraceptive methods. Learn about the different kinds of birth control so you can choose the best method
for you. When making your choice, also keep in mind that only a condom will help protect you fromsexually transmitted
infections (STIs)English). To protect yourself and your partner from STIs, use a condom (along with your chosen birth control
method) every time you have sex.
Long-acting reversible contraceptives
Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) are the best reversible methods to prevent pregnancy. "Long-acting" means they
will prevent pregnancy for years. "Reversible" means that you can have them removed if you want to get pregnant
later. LARCs includeimplantsand theintrauterine devices(IUD).
• The hormonal implant (such as Nexplanon) releases progestin to prevent pregnancy for about 3 years. It must be
inserted and removed by a trained health professional. The implant itself is about the size of a matchstick and is
placed under the skin on the inner side of the upper arm.
• An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small device that isplaces in theuterusto prevent pregnancy. There are two main
types of IUDs: the copper IUD (such as ParaGard) and hormonal IUDs (such as Mirena or Skyla). Hormonal IUDs release
a type of progestin. When an IUD is in place, it can protect against pregnancy for 3 to 10 years, depending on the
type.
The hormonal IUD usually reduces menstrual flow and cramps over time. On the other hand, the copper IUD can cause longer
and heavier periods. But the hormonal IUD can have other side effects, including spotting, mood swings, and breast
tenderness. These side effects occur less often than with other progestin-only methods.
hormonal methods
Themethods methodshormonalThey are very reliable contraceptive methods. Hormonal methods use two basic formulas:
• Combination hormone methods contain both estrogen andprogestin(progesteronesynthetic). Combination methods
includepills ("thepill"), thepatch patchcutaneousand thering.
• Hormonal methods that contain only progestin include pills, also called"minipills"and theinjectionbirth control (such
as Depo-Provera). If you can't take estrogen, a progestin-only method might be an option for you. Implants and
hormonal IUDs also release progestin.
Combination and progestin-only methods are prescribed to women for different reasons. Each method has advantages and
disadvantages.
• Combination pills can reduce acne, ovulation pain, and premenstrual symptoms. Both types of pills reduce heavy
bleeding and cramping. Unlike the combination pill, the progestin-only pill can be taken by almost all women, even
those who are at risk for blood clots. Depending on when you start taking any type of birth control pill, you may need
to use a backup method of birth control for the first week.
• Patches and vaginal rings are similar to combination pills, but they don't require you to take a pill every day. The patch
is changed every week and the ring is changed once a month.
• Some birth control pills reduce the intense mood and physical symptoms some women have before their periods
start. These symptoms are calleddisorder dysphoric disorderpremenstrual(PMDD). There are also birth control pills
for women who want to have fewer periods or who want to stop having them.
• The contraceptive injection does not require you to take a pill every day. In most cases, you will see your health care
professional every 3 months for the injection.
barrier methods
Barrier methods (including the diaphragm; cervical cap; male condom; female condom; and spermicidal foam, sponge, gel,
suppository, or film) prevent sperm from entering the uterus and reaching the egg. Generally,methodsbarrierthey are not
highly effective, but may have fewer side effects than hormonal methods or IUDs. Spermicides and condoms should be used
together or with another method to increase their effectiveness. Barrier methods can interrupt intercourse, because they
must be used every time you have intercourse.
You should use condoms (male or female) whenever you are at risk of getting or spreading ainfection transmitted
infectionsexual, such asherpes herpesgenital,chlamydiaeitherHIV.
Fertility calendar method (periodic abstinence or natural family planning)
Thecalendar methodfertilityrequires the couple to register, during thecycle cyclemenstrualof a woman, the time when a
woman is most likely to get pregnant, and to avoid intercourse or use a barrier method during that time. The fertility calendar
method is not a good option if you need a highly effective birth control method.
Breastfeeding may act as birth control for the first 6 months after giving birth, if you follow specific guidelines. For this method
to work, you must always breastfeed your baby. You cannot use formula milk or other supplements. this is
calledlactation(LAM).
Permanent method of birth control (sterilization)
Sterilization is a surgical procedure that is performed on both men and women who decide they do not want to have any
children (or no more children). Sterilization is one of the most effective contraceptive methods. Sterilization is done for
permanent purposes, and although you can try to reverse its effect with another surgery, the reversal is not always successful.
• Ligation oftubes. Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure where the fallopian tubes, which carry eggs from the ovaries
to the uterus, are tied, cut, or blocked.
• vasectomy. In this minor surgery, the vas deferens, which are the tubes that carry sperm from thetesticlesto the
seminal fluid (semen), are cut and blocked so that the semen does not contain moresperm. This does not interfere
with a man's ability to have an erection or enjoy sexual intercourse. Men who have had a vasectomy should have a
sperm count before relying on this method of birth control.
Female sterilization is more complicated, has higher post-surgical risks, and is more expensive than male sterilization.
Contraception after pregnancy
Contraception is an important consideration after you have had a child. Your ability to get pregnant again may return 3 to 6
weeks after delivery. Think about what type of birth control you are going to use, and make plans during your pregnancy. Most
birth control methods are safe and effective after childbirth. But in the first couple of weeks after delivery, it's best to use a
method that doesn't contain estrogen. Talk to your doctor about which type is best for you.
How to choose a birth control method
With so many methods available and so many factors to consider, choosing a birth control method can be difficult. You may
be able to decide on a method by asking yourself the following questions:
Could you want to have a biological child in the future?
One of your first considerations may be whether you want permanent or temporary birth control. In other words, he should
consider whether or not he wants to conceive any children (or whether or not he wants to have more children). This is a
decision that will affect the rest of your life and can be made only after careful thought.
If you know you will never want to conceive and have a pregnancy, theligationtubesfor you or onevasectomyfor your partner
is a reasonable option to consider.
If you're not sure about the future, even if you know how you feel now, a temporary method is a better choice. If you are
young, have few or no children, and choose sterilization because your partner wants it that way, or you think it will solve
money or relationship problems, you may regret your decision later.
How much effort am I willing to put in to prevent pregnancy?
Some birth control methods require more effort than others. Really consider how much effort you are willing to put into
preventing pregnancy. The contraceptive method must be followed correctly to prevent a pregnancy. If you don't feel
comfortable with a particular method of conception, or know that you might not be able to follow it consistently for some
reason, that method may not be reliable for you in the long run.
• Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs), such as implants and IUDs, work to prevent pregnancy for 3 to 10
years. Once it's in place, you don't need to do anything else.
• Hormonal injections are needed every 3 months.
• Barrier methods (including the diaphragm; cervical cap; male condom; female condom; and spermicidal foam,
sponge, gel, suppository, or film) can interrupt intercourse and should be used each time you have sex.
• Combination pills are taken every day. Progestin pills should only be taken at the same time each day. Yesskip atablet,
you will need to use a backup method of birth control.
• The patches are replaced 3 times each month.
• Vaginal rings are placed in the vagina once every month.
• The fertility calendar method requires a couple to record the time in a woman's menstrual cycle when she is most
likely to become pregnant and avoid intercourse or use a barrier method during that time.
• Sterilization is a surgical procedure for men or women who decide they do not want to have (any more)
children. Sterilization is meant to be permanent.
How would an unplanned pregnancy affect my life?
If an unplanned pregnancy could seriously affect your plans for the future, opt for a contraceptive method that is highly
effective. If an unplanned pregnancy is welcome, you may feel comfortable using a less reliable method.
How effective are the different types of birth control methods?
Consider how important it is to you to avoid pregnancy, and then consider theeffectiveness of eachmethod. Both hormonal
methods and IUDs are very effective. Barrier methods such as condoms, diaphragms, and spermicides are only moderately
effective. The rhythm method is even less effective.
To be effective, birth control pills require you to take a pill every day. Barrier methods have to be used before
intercourse. Fertility monitoring methods require you to pay close attention to your temperature and other cues. You should
also avoid intercourse on days when you could become pregnant.
Consider how comfortable you feel about using a particular birth control method. If you don't feel comfortable with a birth
control method, or are unlikely to use it consistently for any reason, that method may not be reliable for you in the long run.
How can I prevent sexually transmitted infections?
Unless you know your partner has no other sexual partners orsexually transmitted infections (STIs)English), you are at risk of
getting an STI infection. If you are at risk, protect yourself from infection every time you have sex. Use a condom in addition
to any other birth control method you choose.
You can choose between a male or female condom to reduce your risk of getting HIV (the virus that causes AIDS), gonorrhea,
syphilis, chlamydia, genital warts, herpes,pelvic inflammatory disease(EIP)and other infections.
What health factors might limit my choice of birth control?
If you have health problems or other risk factors, some birth control methods may not be right for you.
• Smoke. If you smoke more than 15 cigarettes a day and are age 35 or older, or have high blood pressure, a history of
stroke, a history of blood clots, liver disease, or heart disease, you may not be able to use combined hormonal
methods.
• Migraine. If you have migraines, talk to your health care professional about whether or not you can try combined
hormonal contraception.
• Diabetes. If you have advanced or long-standing diabetes, discuss the risks of using hormonal birth control with your
health care professional.
• Birth. If you have just given birth, estrogen and progestin birth control methods are not recommended for the first
few weeks. Progestin-only pills, an implant, both kinds of IUDs, or birth control shots are a good choice for women
who have just given birth.
Other health problems that might prevent you from using a particular birth control method are relatively rare, especially in
young women. But before using any method, talk to your health care professional to see if it's safe for you.
What other considerations should be taken into account when choosing a contraceptive method?
Other factors to consider when choosing a birth control method include:
• Health benefits, such as reduced risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections from condom use, and reduced
risk of ovarian and uterine cancer from birth control pill use for a year or more.
• The cost. Over time, the higher one-time cost of IUD insertion or sterilization surgery may be less than the ongoing
costs of buying pills or condoms and spermicide.
• If you are planning to becomepregnantin the future. The amount of time it takes for a woman to return to full fertility
after stopping birth control varies for each woman and depends on the birth control method she is using.
• The risks and side effects of the method. Some birth control methods may have a higher risk of causing certain health
problems. And some methods cause more side effects than others. For example, hormonal birth control methods
may have more risks and side effects than barrier methods. Talk to your doctor about the risks and side effects.
think about theadvantages and disadvantages of birth control methodshormonalcan help you choose the best one for you.
After you have reviewed the different methods and thought about your own values and needs, you can choose the method
that will give you the best results. Using condoms with any method may increase your reliability and help protect you
fromsexually transmitted infections (STIs)English).
Are you interested in knowing what other people have decided? Many people have faced this decision. Thesestories
storiespersonalcould be helpful in making a decision.
emergency contraception
You can use emergency contraception if the condom breaks, if you have forgotten to take a pill, if you are taking other
medicines that could change the effect of contraceptive medicines, or if you have had unprotected sex. Emergency
contraception does not protect you againstinfections transmitted infectionssexual.
For more information, see the topiccontraceptionurgency.
When to call a doctor
For many birth control methods, you will need to see your doctor to get a prescription. If you want to start birth control, talk
to your doctor about the options that are right for you. And if you're having trouble with birth control, talk to your doctor. He
or she can recommend another birth control method or help you solve the problem you are having.
EMBARAZO EN LA ADOLESCENCIA
CONCEPTOS GENERALES
La OMS define como adolescencia al "período de la vida en el cual el individuo adquiere la capacidad reproductiva,
transita los patrones psicológicos de la niñez a la adultez y consolida la independencia socio – económica" y fija sus límites
entre los 10 y 20 años.
Es considerada como un periodo de la vida libre de problemas de salud pero, desde el punto de vista de los cuidados de la
salud reproductiva, el adolescente es, en muchos aspectos, un caso especial
En muchos países, los adolescentes llegan a representar del 20 al 25% de su población. En 1980 en el mundo habían 856
millones de adolescentes y se estima que en el 2000 llegarán a 1,1 millones. La actividad sexual de los adolescentes va en
aumento en todo el mundo, incrementando la incidencia de partos en mujeres menores de 20 años.
Por los matices según las diferentes edades, a la adolescencia se la puede dividir en tres etapas:
1. – Adolescencia Temprana (10 a 13 años)
Biológicamente, es el periodo peripuberal, con grandes cambios corporales y funcionales como la menarca.
Psicológicamente el adolescente comienza a perder interés por los padres e inicia amistades básicamente con individuos
del mismo sexo.
2. – Adolescencia media (14 a 16 años)
Es la adolescencia propiamente dicha; cuando ha completado prácticamente su crecimiento y desarrollo somático.
Psicológicamente es el período de máxima relación con sus pares, compartiendo valores propios y conflictos con sus
padres.
3. – Adolescencia tardía (17 a 19 años)
Casi no se presentan cambios físicos y aceptan su imagen corporal; se acercan nuevamente a sus padres y sus valores
presentan una perspectiva más adulta; adquieren mayor importancia las relaciones íntimas y el grupo de pares va
perdiendo jerarquía; desarrollan su propio sistema de valores con metas vocacionales reales.
EMBARAZO EN LA ADOLESCENCIA
Se lo define como: "el que ocurre dentro de los dos años de edad ginecológica, entendiéndose por tal al tiempo
transcurrido desde la menarca, y/o cuando la adolescente es aún dependiente de su núcleo familiar de origen".
La "tasa de fecundidad adolescente (TFA)" ha ido disminuyendo desde los años 50 pero en forma menos marcada que la
"tasa de fecundidad general (TFG)", condicionando un aumento en el porcentaje de hijos de madres adolescentes sobre el
total de nacimientos. En 1958 era del 11,2%; en 1980 del 13,3%; en 1990 del 14,2%; en 1993 del 15%. Este último
porcentaje se traduce en 120.000 nacidos vivos de mujeres menores de 20 años.
La fecundidad adolescente es más alta en países en desarrollo y entre clases sociales menos favorecidas, haciendo pensar
que se trata de un fenómeno transitorio porque, de mejorarse las condiciones, ella podría descender. El embarazo en las
adolescentes se ha convertido en seria preocupación para varios sectores sociales desde hacen ya unos 30 años. Para la
salud, por la mayor incidencia de resultados desfavorables o por las implicancias del aborto. En lo psicosocial, por las
consecuencias adversas que el hecho tiene sobre la adolescente y sus familiares.
Cuando la adolescente se embaraza inicia un complejo proceso de toma de decisiones y, hasta decidirse por uno, aparece
siempre el aborto a veces como un supuesto más teórico que real.
En 1985, en EE.UU, el aborto alcanzó el 42%; los matrimonios disminuyeron del 51% al 36%. Hoy, la tendencia es de un
aumento de los abortos y disminución de matrimonios, aunque no siempre las decisiones de las adolescentes son conocidas
(abortos o adopción). Salvo que el tener un hijo forme parte de un proyecto de vida de una pareja de adolescentes, el
embarazo en ellos es considerado como una situación problemática por los sectores involucrados pero, si se considera al
embarazo en la adolescente como un "problema", ello limita su análisis. En todo caso, esta "problematización" se aplicaría a
algunas subculturas o a algunos estratos sociales, pero no a todos los embarazos en adolescentes. Además, el considerarlo
un "proble-ma", exige aplicar terapéuticas que aporten soluciones sin permitir implementar acciones preventivas
adecuadas. Por ello es conveniente encuadrarlo dentro del marco de la "salud integral del adolescente". Esto permite
abarcar todos los embarazos que ocurran a esta edad; adecuar las acciones preventivas dentro de la promoción de la salud;
brindar asistencia integral a cada madre adolescente, a sus hijos y parejas y aportar elementos para el desarrollo de las
potencialidades de los adolescentes.
PREGNANCY IN ADOLESCENCE
GENERAL CONCEPTS
The WHO defines adolescence as the "period of life in which the individual acquires reproductive capacity, transitions
from the psychological patterns of childhood to adulthood and consolidates socio-economic independence" and sets its
limits between 10 and 20 years.
It is considered a period of life free of health problems but, from the point of view of reproductive health care, the
adolescent is, in many aspects, a special case
In many countries, adolescents come to represent 20 to 25% of their population. In 1980 there were 856 million
adolescents in the world and it is estimated that in 2000 there will be 1.1 million. The sexual activity of adolescents is
increasing throughout the world, increasing the incidence of childbirth in women under 20 years of age.
Due to the nuances according to the different ages, adolescence can be divided into three stages:
1. – Early Adolescence (10 to 13 years old)
Biologically, it is the peripubertal period, with major bodily and functional changes such as menarche.
Psychologically, the adolescent begins to lose interest in his parents and begins friendships basically with individuals of
the same sex.
2. – Middle adolescence (14 to 16 years old)
It is adolescence proper; when it has practically completed its growth and somatic development.
Psychologically, it is the period of maximum relationship with their peers, sharing their own values and conflicts with their
parents.
3. – Late adolescence (17 to 19 years old)
There are almost no physical changes and they accept their body image; they become close to their parents again and
their values present a more adult perspective; intimate relationships become more important and the peer group loses
hierarchy; they develop their own value system with real vocational goals.
PREGNANCY IN ADOLESCENCE
It is defined as: "that which occurs within two years of gynecological age, understood as the time elapsed since menarche,
and/or when the adolescent is still dependent on her family of origin."
The "adolescent fertility rate (AFR)" has been declining since the 1950s but less markedly than the "general fertility rate
(AFR)", conditioning an increase in the percentage of children born to adolescent mothers over the total number of births .
In 1958 it was 11.2%; in 1980 13.3%; in 1990 14.2%; in 1993 of 15%. This last percentage translates into 120,000 live births
of women under 20 years of age.
Adolescent fertility is higher in developing countries and among less favored social classes, suggesting that it is a
transitory phenomenon because, if conditions improve, it could decrease. Teenage pregnancy has become a serious
concern for various social sectors for about 30 years. For health, due to the higher incidence of unfavorable results or the
implications of abortion. Psychosocially, due to the adverse consequences that the event has on the adolescent and her
relatives.
When the adolescent becomes pregnant, she begins a complex decision-making process and, until she decides on one,
abortion always appears, sometimes as a more theoretical than real assumption.
In 1985, in the US, abortion reached 42%; marriages decreased from 51% to 36%. Today, the trend is for an increase in
abortions and a decrease in marriages, although the decisions of adolescents are not always known (abortions or adoption).
Unless having a child is part of a life project for a teenage couple, pregnancy in them is considered a problematic situation
by the sectors involved, but if teenage pregnancy is considered a "problem", it limits your analysis. In any case, this
"problematization" would apply to some subcultures or to some social strata, but not to all adolescent pregnancies. In
addition, considering it a "problem" requires applying therapeutics that provide solutions without allowing the
implementation of adequate preventive actions. For this reason, it is convenient to frame it within the framework of
"comprehensive adolescent health". This allows covering all pregnancies that occur at this age; adapt preventive actions
within health promotion; provide comprehensive assistance to each adolescent mother, her children and her partners and
provide elements for the development of the potential of adolescents.