Ancient Man and His First Civilizations

South America

Norte Chico
The enigma of ancient South American development, [cultures evolving to the building of Monumental Structures BEFORE they have even learned to make ceramics - pottery], is wonderfully illustrated by what many now consider the regions very first civilization, the Norte Chico civilization in the Norte Chico region of coastal central Peru, some even argue that Norte Chico is the oldest civilization in the Americas. The Norte Chico civilization consisted of about thirty major population centers. The oldest center, dating from about 9,210 B.C. only provides some indication of human settlement in the early Archaic era. But by 3,200 B.C, human settlement and communal construction are readily apparent. The most notable of the Norte Chico cities is Caral in the Supe Valley: Caral excavations were begun in 1994 by Ruth Shady Sols, a Peruvian anthropologist and archeologist. She is also founder and director of the Archeological project Caral. The ruins of Caral are located in an arid region, but with nearby rivers, some 14 miles from the coast and 120 miles north of Perus modern capital city of Lima. Caral was inhabited between 2627 B.C. and 2020 B.C. and its land area was about 150 acres. Caral city was comprised of six pyramids (or platform mounds), two plazas, an amphitheatre, and ordinary houses. The population is estimated to have been about 3,000. The living arrangement seems to have been large, well kept rooms atop the pyramids for the elite, ground-level complexes for craftsmen, and shabbier outlying shantytowns for workers. The Norte Chico people were apparently very peaceful people, no evidence exists of weapons or defensive fortifications, and no evidence exists of Human sacrifice. In one of the pyramids they uncovered 32 flutes made of condor and pelican bones and 37 cornets made of deer and llama bones, also found was a primitive quipu. It is speculated that the city sustained itself by cotton farming; this was accomplished by building canals to irrigate cotton fields with river water. This cotton was then used to make textiles such as fishing nets, carry bags, and clothing. These textiles where in turn used to trade for seafood from the coast

and produce from the interior, the civilization apparently had wideranging trade contacts.

The largest pyramid of Caral is Pirmide Mayor; which is 450 ft. By 500 ft. and 60 ft. tall. A 30-foot-wide staircase rises from a sunken circular plaza at the foot of the pyramid, passing over three terraced levels until it reaches the top of the platform. The platform top contains the remains of an atrium and a large fireplace. It should be pointed out; the pyramid is not really a pyramid at all, but more akin to the platform mounds used for the same purposes by the ancient Mississippians of central United States. Evidence suggests that the pyramids were built by stuffing reed bags filled with stones gathered from hillside quarrys and riverbanks against a retaining wall. This process was repeated until the mound had reached the desired dimensions and height. Although analysis is not available, the retaining walls appear to be made of random sized stones bonded together with mortar (probably lime and sand). It was the remains of the reed bags that provided the material for radiocarbon dating of the sites, the oldest of these bags, was dated to 2627 B.C.

In South America, it is in Ecuador that we find the first evidence of an actual "Culture" in terms of art forms. Even though Man had been in South American for 50,000 years or more, it is not until the period of 15,000 B.C. through to about 3200 B.C, that we see the first signs of development. It is at about 3200 B.C, that we first see the effects of Olmec culture and technology having filtered south, in that datable pottery, is now known to exist in South America - at Valdivia. During the initial time, there was a long and steady period of development in the region, and this development coincided with a constant increase in population. Although the great cities and some of the other major cultural activities, that would later develop farther south, were not found in Ecuador, there was nevertheless, a considerable cultural accomplishment there. And from this early beginning grew the Valdivia culture.

The Valdivia
The Valdivia Culture thrived on the coast of Ecuador between 3,500 and 1,800 B.C. This culture was discovered in 1956 by the Ecuadorian archeologist Emilio Estrada. Based on a comparison of archeological remains and pottery styles, Estrada and the American archeologist Betty Meggers suggested that a relationship between the people of Ecuador and the Jomon people of Japan had existed in ancient times, {the original inhabitants of Japan - the Ainu and Jomon - were Not Mongol as are the current inhabitants - they were of the original East African Ancients}. Estrada and Meggers theorized that these original Japanese had conducted trans-Pacific trade with the Americas. This theory was revolutionary for at that time, no evidence of contact between the two populations had previously been established. There was however, no evidence of continuing contact or on-going trade. Later developments make it clear that the contact was really with the Olmec branch of these ancient migrants, not the Jomon. The Valdivia lived in communities with homes built in a circle around a central plaza. They were a sedentary people who lived off of farming and fishing, though they occasionally hunted game, such as deer. From remains that have been found, it has been determined that Valdivians cultivated corn, kidney beans, squash, cassava, hot peppers and cotton plants. They used the cotton to make

their clothes. Valdivian pottery over time, became large, and intricate, they generally used red and gray colors. Their ceramics and stone works, show a progression from simple to more complicated works.

Peru
We now go to Huaca Prieta in the Chicama Valley, on the northern coast of Peru. Here we find monumental ceremonial mounds, built around 2500 B.C. We also find highly skilled cotton weaving at this site, as well as gourds {vessels made of the dried shells of Melons, Pumpkins etc.}, these were carved with stylized geometric motifs. Another Pre-Ceramic site on the northern Peruvian coast is Las Haldas: here pyramids and platform temples were constructed at about 1800 B.C. "El Paraido" and "Chuquintanta" on the central Peruvian coast, are the region's largest excavated Pre-Ceramic sites. Here various residential complexes of clay and stone were constructed by building rooms and terraces one on top of another, much the same as in the Pueblo towns of the southwestern United States. Another important Pre-Ceramic site is Kotosh in the northern highlands of Peru. At Kotosh, terraced temples were made of fieldstone set in earth and decorated with clay reliefs of crossed hands. Here again, they learnt to make monumental structures, before they learned to make pottery, it is a clear indication of outside influence. Two important cultures that would later develop in Peru during the PreClassic period, were Chavn de Huntar and Paracas.

The Chavin
The Chavin culture is known for its beautiful art and design, but Chavin was also innovative with metallurgy and textile production. Cloth production was revolutionized during the time of the Chavin. New techniques and materials were developed, including the use of camel hair, textile painting, and the "resist" type painting style, which is similar to modern day tie-dying. Metalworking also developed and the Chavn excelled at making hammered gold ornaments.

The Paracas
South of the Chavn region, another high culture developed around the Paracas Peninsula. This civilization produced a famous thin-walled pottery and some of the most extraordinary textiles in existence. Great woven mantles, ponchos, and small tapestries were created between 1000 and 250 B.C. Human remains found at Chavin show indications of cranial surgery and the odd, but common practice (in Meso and South America), of head shaping for beauty.

The Moche
Just as elements from the Chavn civilization filtered south to influence the Paracas people, so the Paracas people influenced a cultural development in the north, around the Vir, Chicama, and Moche valleys, {about 250 B.C. to 750 A.D.}. The most important of these cultures - is commonly called the Moche - which is a name taken from the excavated site in the Moche river valley. {This place appears to have been the capital or chief city of the Moche people}.

The Moche settlements extended along the hot, arid coast of northern Peru from the Lambayeque River valley, south for more than 215 miles to the Nepea River valley. There were no towns built in the northern valleys however, here dispersed communities were built in such a way, so as not to waste the valuable irrigated agricultural lands. In these areas Ceremonial centers seem to have served as the social and cultural focal points. The Moche people developed an art form that includes some of the finest sculpture in the history of pottery. The range of designs makes these objects remarkable not only as art, but also as a record of the civilization from which they came. The extensive number of objects produced, suggests that the civilization was an extremely populous one, in which power and wealth were major goals.

The ascension of the Moche occurred after the gradual demise of the Chavin culture. The demise of Chavin culture ended several centuries of political unification within northern Peru. As the small states of northern

Peru began to break away from what had been a unified government, and as the citizens learned to find their own way, each state branched off and began to develop its own artistic style. These evolved into citystates, which were run through a centralized government. As the artistic style of the Moche evolved, and spread throughout northern Peru, it became the standard form of all the states. Moche architecture featured flat-topped pyramids and ramped platforms with courtyards and plazas. Near Trujillo in the Moche River valley, there still exists two giant structures, known as the Temple of the Sun (Huaca del Sol - a stepped pyramid) and the Temple of the Moon (Huaca de la Luna - a terraced platform with large rooms and courtyards). Much of what is known about the Moche has been deciphered from complex illustrations, known as fine-line paintings that appear on thousands of ceramic vessels. What these drawings show, appears to be highly stylized ceremonial combat in which warriors fought one-on-one for the purpose of producing a few vanquished prisoners. These unfortunates were needed to fill a central role in the sacrifice ceremony that followed battle. Drawing after drawing shows how the prisoners were first stripped of clothing and battle equipment, and then, naked and leashed around the neck with a rope, brought back to a ceremonial center. There the prisoners throats were cut, their blood consumed by the ceremony participants, and finally their bodies dismembered. Although a warrior society, the Moche did have a taste for luxury. Moche tombs were filled with some of the most splendid pottery and metalwork of the Central Andean Area. Moche ceramics, are the best known of ancient Peruvian artifacts, and are among the finest ever known. Their portrait-head effigy pots are especially notable for realistically depicting human features and portraying emotion. The reasons for the demise of the Moche are unknown, they may have succumbed to earthquakes, prolonged drought, or catastrophic flooding.

The Recuay
Inland, in the northern highlands of Peru, there also existed a contemporaneous, and similar culture to the Moche. This was known as the "Recuay" culture in the Callejn de Huaylas Valley of Peru.

The Nazca
Further south, the Nazca of Peru's southern coastal region, were roughly contemporary with the Moche. Like their Paracas predecessors, the Nazca produced little architecture, but excelled at making textiles and pottery with colorful designs. The most unusual aspect of these people are their Nazca lines. These are drawings in the earth of geometric shapes, animals, birds, and fish that can be fully recognized only from the air. Their purpose was certainly ceremonial, but the context is unknown. The lines were made by scraping away dark upper surface stones on the surface of the ground to reveal a lighter substratum. The Nazca were also known for their practice of shrinking heads!

The Pucara
Now we move to the northern basin of Lake Titicaca in southern Peru. The Pucara were the culture that developed here. This site is known for its unusual horseshoe-shaped temple of stone masonry. Pucar-style stone sculptures and Pucar pottery, show resemblances to those of Tiwanaku (they are next), in the southern Titicaca basin. Because the earlier levels at Tiwanaku show Pucar-type pottery, it is apparent that the Pucar culture was a forerunner of the Classic Tiwanaku styles. The Pucar are generally dated from 300 B.C. to 300 A.D. in the Early Intermediate Period.

The Tiwanaku
Now we move to the southeast where another major civilization had been developing: the Tiwanaku/Tiahuanacu in Bolivia. Tiwanaku is an ancient city in the south-Central Andean highlands of

Bolivia, on the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. Although Tiahuanacu was settled as early as about 200 B.C, it was between 200 A.D. and 600 A.D. that this urban complex became the center of another major Classic period civilization. Unfortunately the inhabitants of Tiwanaku had no written language. Tiwanaku art and architecture was rather stiff, decorative motifs and religious imagery are rigid in appearance. Stone was their material of choice, it was used for their walled cities as well as huge doorways with intricately carved paneling. Stone was also used to paved their roads. Both their buildings and sculpture are characterized by a monumental effect and monolithic appearance. As an example, their "Gateway of the Sun" at Tiwanaku, is cut from a single stone, and ornamented with finely executed relief decoration. Though only 12 feet in height, it appears more monumental because of its design. Scattered throughout this area are pillar-like monolithic statues that reach heights of more than 20 ft. they are decorated with low-relief detailing. Oddly though, things are completely different with their textiles. They produced ponchos, caps, pouches, and other textile pieces that show great variety, with fantastically tight weaves, and a wonderful richness of color. Though Tiwanaku art was known all over the western coast of South America, it is not known if Tiwanaku was part of an Empire politically, or simply an independent cultural and commercial entity. In any case Tiwanaku collapsed around 1100 A.D, the city was abandoned, and its characteristic art style vanished.

http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/South_America.htm

South American Prehistory

Lesson Objectives: Trace the development of several cultures on the continent; compare early civilizations here with others elsewhere on earth.

What geographical and archaeological biases appear in the discussion of native civilizations in South America? As discussed in the book (p. 365), the focus is always on the Andes highlands and the dry desert western coast. Why is the jungle ignored in so many treatments of South American archaeology? Because, well, it is a jungle out there, which presents two problems: preservation of remains is not good, and it is very difficult to do archaeology. This situation often resulted in the view that everything important happened in the west of the continent and bits of things diffused eastward. Lately the work of Anna Roosevelt and others has shown complex and early sociopolitical evolution in the lowlands of Venezuela and Brazil that developed indigenously, with little or no stimulus from the outside. But there is essentially no treatment of this vast area of the continent in the textbook. What are some general characteristics to note in South American civilizations? The culture history presents a picture of the rise of horizon styles, sometimes associated with empire, and then the shift to smaller regional states, and back again. We will again look at just a few major sites, monumental centers. Preservation of organic remains is often excellent on the desert coast, where cultures are named after the valleys of the short rivers running to the sea on which they are located. Fascinating political systems based on community organization and state control and ownership seem to have evolved early. Centralized rulership and ancestor worship meant that the living maintained the monuments and compounds of dead rulers, and new leaders had to establish their own centers. Domestic animals are more important than in North America, especially the llama, for fur, eating, and carrying, and the guinea pig, for food. Massive stone construction took place. The archaeological record also shows how earthquakes and other continual tectonic movement, expectable in the relatively young mountain chain of the Andes, affected various cultural developments, as well as how the El Nio weather pattern affected people making a living on the Pacific Coast. South American civilizations are the only ones which developed no writing systems, though they recorded bureaucratic details in other ways. What is the maritime hypothesis? It is the idea that sedentary, year-round, large-scale settlement and the development of complex society is possible without agriculture in coastal areas such as western Peru, where the resources are plentiful and dependable. Mike Moseley, of the University of Florida, developed this hypothesis to explain the foundations of civilization in Peru. We have certainly seen early sedentism before in this class, even 4,000 years ago on the south Florida coast. But here the argument is that it can lead to even more complex developments.

How does evidence at the site of El Paraso relate to this hypothesis? A major center on the desert coast, this site arose some 4,000 years ago during the preceramic period (before the introduction of pottery). Recent excavations have confirmed a dependence upon seafood, but there was also agriculture, especially of the industrial crop cotton. Beautiful cotton textiles, cloth, nets, etc., have been preserved in this exceedingly dry desert. Most of the food plants were wild, so the debate continues whether people would have needed farming to support the large population base. Meanwhile another argument against the near-total dependence upon the sea is that the periodic El Nio weather, which involves a warm current that kills off many species, would have made it impossible. Not mentioned in the text (p. 371) is that Moseley obtained evidence that during the times of El Nio, people just harvested different species that were not affected or that were more abundant. What is the Chavn horizon? Named after the type site of Chavn de Huntar, this is the Early Horizon culture that may represent the earliest civilization, though most archaeologists now think it is not a single culture but demonstrates participation in a widespread ideological and possibly economic system. In both coastal and Andean areas, temple and plaza complexes and stone and pottery crafts are adorned with motifs that combine stylized geometric renderings with figures of jaguars, caymans (lizards), and other animals (many which live in the jungle!). The dating of Chavn to the last millennium before Christ and the emphasis upon jaguar and other such images suggests at least indirect connections with the Olmec in Mesoamerica. On the desert coast this horizon style is manifested in the Paracas culture, famous for its preserved colorful textiles which show the same artistic designs. What were the earliest regional states in South America? Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 600, the Moche culture on the north coast of Peru is famous for its huacas (pyramids), fine metalwork, and ceramics that depicted every conceivable area of daily life as well as spiritual and humorous ideas. The Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna (pyramids of the sun and moon) at the Moche site were constructed with millions of adobe bricks that have marks possibly indicating different brickworkers groups. Sipan is a Moche culture site at which recently excavated unlooted tombs show royal burials rich with gold and other finely crafted artifacts, as well as evidence relating to the ceremonial system. High-status individuals are buried with regalia making them look like the actual figures depicted in Moche art. Amputated hands and feet and skeletons of people who were clearly killed document the early development of ritual human sacrifice. Nazca was another regional state, on the south coast of Peru, developing out of Paracas. Besides pyramid centers, elegant textiles, and colorful painted pottery, this culture is most famous for the Nazca lines, drawn on the floor of the desert over several hundred square miles, in the shapes of geometric figures, animals, and other forms. Yes, they are seen more clearly from the air, but they are also easily seen from the ground or the surrounding hills, and do not need ancient astronauts from another galaxy to have been accomplished!

They were drawn by removing dark rocks to expose lighter desert floor; their meaning is unknown, but many designs are of animals from the faraway jungle or sea. What is the first evidence of possible empire? During the Middle Horizon, between about A.D. 400-1200, the cultures we call Wari and Tiwanaku arose, respectively, in the regions of southern Peru and of Bolivia and Chile. The Tiwanaku site, on the high-altitude Bolivian altiplano around Lake Titicaca, was a grand city with the famous stone-sculpted Gateway of the Sun. These people also constructed raised platforms with complex engineering for intensifying agricultural production on low wetlands and had distinctive artistic styles and evidence of militaristic conquest. After the breakdown of these probable empires, what other, late prehistoric regional states emerged? The Chimu are known both from archaeology and from history that the Inca told to the Spanish. The Chimu capital at Chan Chan on the north coast was a huge city that controlled a state stretching from southern Ecuador to central Peru. It had extensive road and canal systems and craftworkers, especially goldsmiths, who made highly prized wealth items. This state lasted from about A.D. 800 until 1470, when it was conquered by the Inca, who brought Chimu goldsmiths to their own capital. Who were the Inca? The last great civilization of South America, they were similar to the Aztec of Mexico in gaining power by militaristic conquest and strategy, and only began creating an empire in the fifteenth century, shortly before the Spanish arrived. Our knowledge of them is historic archaeology because we have Spanish documents, but the Inca had no writing system. Instead they used the quipu, a system of colored, knotted cords, to keep records. They built the largest empire in the world up to that time and connected it with an elaborate road system through the Andes. The capital was Cuzco, a highland city which retains much of its prehistoric construction plan. Machu Picchu is a highland fortress and royal estate famous for its inaccessibility and was apparently little-known or altered by Spanish conquerors. Inca construction techniques used huge pillow-shaped stones that fit together well without mortar. Construction was done by the mita system of groups of laborers drafted into state service for specific tasks. Communication over the vast network of roads was done by a relay messenger service of runners. The socialistic governmental system was unlike anything known in Western society. The state owned all the land and goods and people were fed and cared for, but owed labor taxes or tribute in textiles and other goods. The Inca empire fell to Spanish conquistadors under Pizarro, who arrived in 1532. Are the Inca and other native South Americans gone? No. The large Indian populations of course reflect all the change occurring over 500 years of European dominance, but some native languages such as Quechua, the language of the Inca, are still spoken. Indigenous

peoples in South America remain mostly dominated by elites, however, of Euro-American or other foreign descent. What about archaeo-tourism and antiquities problems? There are many sites that can be visited, and museums filled with beautiful pottery, gold, and textiles. While it is similar to Mexico in that Americans can visit economically, the poverty of Peru and the region today is great. Looted antiquities are often the major means of subsistence of poor farming communities. The Sipan discoveries came after a disgruntled looter reported others to the police; it is famous because there had never been an unlooted grave discovered before. The market for such antiquities is high, such that the local looter gets a pittance compared with what the piece brings the dealer at auction in New York or London. It is hard for the public to understand that this is destruction of someones heritage. It is hard to care about heritage when you are starving or, alternately, when it is not thought to be your own heritage and all you want is some beautiful decoration for your wall. While public education is crucial, archaeotourism can have its negative sides too. Recently the ceremonial stone pillar at Machu Picchu was cracked by a crane involved in filming a beer commercial there!

http://www.indiana.edu/~arch/saa/matrix/ia/ia03_mod_15.html

South America
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"Southern America" redirects here. For the southern portion of the United States, see Southern United States.

South America

Area

17,840,000 km2 (6,890,000 sq mi)

Population Pop. density Demonym Countries Dependencies Languages Time Zones Largest cities

385,742,554 (2008, 5th) 21.4 per km2 (56.0 per sq mi) South American, American[1] 12 (List of countries) 3 List of languages UTC-2 to UTC-5
[citation needed]

So Paulo Buenos Aires Rio de Janeiro Lima Bogot Santiago Belo Horizonte Caracas Porto Alegre

South America (Spanish: Amrica del Sur, Sudamrica or Suramrica; Portuguese: Amrica do Sul; Quechua and Aymara: Urin Awya Yala; Guarani: embyamrika; Dutch: Zuid-Amerika; French: Amrique du Sud) is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas.[2][3] It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Seaincluding Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, and French Guianaare also known as Caribbean South America.
The word America was coined in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemller and Matthias Ringmann, after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the lands newly discovered by Europeans were not India, but a New World unknown

to Europeans. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

Contents
[hide]

1 Geography 2 History o 2.1 Agriculture and animal domestication o 2.2 Pre-Columbian civilizations o 2.3 European colonization o 2.4 Independence o 2.5 Recent history 3 Politics 4 Ethnic demographics o 4.1 Indigenous peoples 5 Economy o 5.1 Largest economic cities in South America 2008 6 Tourism 7 Culture o 7.1 Language o 7.2 Sport 8 See also 9 References o 9.1 Content notes o 9.2 Notes
o

9.3 Sources

[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of South America

A composite relief image of South America.

The Andes are the world's longest continental mountain range

South American Jungle South America occupies the southern portion of the landmass referred to as the New World. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darin watershed along the ColombiaPanama border, or (according to some sources) by the Panama Canal which transects the Isthmus of Panama. Geopolitically and geographically[4] all of Panama including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus is typically included in North America alone[5][6][7] and among the countries of Central America.[8] [9] Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate. South

America's triangular shape gives it the shortest coastline, for its size, of any of the continents. Traditionally South America also includes some nearby islands. Aruba, Bonaire, Curaao, Trinidad, Tobago, and the federal dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northerly South American continental shelf and are considered part of the continent. Geopolitically, the island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or subregion of North America, since they are more distant on the Caribbean Plate, even though San Andreas and Providencia are politically part of Colombia and Aves Island is controlled by Venezuela.[7][10][11] Other islands that are included with South America are the Galpagos islands that belong to Ecuador and Easter Island (in Oceania but belongs to Chile), Robinson Crusoe Island, Chilo are also Chilean islands, while Tierra del Fuego is split between that country and Argentina. In the Atlantic Brazil owns Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago. South America is home to the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest river (by volume), the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m [22,841 ft]); the driest place on earth, the Atacama Desert;[12][13][14] the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth. South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicua, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of the Earth's species. By far Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the continent's land area and population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among three regions: The Andean States, the Guianas and the Southern Cone.

[edit] History
Main article: History of South America

[edit] Agriculture and animal domestication

The prehistoric Cueva de las Manos, or Cave of the Hands, in Argentina South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait) from the territory that is present-day Russia. Some archaeological finds do not fit this theory and have led to an alternative theory of PreSiberian American Aborigines. The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to about 9000 BC, when squashes, chillies and beans began to be cultivated for food in the highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple food today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BC.[15] By 2000 BC, many agrarian village communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding religious regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.[15] South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuas, guanacos, and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.[15]

[edit] Pre-Columbian civilizations

Main article: Pre-Columbian_era#South_America

The Inca ruins of Machu Picchu. The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. The earliest known settlements, and culture in South America and America altogether, are the Valdivia on the Southwest coast of Ecuador. One of the earliest known South American civilizations was at Norte Chico, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Norte Chico governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavn by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavn de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavn civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the I millennium AD, Moche (100 BC 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At the Altiplano, Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600 1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and tiahuanaco religious iconography. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now modern Colombia. They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: ; the Caaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimu Empire (13001470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (10001450, Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, and "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. The Mapuche in Central Chile were known for defenses against European and later Chilean settlers in the first 300 years of the Columbian period.[citation needed]

[edit] European colonization

Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Portuguese colonization of
the Americas

A representation of a Mestizo, in a "Pintura de Castas" in the Colonial era. "From Spaniard and Amerindian woman, begets Mestizo".

Quito, Ecuador

In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.

Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus)to which the native populations had no immune resistanceand systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the native population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to convert their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with traditional idolatry and their polytheistic beliefs. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara, and Guaran actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, the mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and white or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered, conquered or found. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.
Guyana was a Portuguese, Dutch, and eventually a British colony. The country was

once partitioned into three parts, each being controlled by one of the colonial powers until the country was finally taken over fully by the British.

[edit] Independence
Main articles: Latin American wars of independence, Spanish American wars of independence, and Brazilian Declaration of Independence

Guayaquil conference, between Jos de San Martn and Simn Bolvar.

The South American possessions of the Spanish Crown won their independence at the end of 1823 in the Spanish American wars of independence. Simn Bolvar of Venezuela and Jos de San Martn of Argentina were the most important leaders of the independence struggles. Bolvar led a great uprising in northern South America, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martn led an army from the Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata across the Andes Mountains, meeting up with General Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile, and then marched northward to gain the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender. In the Portuguese colony of Brazil, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom Joo VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. After some quarreling with Portuguese loyal garrisons in Bahia and Par, this was diplomatically accepted by the crown in Portugal, on conditions of a high compensation paid by Brazil. Although Bolivar attempted to unify politically the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent into the "Gran Colombia", they rapidly became independent states without political connections between them, despite some later attempts such as the PeruvianBolivian Confederation. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:

Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966 Suriname, from Dutch control, in 1975

French Guiana is now a region of France. The Falkland Islands , also known as Las Malvinas remain sovereign territory of the United Kingdom, though they are much closer to Argentina, with whom they currently

dispute their rightful ownership.

South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands also remain sovereign territory of the

United Kingdom.

[edit] Recent history

The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed on inter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict. Argentina and Britain fought the Falklands war in 1982. Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens. Much progress was made against the ELN and FARC during President Alvaro Uribe's 2 presidential terms from 2002-2006, and 2006-2010, and continues to have unprecedented public support. Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.[16] Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued this far.
International indebtedness turned into a severe problem in late 1980s, and some

countries, despite having strong democracies, have not yet developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without recurring to unorthodox economical policies, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.[17] The last twenty years have seen an increased push towards regional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as the Andean Community, Mercosur and Unasur. Notably, starting with the election of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced what has been termed a pink tide - the election of several leftist and center-left administrations to most countries of the area, except for the Guianas, Peru and Colombia.

[edit] Politics
During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil,

Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward greater continental integration. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the thirdlargest trade bloc in the world.[18] This new political organization known as Union of South American Nations seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.

[edit] Ethnic demographics

Descendants of Indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, or the Urarina[19] of Amazonia make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (55%) and, per some sources, in Peru (45%).[20][21] In Ecuador, Amerindians are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. The white/European population is also a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. The demographics of Venezuela and Colombia include approximately 25% white and European descendants,[22] while in Peru, European descendants are the third group in importance(15%).[23] Compared to other South American countries, the people of European descent are more of a majority in Argentina,[24] Chile,[25][26] and Uruguay,[27] and form a large component of the "mixed race" populations of Brazil.[28][29][30] South America is also home to one of the largest populations of Africans. This group is also significantly present in Guyana, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, and Ecuador.[31] Mestizos (mixed white and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador and the second group in Peru. East Indians form the largest ethnic groups in Guyana and Suriname. Brazil followed by Peru also have the biggest Japanese and Chinese communities in South America.[32] Brazil is the most diverse country in South America, with large population of Whites, Blacks, Mestizos and Mulattos, as well as a sizeable community of Middle Easterners and East Asians.
Country or territory with flag Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile[35] Colombia Population Area (km)[33] (per sq mi) (July 2009 est.)
[33]

2,766,890 km (1,068,300 sq mi) 1,098,580 km2 (424,160 sq mi) 8,514,877 km2 (3,287,612 sq mi) 756,950 km2 (292,260 sq mi) 1,138,910 km2

40,482,000 9,863,000 191,241,714 16,928,873 45,928,970

Population density Capital per km 14.3/km Buenos Aires (37/sq mi) 8.4/km La Paz and (21.8/sq mi) Sucre [34] 22.0/km Braslia (57/sq mi) 22/km Santiago (57/sq mi) 40/km Bogot

Ecuador Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)[36] French Guiana (France) Guyana Paraguay Peru South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom)[39] Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Total

(439,740 sq mi) 283,560 km2 (109,480 sq mi) 12,173 km2 (4,700 sq mi) 91,000 km2 (35,000 sq mi) 214,999 km2 (83,012 sq mi) 406,750 km2 (157,050 sq mi) 1,285,220 km2 (496,230 sq mi) 3,093 km2 (1,194 sq mi) 163,270 km2 (63,040 sq mi) 176,220 km2 (68,040 sq mi) 912,050 km2 (352,140 sq mi) 17,824,513

14,573,101 3,140[37] 221,500[38] 772,298 6,831,306 29,132,013

(103.6/sq mi) 53.8/km Quito (139.3/sq mi) 0.26/km Port Stanley (0.7/sq mi) 2.7/km Cayenne (5.4/sq mi) 3.5/km Georgetown (9.1/sq mi) 15.6/km Asuncin (40.4/sq mi) 22/km Lima (57/sq mi)

20 0/km (0/sq mi) Grytviken 472,000 3/km (7.8/sq mi) Paramaribo 3,477,780 26,814,843 385,742,554 19.4/km Montevideo (50.2/sq mi) 30.2/km Caracas (72/sq mi) 21.5/km

See also: List of South American countries by population and List of sovereign
states and dependent territories in South America by median age of population

[edit] Indigenous peoples

Urarina shaman, 1988

Indigenous people make up about half of the population of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. In many places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle based on subsistense agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are still some uncontacted tribes residing in the Amazon Rainforest. In countries such as Chile, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and Argentina indigenous peoples make up a minority of the population.

Alacalufe Atacameos Aymara - lives in the Altiplano of Bolivia, Chile and Peru. Their language is coofficial in Peru and Bolivia. Traditional lifestyle includes llama herding. Aw Aguarunas Ashanincas Banawa Caaris Caiapos Chibcha Cocama Chayahuita, Enxet G, Guaran - lives in Paraguay where Guarani language is co-official with Spanish Juris Mapuche - lives mainly in southern Chile and adjacent pockets of Argentina. Matss Pehuenche - a branch of Mapuches that lived in the Andean valleys of southern

Chile
Quechuas - makes up a large part of the population of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia. Are diverse as an ethnic group. The Incas spoke Southern Quechua. Selknam Shipibo Shuar, Tupi, Xucuru, Urarina, Wayuu, Yaghan Yagua Ynomam Zaparos Arawaks, Wai-Wai

[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of South America

Rafael Correa, Evo Morales, Nstor Kirchner, Cristina Fernndez, Luiz Inacio Lula Da Silva, Nicanor Duarte, and Hugo Chvez at the signing of the founding charter of the Bank of the South

During the last two decades, South American countries have experienced significant economic growth, which can be seen in many of these countries with the construction of new skyscrapers like the Gran Costanera tower in Chile, and also transportations systems like the Bogota Metro. However, because of histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates remain high and investment remains low. Interest rates are usually twice that of the United States. For example, interest-rates are about 22% in Venezuela and 23% in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been implementing free market economic policies since establishing military dictatorship in 1973 and has been increasing its social spending since the return of democratic rule in the early 1990s. This has led to economic stability and interest rates in the low single digits. South America relies heavily on the exporting of goods and natural resources. On an exchange rate basis Brazil (the seventh largest economy in the world and the largest in South America) leads the way in total amount of exports at $137.8 billion dollars followed by Chile at 58.12 billion and Argentina with 46.46 billion.[40] The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger than in most other continents. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Bolivia and many other South American countries, the richest 20% may own over 60% of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20% may own less than 5%. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie adjacent to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.
Country Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands (U.K) GDP (nominal) GDP (PPP) of GDP (PPP) per capita of 2009[42] of 2009[41] 2009[42] 326,474 17,413 1,574,039 222,788 319,654 52,572 ? 572,860 43,424 2,013,186 276,338 456,300 106,993 75 14,413 4,330 10,513 15,883 8,215 7,685 25,000 HDI of 2009[43] 0.775 0.643 0.699 0.783 0.689 0.695 N/A

French Guiana (France) Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela

N/A 1,130 16,006 127,598 2,984 32,262 319,443 3,082 29,403 245,883 4,436 42,543 335,200 4,035 4,778 8,723 8,323 13,294 12,785 0.611 0.640 0.723 0.646 0.765 0.696

N/A

[edit] Largest economic cities in South America 2008

Rank City So Paulo 1 Buenos Aires 2 Rio de Janeiro 3 Santiago 4 Bogot 5 Country GDP in $ID BN[44] Population (MIL) Brazil $ 388 18.845 Argentina $ 362 12.795 Brazil $ 201 11.748 Chile $ 112 5.701 Colombia $ 110 9.600

[edit] Tourism

San Alfonso del Mar. Luxury hotel located in Algarrobo (Chile) and contains the

world's largest pool.

Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for many South

American countries.[45][46] Historical relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, vibrant and colorful cities, and stunning landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region are Machu Picchu, the Amazon Rainforest, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Fortaleza , Macei, Bogota, Florianpolis, Isla Margarita, Natal, Buenos Aires, So Paulo, Angel Falls, Cuzco, Lake Titicaca, Patagonia, Cartagena and the Galpagos islands.[47][48]

[edit] Culture

Fiesta in Palenque. Afro-Colombian tradition from San Basilio de Palenque, a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2005.

The Diablada, dance primival, typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in Bolivia (Image: Fraternidad Artstica y Cultural "La Diablada"). South Americans are culturally influenced by the historic connection with Europe, especially Spain and Portugal, and the impact of mass culture from the United States of America. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include vallenato and cumbia from Colombia, samba and bossa nova from Brazil, and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genre Nueva Cancin movement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America. People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar and cajon duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), the Tondero (from Piura), the 19th century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early 20th century Paraguayan Guarania. In the late 20th century, Spanish rock emerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock. Brazil has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. The literature of South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel Garca Mrquez in novels, and Pablo Neruda and Jorge Luis Borges in other genres. The Brazilian Machado de Assis, a

19th century realist writer, is widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writer. His admirers include Jos Saramago, Carlos Fuentes, Susan Sontag and Harold Bloom. Because of South America's broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine has African, American Indian, Asian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially wellknown for its West Africaninfluenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and people in southern Chile and Brazil drinkmate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version, terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold. Pisco is a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, African, Andean, and Amazonic food.

[edit] Language

Languages in South America.

Portuguese (193,197,164)[49] and Spanish (193,243,411 speakers)[50] are the most

spoken languages in South America. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. Dutch is the official language of Suriname; English is the official language of Guyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country such as Hindi and Arabic. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands. French is the official language of French Guiana and the second language in Amapa (Brazil).
Indigenous languages of South America include Quechua in Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia; Guaran in Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; and Mapudungun is spoken in certain

pockets of southern Chile and, more rarely, Argentina. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages.

Other languages found in South America include, Hindi and Javanese in Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, Venezuela, Peru and Chile; and German in certain pockets of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Paraguay. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil, Riograndenser Hunsrckisch being the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form of Pomeranian is also well represented and is experiencing a revival. Welsh remains spoken and written in the historic towns of Trelew and Rawson in the Argentine Patagonia. There are also small clusters of Japanese-speakers in Brazil, Colombia and Peru. Arabic speakers, often of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian descent, can be found in Arab communities in Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and less frequently in Paraguay. In most of the continent's countries, the upper classes and well-educated people regularly study English, French, German, or Italian, and are typically well-traveled. In those areas where tourism is a significant industry, English and some other European languages are often spoken. There are small Portuguese speaking areas in northernmost Uruguay because of the proximity of Brazil, as well a small Spanish speaking minority in the other side in southernmost Brazil