APRAXIA is a neurological disorder affecting the ability to control fine and gross motor movement and gestures.

The disorder can also affect communication skills. Apraxia can range from mild to severe. People with apraxia often cannot perform controlled, purposeful movement, despite having the physical strength and intellectual thought and desire to do so. Apraxia is believed to stem from disorders in the parietal lobes of the brain. In the classroom, students with apraxia have unique needs. While they generally receive information well and understand instruction, they cannot effectively demonstrate what they have learned. This leads to a great deal of frustration for students. Because apraxia affects each person differently, educators and parents should strive to find alternative ways for students to participate meaningfully in the classroom. Occupational,physical, and speech therapists working with students can provide valuable information on how to adapt instruction and classroom materials to enable students to participate and to lower their frustration levels. Some students can be assisted through adaptive technology.

Apraxia is a disorder caused by damage to specific areas of the cerebrum, characterized by loss of the ability to execute or carry out learned purposeful movements,[1] despite having the desire and the physical ability to perform the movements. It is a disorder of motor planningwhich may be acquired or developmental, but may not be caused by incoordination, sensory loss, or failure to comprehend simple commands (which can be tested by asking the person to recognize the correct movement from a series). Apraxia should not be confused with ataxia, a lack of coordination of movements, aphasia, an inability to produce and/or comprehend language; abulia, the lack of desire to carry out an action; or allochiria, in which patients perceive stimuli to one side of the body as occurring on the other. The root word of apraxia is praxis, Greek for an act, work, or deed. It is preceded by a privative a, meaning without.

AGNOSIA: The inability to recognize and identify objects or persons despite having knowledge of the characteristics of those objects or persons. People with agnosia may have difficulty recognizing the geometric features of an object or face or may be able to perceive the geometric features but not know what the object is used for or whether a face is familiar or not. Agnosia can be limited to one sensory modality such as vision or hearing. For example, a person may have difficulty in recognizing an object as a cup or identifying a sound as a cough. Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It typically results from damage to specific brain areas in the

occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. People with agnosia may retain their cognitive abilities in other areas.

gait disorder, an abnormality in the manner or style of walking, which usually results from neuromuscular, arthritic, or other body changes. The body's center of gravity may change over the years, causing a change in the degree of knee flexion needed to maintain one's balance when walking. Some individuals with neuromuscular disorders walk with a shuffling gait or move with lurching actions. At times a gait disorder may be the result of a medication that causes confusion or loss of coordination or an eye or ear disturbance that affects the sense of balance.

BLUNTED AFFECT is the scientific term describing a lack of emotional reactivity on the part of an individual. It is manifest as a failure to express feelings either verbally or nonverbally, even when talking about issues that would normally be expected to engage the emotions. Expressive gestures are rare and there is little animation in facial expression or in vocal inflection.[1] Victims of post-traumatic stress syndrome are often said to display blunted affect. Veterans of intense combat have been described as having the thousand-yard stare (or thousand-yard gaze). Some of these veterans suffer from a disorder once referred to as shell shock and may experience a number of symptoms, including recurring nightmares, hypervigilance, and avoidance of situations that may cause distress. Others have developed less emotional reactivity as an arguably natural reaction to stress. Those displaying on this end of the spectrum may selfreport dissociation but no psychological distress per se. People diagnosed with this disorder often endure a chronic course of blunted affect with the onset being subtle yet considerable.[2] The precise boundary between the generally positive personality trait "serious" and the generally pathological "blunted affect" is impossible to describe precisely because it is culture specific and relies on subjective values. One final consideration worth noting is that adults generally display more controlled affect than children. This suggests blunting one's affect may be a normal part of maturation.

In psychology, CONFABULATION is the spontaneous narrative report of events that never happened. It consists of the creation of false memories, perceptions, or beliefs about the self or the environmentusually as a result of neurological or psychological dysfunction.[1] When it is a matter of memory, confabulation is the confusion of imagination with memory, or the confused application of true memories.[2] Confabulations are difficult to differentiate from delusions and from lying.[3] With respect to memory, wild confabulations about one's past are rare in the absence of organic causes (e.g., brain damage), and the term "confabulation" is often restricted to these types of distortions. In contrast, even neurologically intact people are susceptible to memory errors or confusions due to psychological causes (see false memory). A PALPITATION is an abnormality of heartbeat that causes a conscious awareness of its beating,[1] whether it is too slow, too fast, irregular, or at its normal frequency. The word may also refer to this sensation itself. [2] It can be caused by (but should not be confused with)ectopic beat, which is a more specific diagnosis. The difference between an abnormal awareness and a normal awareness is that the former interrupts other thoughts, whereas the latter is almost always caused by a concentration on the beating of one's heart. Palpitations may be brought on by overexertion, adrenaline, alcohol,nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, and other drugs, disease (such as hyperthyroidismand pheochromocytoma) or as a symptom of panic disorder. More colloquially, it can also refer to a shaking motion. It can also happen inmitral stenosis. Nearly everyone experiences an occasional awareness of their heart beating, but when it occurs frequently, it can indicate a problem. Palpitations may be associated with heart problems, but also with anemias and thyroid malfunction. Attacks can last for a few seconds or hours, and may occur very infrequently, or more than daily. Palpitations alongside other symptoms, including sweating, faintness, chest pain or dizziness, indicate irregular or poor heart function and should be investigated. Palpitations may also be associated with anxiety and panic attacks, in which case psychological assessment is recommended. This is a common disorder associated with many common medications such as anti-depressants. Palpitations can also occur from blood loss, excessive pain, or lack of oxygen.

HYPERVIGILANCE is an enhanced state of sensory sensitivity accompanied by an exaggerated intensity of behaviors whose purpose is to detect threats. Hypervigilance is also accompanied by a state of increased anxiety which can cause exhaustion. Other symptoms include: abnormally increased arousal, a high responsiveness to stimuli and a constant scanning of the environment for threats.[1][2] Hypervigilance can be a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder[3] and various types of anxiety disorder. It is distinguished from paranoia. Paranoid states, such as those in schizophrenia can seem superficially similar, but are characteristically different. Hypervigilance is differentiated from dysphoric hyperarousal in that the person remains cogent and aware of his or her surroundings. In dysphoric hyperarousal the PTSD victim may lose contact with reality and re-experience the traumatic event verbatim. Where there have been multiple traumas, a person may become hypervigilant and suffer severe anxiety attacks intense enough to induce a delusional state where the effect of the traumas overlap: e.g., one remembered firefight may seem too much like another for the person to maintain calm. This can result in the thousand yard stare. [edit]Symptoms People suffering from hypervigilance may become preoccupied with studying their environment for possible threats, causing them to lose connections with their family and friends. They will 'over-react' to loud & unexpected noises; become agitated in highly crowded or noisy environments etc. They will often have a difficult time getting to sleep or staying asleep.[4]

WAXY FLEXIBILITY is a psychomotor symptom of catatonic schizophrenia[1] which leads to a decreased response to stimuli and a tendency to remain in an immobile posture.[2] For instance, if one were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, they would keep their arm where one moved it until it was moved again, as if it were made from wax. However it is important to note that although waxy flexibility has historically been linked to schizophrenia, there are also other disorders which it may be associated with, for example, mood disorder with catatonic behaviour.[3 Stupor is the lack of critical cognitive function and level of consciousness wherein a sufferer is almost entirely unresponsive and only responds to base stimuli such as pain.

A person is also rigid and mute and only appears to be conscious as the eyes are open and follow surrounding objects (Gelder, Mayou and Geddes 2005). The word derives from the Latin stupure, meaning insensible.[1] Being characterised by impairments of reactions to external stimuli, it usually appears in infectious diseases, complicated toxic states, severe hypothermia, mental illnesses(e.g. schizophrenia, severe clinical depression), vascular illnesses (e.g. hypertensive encephalopathy), neoplasms (e.g. brain tumors), vitamin D deficiency and so on.[2] [edit]Symptoms If not stimulated externally, a patient with stupor will be in a sleepy mode most of the time. In some extreme cases of severe depressive disorders the patient can become motionless, lose their appetite and become mute (Gelder,M, Mayou,R and Geddes,J. 2005). Short periods of restricted responsivity can be achieved by intense stimulation (e.g. pain, bright light, loud noise). [edit]Localization of brain lesions

ECHOLALIA is the automatic repetition of vocalizations made by another person. It is closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person. The word "echolalia" is derived from the Greek meaning "echo" or "to [1] repeat", and (lali) meaning "babbling, meaningless [2] talk" (of onomatopoeic origin from the verb (lalo) meaning "to talk").

In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior through punishment; by applying an aversive immediately following a behavior, the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating (such as a disliked color) to physically damaging (such as an electric shock). It is not the level of unpleasantness, but rather the effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing behavior that defines the aversive. Types of aversive stimuli Main article: Classical conditioning There are two types of aversive stimuli:

[edit]Unconditioned aversive stimuli Unconditioned aversive stimuli naturally result in pain or discomfort and are often associated with biologically harmful or damaging substances or events. Examples include extreme heat or cold, bitter flavors, electric shocks, loud noises and pain. Aversives can be applied naturally (such as touching a hot stove) or in a contrived manner (such as during torture or behavior modification). [edit]Conditioned aversive stimuli A conditioned aversive stimulus is an initially neutral stimulus that becomes aversive after repeated pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus. This type of stimulus would include consequences such as verbal warnings, gestures or even the sight of an individual who is disliked. What are the different types of hallucinations? Hallucinations can affect all of a person's senses. People with the mental illness of schizophrenia may hear sounds or voices that are not really there. People with certain mental illnesses may also have hallucinations in which they see a person or thing which is not really there. People are less likely to have hallucinations in which they smell or touch something that is not really there. Certain forms of epilepsy can cause hallucinations. Finally, hallucinations can be the result of certain substances taken or of certain physical constellations. Most of the time, these substances are taken to get the hallucinations. Sometimes, (severe) lack of sleep, or high fever can lead to hallucinations brought on by such viruses as the common cold. Types of Normal Hallucination : y Hypnagogic hallucination - happens when a person is falling asleep. Usually last from seconds to minutes. y Hypnopompic hallucination - happen when one is waking up.

atatonia is a syndrome of psychological and motorological disturbances. It was first described in 1874: Die Katatonie oder das Spannungirresein[1] (Catatonia or Tension Insanity). In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) it is not recognized as a separate disorder, but is associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other mental disorders, as well as drug abuse oroverdose (or both). It may also be seen in many

medical disorders including infections (such asencephalitis), autoimmune disorders, focal neurologic lesions (including strokes), metabolic disturbances and abrupt or overly rapidbenzodiazepine withdrawal.[2][3][4] It can be an adverse reaction to prescribed medication. It bears similarity to conditions such as encephalitis lethargica and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. There are a variety of treatments available; benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment strategy. Electroconvulsive therapy is also sometimes used. There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of NMDA antagonists for benzodiazepine resistant catatonia.[5] Antipsychotics are sometimes employed but require caution as they can worsen symptoms and have serious adverse effects.[6] [edit]Clinical features Patients with catatonia may experience an extreme loss of motor skills or even constant hyperactive motor activity. Catatonic patients will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli. Patients with catatonic excitement can suffer from exhaustion if not treated. Patients may also show stereotyped, repetitive movements. They may show specific types of movement such as waxy flexibility, in which they maintain positions after being placed in them by someone else, or gegenhalten (lit. "counterhold"), in which they resist movement in proportion to the force applied by the examiner. They may repeat meaningless phrases or speak only to repeat what the examiner says. While catatonia is only identified as a symptom of schizophrenia in present psychiatric classifications, it is increasingly recognized as a syndrome with many faces. It appears as the Kahlbaum syndrome (retarded catatonia), malignant catatonia (neuroleptic malignant syndrome, toxic serotonin syndrome), and excited forms (delirious mania, catatonic excitement, oneirophrenia).[6] It has also been recognized as grafted on to autism spectrum disorders.[7] [edit]Diagnostic criteria According to the DSM-IV, the "With catatonic features" specifier can be applied if the clinical picture is dominated by at least two of the following:
 

motor immobility as evidenced by catalepsy (including waxy flexibility) or stupor excessive motor activity (purposeless, not influenced by external stimuli)

extreme negativism (motiveless resistance to all instructions or maintenance of a rigid posture against attempts to be moved) or mutism peculiarities of voluntary movement as evidenced by posturing, stereotyped movements, prominent mannerisms, or prominent grimacing

echolalia or echopraxia [edit]Subtypes



Stupor is a motionless, apathetic state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external stimuli. Motor activity is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state make little or no eye contact with others and may be mute and rigid. One might remain in one position for a long period of time, and then go directly to another position immediately after the first position.

Catatonic excitement is a state of constant purposeless agitation and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive, although, as aforementioned, the activity seems to lack purpose.

Malignant catatonia is an acute onset of excitement, fever, autonomic instability, delirium and may be fatal.[8]

Echopraxia is the involuntary repetition or imitation of the observed movements of another. It is closely related to echolalia, the involuntary repetition of another's speech. The etymology of the term is from Ancient Greek: " ( kh ) from sound)" and " (praksis, action, activity, practice)". ( kh

Even though it is considered a tic, it is a behaviour characteristic of some people with autism,[1] Tourette syndrome, Ganser syndrome,schizophrenia (especially catatonic schizophrenia), some forms of clinical depression and some other neurological disorders.

r n/) is the practice of forcing another party to behave Coercion (pronounced /ko in an involuntary manner (whether through action or inaction) by use of threats,or rewards intimidation or some other form of pressure or force. Such actions are used as leverage, to force the victim to act in the desired way. Coercion may involve the actual infliction of physical pain/injury or psychological harm in order to enhance the credibility of a threat. The threat of further harm may lead to

the cooperation or obedience of the person being coerced. Torture is one of the most extreme examples of coercion i.e. severe pain is inflicted until the victim provides the desired information. Dyspareunia is painful sexual intercourse, due to medical or psychological causes. The symptom is reported almost exclusively by women, although the problem can also occur in men. The causes are often reversible, even when long-standing, but self-perpetuating pain is a factor after the original cause has been removed. It is a common condition that affects up to one-fifth of women at some point in their lives.[1] A medical evaluation of dyspareunia focuses initially on physical causes, which must be ruled out before psychogenic or emotional causes are entertained. In the majority of instances of dyspareunia, there is an original physical cause. An extreme form, in which the woman's pelvic floor musculature contracts involuntarily, is termed vaginismus. According to DSM-IV,[2] the diagnosis of dyspareunia is made when the patient complains of recurrent or persistent genital pain before, during, or after sexual intercourse that is not caused exclusively by lack of lubrication or by vaginismus. Clinically, it is often difficult to separate dyspareunia from vaginismus, since vaginismus may occur secondary to a history of dyspareunia and even mild vaginismus is often accompanied by dyspareunia. It is important to establish whether the dyspareunia is acquired or lifelong and whether it is generalized (complete) or situational. Further inquiry should determine whether the pain is superficial or deep - whether it occurs primarily at the vaginal outlet or vaginal barrel or upon deep thrusting against the cervix. Even when the pain can be reproduced during a physical examination, the possible role of psychological factors in either causing or maintaining the pain must be acknowledged and dealt with in treatment. After the text revision of the fourth edition of the DSM, a debate arose, with arguments to recategorize dyspareunia as a pain disorder instead of a sex disorder,[3] with Charles Allen Moser, a physician, arguing for the removal of dyspareunia from the manual altogether.[4]

Amenorrhoea (BE), amenorrhea (AmE), or amenorrh a, is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age. Physiological states of amenorrhoea are seen duringpregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding), the latter also forming the basis of a form of contraception known as the lactational amenorrhoea

method. Outside of the reproductive years there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause. Amenorrhoea is a symptom with many potential causes. Primary amenorrhoea (menstruation cycles never starting) may be caused by developmental problems such as the congenital absence of the uterus, or failure of the ovary to receive or maintain egg cells. Also, delay in pubertal development will lead to primary amenorrhoea. It is defined as an absence of secondary sexual characteristics by age 14 with no menarche or normal secondary sexual characteristics but no menarche by 16 years of age. Secondary amenorrhoea (menstruation cycles ceasing) is often caused by hormonal disturbances from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, from premature menopause or intrauterine scar formation. It is defined as the absence of menses for three months in a woman with previously normal menstruation or nine months for women with a history of oligomenorrhoea.[1] Fatigue (also called exhaustion, lethargy, languidness, languor, lassitude, andlistlessness) is a state of awareness describing a range of afflictions, usually associated with physical and/or mental weakness, though varying from a general state of lethargy to a specific work-induced burning sensation within one's muscles. Physical fatigue is the inability to continue functioning at the level of one's normal abilities.[1][2][3] It is ubiquitous in everyday life, but usually becomes particularly noticeable during heavy exercise. Mental fatigue, on the other hand, rather manifests in somnolence (sleepiness). Fatigue is considered a symptom, as opposed to a medical sign, because it is reported by the patient instead of being observed by others. Fatigue and feelings of fatigue are often confused.[4]

Emaciation (pronounced /

me

n/ or

me si

n) occurs

when an organism loses substantial amounts of much needed fat and often muscle tissue, making that organism look extremely thin. The cause of emaciation is a lack of nutrients, starvation, or disease. Many women (and some men) have targeted the emaciation look, and such is the result ofeating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia. The shape of the bones in a severely-emaciated person is distinguishable, the shoulder blades are prominently sharp, and the ribs and spine can be clearly seen, while the arms and legs are not significantly wider than the bones that support them. Death may occur.

Although this condition can be acquired by humans deliberately, it is often also the case of many starving animals and peoples across the planet due to lack of food or unsanitary living conditions.

Laxatives (also known as purgatives or aperients) are foods, compounds, or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen thestool, most often taken to treat constipation. Certain stimulant, lubricant, and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas in that circumstance. Sufficiently high doses of laxatives will cause diarrhea. Laxatives work to hasten the elimination of undigested remains of food in the large intestine and colon.[1] There are several types of laxatives, listed below. Some laxatives combine more than one type of active ingredient to produce a combination of the effects mentioned. Laxatives may be oral or in suppository form. Constipation with no known organic cause, i.e. no medical explanation, exhibits gender differences in prevalence: females are more often affected than males.[2]

An enema (plural enemata or enemas) is the procedure of introducing liquids into the rectum and colon via the anus. The increasing volume of the liquid causes rapid expansion of the lower intestinal tract, often resulting in very uncomfortable bloating, cramping, powerful peristalsis, a feeling of extreme urgency and complete evacuation of the lower intestinal tract. Enemas can be carried out as treatment for medical conditions, such as constipation and encopresis, and as part of some alternative health therapies. They are also used to administer certain medical or recreationaldrugs. Enemas have been used for rehydration therapy (proctoclysis) in patients for whom IV therapy is not applicable.[1] A DIURETIC is any drug that elevates the rate of urination and thus provides a means of forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way.

Irritation or exacerbation, in biology and physiology, is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to allergy or cell-lining damage. A stimulus or agent which induces the state of irritation is an irritant. Irritants are typically thought of as chemical agents (for example phenoland capsaicin) but mechanical, thermal (heat), and radiative stimuli (for example ultraviolet light or ionising radiations) can also be irritants. Irritation also has non-clinical usages referring to bothersome physical or psychological pain or discomfort. Chronic irritation is a medical term signifying that afflictive health conditions have been present for a while. There are many disorders that can cause chronic irritation, the majority involves the skin, vagina, eyes and lungs.

Apathy (also called impassivity or perfunctoriness) is a state of indifference, or the suppression of emotions such as concern, excitement, motivation and passion. An apathetic individual has an absence of interest in or concern about emotional, social, or physical life. He or she may exhibit an insensibility or sluggishness, also. The opposite of apathy is flow.[1] In positive psychology, apathy is described as a response to an easy challenge for which the subject has matched skills. Often, apathy has been felt after witnessing horrific acts, such as the killing or maiming of people during a war. It is also known to be associated with many conditions, some of which are: depression; Alzheimer's disease; Chagas' disease;Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; dementia; Korsakoff's Syndrome; excessive vitamin D;Hypothyroidism; general fatigue; Huntington's disease; Pick's disease; progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP); schizophrenia; Schizoid Personality Disorder; Bipolar Disorder, and others. Some medications and the heavy use of drugs such as heroinmay bring apathy as a side effect.

elaxed pronunciation (also called condensed pronunciation or word slurs) is a phenomenon that happens when the syllables of common words are slurred together. It is almost always present in normal speech, in all natural languages but not in some constructed languages, such as Loglanor Lojban, which are designed so that all words are parsable. Some shortened forms of words and phrases, such as contractions or weak forms can be considered to derive from relaxed pronunciations, but a phrase with a relaxed

pronunciation is not the same as a contraction. In English, where contractions are common, they are considered part of the standard language and accordingly used in many contexts (except on very formal speech or in formal/legal writing); however, relaxed pronunciation is markedly informal in register. This is also sometimes reflected in writing: contractions have a standard written form, but relaxed pronunciations may not, outside of dialect spelling. Certain relaxed pronunciations occur only in specific grammatical contexts, the exact understanding of which can be complicated. See trace (linguistics) for some further info. Immobility What is immobility? Any disease or disability that requires complete bed rest or extremely limits your activity is considered immobility. Patients who have had a stroke resulting in partial or complete hemiparesis/paralysis, spinal cord injury resulting in paraplegia or quadriplegia, fracture, or prolonged bed rest after surgery are considered immobilized. Any condition causing immobility for 6 months or longer increases the risk for bone boss that may lead to osteoporosis.