Applied linguistics-second exam

Ch3: Native speaker The issue of native speaker is one of the most contentious and problematic in applied linguistics Common assumption about what native speaker means- Traditional definition Personal history: native speakers are consider to acquire the language naturally and effortlessly during the childhood through exposure and child innate talent for language learning The need to communicate Expertise: native speaker is one who could use the language correctly and have insight-inner knowledge-of what is not acceptable. Knowledge and loyalty: native speaker has knowledge of the community which uses the language and is loyal to it. The T.definition is unproblematic when applies on small language spoken in one in particular place. I.e. Icelandic language in Iceland. The traditional definition of native speaker is PROBLEMATIC in the cases of widely distributed languages many English native speakers grew up with and use another language in their home, their cultural loyalty is wholly or partly to a non-English speaking community, and they may oppose English speaking culture aspects of proficiency the traditional definition of native speaker does not include:

It focuses on speech and ignores proficiency in writing. Some of native speakers are illiterate. Or write incorrectly, clumsily-in awkward manner. Native speaker s knowledge of language is implicit-not obvious. They can use the rules but cannot explain them i.e. can t tell the difference between shall and will. Native speakerness implies nothing about : Size of vocabulary Range of style Ability to communicate in diverse communities

English as Lingua Franka Highly proficient users of English are not necessarily use to any of standard Englishes from either the inner or the outer circle. They use a new variety of English English as Lingua Franca characteristics A new variety of English Does not depend on either childhood acquisition nor cultural identity Focuses on clarity and comprehensibility rather than conformity to one of the existing standards Being a native speaker does not imply expertise in ELF For purpose of international communication, native speakers need to adjust their language to a new norm. ELF is unique for English

English and Englishes The spread of English is related to expansion of its use Historically, the most active of applied linguistic enquiry has been in SLA: Second Language Acquisition TEFL: Teaching English as Foreign Language In the early days of applied linguistics TEFL and SLA were considered to be one and the same

Ch4: Development in ELT: English Language Teaching

Grammar translation-traditional method The teaching of foreign languages were influenced by the academic study of the dead classical languages, Latin and ancient Greek. Modern languages teaching were assumed to put students into contact with great national civilizations and their literature. It trained minds in logical thought, and developed elegant expressions. It considered language as an academic discipline. Best examples of language are its greatest writers Grammar rules were explained to students in their own-firstlanguage Vocabulary lists were learned with translation equivalents Sentences were laboriously translated, in writing, into and out of students first language and were remote of any possible use.

Grammar translation assumption about language learning: The way into the new language was through student s first language Complicated rules were mastered and this mastery is tested by translation Success was measured in terms of accurate use of grammar and vocabulary rather than effective communication Using the language meant written translation There was no emphasis on the development of fluent speech: it is better to get things right slowly than say them fast and effectively The process of learning the language and the eventual use of it were disassociated The ends were different from the means GT: bilingual, focuses on form, classical, tests grammar accuracy through translation, criticized for ignoring communication.

The Direct Method-Traditional method Appeared as a result of changing in language-learning population by: Mass immigration by speakers of different languages to the USA

the growing international trade and tourism and an increase on both vocational and recreational language learning Appearance of new kinds of students---immigrants, businesspeople, tourists, created new kinds of class room population. In theses classrooms students did not share the same first language so that it was impossible to use students first language in explanation and translation the new types of student needed spoken as well as written language fast characteristics of DM students own language were banned in schools instructions and explanation were done by the language under construction Translation and first language explanation were banned in schools. And the new method inforced ruthlessly insisting on one language and outlaw bilingualism, and it was repressive that you can t use any other language

the concepts of the Direct Method about language learning: Language was no longer an object of academic study attainable by hard work. Success was measured by the degree of approximating the native speaker.

DM: it is direct because it focuses on learning English directly Without the assistance of learner s first language. It is criticized for being monolingual. As GT, DM focuses on form.

Points of similarity in grammar- translation and Direct method Explanation and grading of grammar rules Language was divided into separate areas such as vocabulary or pronunciation practice Direct method differs from GT that direct method do not refer to first language explanation or translation Grammar rules had to be worked out by student from practices> Why? because explanation world demand language beyond the level of the rules being explained Meaning of vocabulary had to be either guessable for the context, illustrated, or mimed. Miming word is problematic in abstract and general words such as faith and creature but not problematic in physical and concrete words

Natural approach- (has a psychological rationale) The idea of the NA is that the native speaker can repeat the route of proficiency of the native speaking child effortlessly with naturally and effortlessly through exposure to meaningful input no correction of errors or grading

NA is based upon theorizing an research in SLA: learners follow an internally determined natural order of their own Explicit instruction and conscious learning have no effect on acquiring the language. It is natural ability to learn language so that learning does not involve hard work criticism to the natural approach seeks to impose on teachers ideas based upon theorizing and research which stand against their practice and beliefs NA is culturally insensitive> why? Because it was developed in the US and exported globally without different educational traditions or language contexts i.e. classrooms variations and size or concepts f teacher s role It is based on flawed research> how? Instruction does effect learning there are variation depending on the language being learned ( it can be be applied on all cultures) NA attracted many followers by suggesting that learning doesn t involve hard work, it was superficially seductive The natural approach supported natural, meaningful, and real activities to learn language. But denied these: Concious learning Correction of errors Practice activities

Attention to form (the structure of language: grammar, vocabulary , and pronunciation) conscious learning, correction of errors communicative approach---CLT Focuses on how to use the language and is a dominant approach in language teaching and many other applied linguistic areas. CLT and NA Both focus on meaning But have different rationale NA rationale is psychological: derived from the idea of first-language acquisition that attention to meaning would trigger the natural cognitive development of language system. CLT rationale is social: promote successful communication. CLT shifted attention from language as an end in itself to the use of that system in successful communication (shift from form to communication). Success is assessed through the ability to do things with the language > Appropriately: in terms of context Fluently Effectively: get what you want through language The accurate use of grammar and pronunciations and the explicit knowledge of the rules were not used to assess success

Attention is shifted from teaching and practicing grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary lists to communicative activities. CLT did not abandoned attention to form: Accurate use of the language remained the major source for successful communication. Points of changing in emphasis in CLT Successful communication needs mastery of form and other kinds of knowledge and abilities Forms should be approached in the context of their usefulness but not as an end in itself (learn forms useful to you in your real life CLT student consider first what they need language for and then learn forms that fulfill those needs (needs analysis) stimulating them in classroom through goal-relevant activities. The results of CLT shift of emphasis from FORM to effective communication: At the macro level of syllabus and curriculum design Development of language for specific purposes ESP: tries to develop the language and discourse skills needed in 1-particular job(EOP=English for occupational purposes). 2-particular field of study EAP: English for Academic Purposes. Micro level: development of Task-Based Instruction TBI in which learning is organized around tasks related to realworld activities

focusing student s attention on meaning and on successful task completion the rationale for ESP is so social The rationale for TBI is psychological. TBI depends on SLA research findings, that is, The key to language acquisition is attention to meaning rather than form Negotiation with another speaker Motivation created by real-world relevance CLT and the traditional approaches(GT,DM) Traditional approaches emphasizing formal practice and separate elements of separate elements of language and teach them step by step CLT Handles language all at once>why? As it would be in the real world which is learner s ultimate goal. Critique to CLT

Communicative activities could lead to limited proficiency Emphasis on functions rather than form turn the learner into phrase-book-like lists of things used in particular situations

Fossilizes or preventing the learner form further development for more complex use The focus on ends was, in practice interpreted in utilitarian way---seeing work and transaction of ordinary information as the limit of learner s needs---as a result, denying attention to the aesthetic, playful, and creative aspects of language, and its role in creating and maintaining relationships.

Ch5: language and communication

Knowing the language Linguistic competence Noam Chomsky Communicative competence Dell Hymes

Knowing the language:

The traditional approaches assumed that knowing the rules of the language and being able to use them in were one and the same. This is a false assumption because: >> One may know the rules but still not successful communicator>how: May not use the language fast enough Understand what is being said but fail to join in Speak a language that is stilted (very formal) and old fashsioned, example, whom do you want or it is raining cats and dogs Send the wrong kind of signals with their body or voice tone May understand the literal meaning of what is being said but not why it is said Knowing the rules of the language and being able to use them involve other types of knowledge

Linguistics competence--Chomsky Chomsky basic idea is separating the formal system of the language for other kinds of knowledge Chomsky s ideas about language Human capacity for language is not the product of general intelligence or learning ability Human capacity for language is innate (born with child)

Genetically determined feature of the human species Requires minimal exposure to activate our connection to the particular language around us. UG: Universal Grammar forms the basis of competence in the particular language the child goes on to speak and is already contained in the brain of newborn infant. This linguistic competence is seen as separate from other mental abilities The use of UG depends on the language a child goes on to speak. Critique to Chomsky s linguistic competence Language ,as he see, is more biological than social Similarities between languages outweigh (are more than) differences. Language is separate from other factors involved in its use such as body language or cultural knowledge Chomsky s theories have a reductive (reducing language to genetic level) and constraining effect (the use of language is only about UG), when not considering the main aspects of applied linguistics

Communicative competence

Communicative competence is a try by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes to formulate precisely the kinds of knowledge involved in using the language Dell Hymes assumes that a person who had only linguistic competence would not be able to communicate and would produce grammatical sentences unrelated to the situation in which they occur Successful communication components 4 Possibility Feasibility Appropriateness Attesteddness Possibility: what is formally possible I.e. whether a sentence conforms to the rules of grammar or not. For example: me go sleep now is not possible English because it violates the rule that me cannot bused as a subject. Oxymoron violates the rules of semantics and is also not possible. Feasibility Is a psychological concept concerned with limitation to what can be processed by mind over-Expending a noun phrase would result in possible but not feasible sentence hard to be processed by mind every grammatical sentence is not necessarily feasible low feasibility fails communication and obscure information( makes info not clear) feasibility makes information easily accessible

feasibility in very important in contracts Appropriateness

Concerns the relationship of language or behavior to context Appropriateness is characterized by having public aspect The opposite of it is inappropriateness > Something may be inappropriate to a particular relationship( calling a cup darling or tickling him ) particular kind of text I.e. using taboo or slang in formal letter Particular culture: no showing deference to the elderly. Appropriateness concerns conformity to social convention The issue off appropriateness is controversial a t verbal and non-verbal communication some non-verbal aspects that are considered as personal spills over the public domain and a society seeks to impose it is own norms and people feel very strongly about such issues. Examples> dress code in the west and the Arab countries ARGUMENTS in appropriateness Values are perceived as absolute rather than culturespecific> religious freedom, female modesty, and women rights In non verbal communication

Should learner of the language adopt the way in which it is used> examples> maintaining Japanese deferential politeness when learn Japanese, or drop all references to God when learning Arabic. These examples resemble the culture clash between different languages Clash between speakers of the same language. Example > British and American English. British English in some context is labeld as curt and unfriendly, whereas American English is labeled as effusive and false

Attestedness:

Whether is something occur frequently or not, whether something is probable in the language or not Black and white is attested and highly frequent in English white and black is Possible: it does not break any grammar rule Feasible: it is understandable and easily processed

Appropriate: it does not contravene any sensitive social convention Not attested: it does not occur as frequent as black and white Corpus linguistics ( searching entries of language on databanks on the internet) is widely used in attestedness