ASCI 309 Class #2

The topics for tonight are Basic Aerodynamics and Airspeed Measurement. Well start with an introduction to the dynamics of moving air, discuss the effects of moving air on a body, and finish with how to measure the speed of moving air. First you need to be aware that only the relative motion of the air over the body is important. Either the air can move over the body or the body can move through the air. The effect on the body is the same.

Gas Dynamics
The two primary equations under consideration tonight are the Continuity Equation (based on the conservation of mass) and Bernoullis Equation (based on the conservation of energy). Continuity Equation: dm/dt=AU=con., that is, dm/dt(kg/s)=(kg/m3)A(m2)U(m/s)=con. or dm/dt(slugs/s)=(slugs/ft3)A(ft2)U(ft/s)=con., where: dm/dt=mass flow rate, A=cross-sectional flow area (like the area between two streamlines)

Gas Dynamics
We are following the flow of air between two streamlines or through a stream tube. By definition, there is no flow across streamlines. Bernoullis Equation: p+gh+U2/2=con. This is the conservation of energy/unit volume in the flowing stream. If the flow is horizontal or gas flow, changes in the term gh may be neglected, leading to the simpler form: p + U2/2 = con.

Pressure Conversions
Here are some relations among the commonly used units for pressure: atmospheric pressure at sea level 1 atm = 1.013x105 n/m2 = 101.3 kPa = 1013 mbar = 2116 lbs/ft2 = 14.7 lbs/in2 = 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg = 406 in water

Gas Dynamics
Recall p+U2/2 = con. Common nomenclature is to refer to p as pstatic , U2/2 as pdynamic or q, and the sum, or the con. as ptotal or p0, the stagnation pressure. So Bernoullis Equation may be rewritten as pstatic + q=ptotal =constant. Consider the flow channel below. At a the a b pressure=ps and in b, the pressure=pt.

Gas Dynamics
Consider the converging nozzle shown below. The flow must accelerate from 1 to 2 since the flow area decreases and the mass flow rate is constant. (AU)2=(AU)1. Further, the static pressure decreases, (p+U2/2)2=(p+U2/2)1.

2 1

Problems 1 & 2
Consider the nozzle in the preceding slide. If A1=2 m2, p1=105 n/m2, U1=20 m/s, T1=300 K and A2 = 1 m2, What are 1, U2, and p2? Consider the pipe (2 slides back) with the static pressure tap at position a and the total pressure probe at b. Suppose the pressure difference (pb pa) is measured on a water manometer as 2 inches of water, pa= 9.95x104 n/m2, and T=20C. What is the velocity U(m/s)?

Aerodynamic Forces
The aerodynamic forces on a body in a moving fluid can be resolved into components in the stream direction and at right angles to the stream direction. On an airplane wing they are called respectively, the drag, D, and the lift, L. The drag is due to both a form drag, ex. a flat plate turned into the wind, and a friction drag as the body shears through the viscous air.

Aerodynamic Forces
The lift is created by the airspeed being faster over the top of the wing and slower over the bottom of the wing. This is the result of either the shape of the wing and/or inclining the wing upward at an angle with respect to the wind (called the angle of attack, ). Recall Bernoullis eqn., as the velocity increases the static pressure decreases. The pressure difference times the wing area equals the lift.

Airspeed Measurement
I have used three methods to measure airspeed:
Pitot-static tubes to measure 1D steady airflow & a Cobra probe to measure 2D steady airflow Hot-wire anemometers to measure 1D, 2D, & 3D turbulent airflow Laser anemometers to measure 1D, 2D, & 3D turbulent airflow

Pitot-Static Probe
Airspeed measurement by a Pitot-static probe is based on ps + U2/2 = pt. U=2(pt-ps)/ Recall = ps/RT, so to accurately measure the velocity, U, we must also accurately measure the static pressure and temperature. The static pressure can be measured by the judicious location of a static pressure tap. The static temperature measurement is a bit more difficult as we shall soon see.

Cobra Probe
The cobra probe was constructed by brazing three 0.457 mm OD hypodermic needles together and grinding the two outside needles at 45. The probe was calibrated vs. flow direction and then used to measure mean velocity and direction in a boundary layer with cross flow.

Cobra Probe

Hot Wire Anemometer Probe

3D Hot Wire Probe

Dantek (formerly DISA) built me the worlds first 3-wire, hot-wire anemometer probe and multi-channel, analog signal, data reduction network. I used this system to gather data in a 3D, turbulent boundary layer and published the results in a PhD thesis and at an ASME Fluids Engineering Conference.

Laser Anemometry

Laser Anemometry (LDA)

I made LDA measurements:
in a cold-flow, sudden-expansion, combustor model and downstream of an operating combustor (1D). in the pre-chamber of an automotive diesel engine (1D). of the flow from fuel nozzle models (2D & 3D). in a turbine vane cascade (3D).

Airflow Classifications
Airflows may be classified into categories:
Compressible/incompressible (U < 100 m/s) 1D, 2D, 3D Inviscid/viscous (near a solid surface) Laminar/turbulent Subsonic/transonic/supersonic/hypersonic Steady/unsteady/periodic My specialty was incompressible, 3D, viscous, turbulent airflow. More unknowns than equations

Airflow Classifications
For airflows with U<100 m/s, the air may be considered to be incompressible, i.e. =con., which simplifies measurements and calculations. Correcting for compressibility will be covered later. Assuming the airflow is 1D, like the flow in a pipe, really simplifies calculations and is used widely. The problem is that real flows are 3D.

Airflow Classifications
The viscosity of air can be neglected except in the region near a solid surface called the boundary layer. Here layers of air at different velocities shear across each other like the pages of a book. This results in equations of motion of the air which contain more variables than there are equations. Either assumptions must be made relating two variables or experiments must be made.

Viscosity
Imagine a dinner plate covered with molasses now tip the plate so that the molasses flows to one edge. The top layer flows downhill while the bottom layer remains fixed to the plate in between the molasses is being sheared. This is what happens to the air in the boundary layer. The shear stress is given by = dU/dy. = viscosity, dU/dy = velocity gradient.

Viscosity
(s.l. std.) = 1.789x10-5 kg/m-s = 3.737x10-7 slug/ft-s = (T) = [6x10-8 T(K) + 4x10-7] kg/m-s = [4.812x10-10 T(R) + 1.264x10-7] slug/ft-s The variation with temperature above is an approximate fit to graphs from several textbooks.

Airflow Classifications
In practice the flow may be initially laminar but quickly goes through a transition to turbulent flow as evidenced by slide 11 where the flow over the top of the wing is seen to be turbulent just after it begins to expand. Several conditions promote a transition to turbulent flow, e.g. surface roughness (the dimples on a golf ball) or an adverse pressure gradient (expanding flow in a diffuser).

Airflow Classifications
M = Mach No.=speed / speed of sound; shock waves create discontinuous changes in speed, pressure, temperature, and density across the shock Subsonic: M < 1 Transonic: M ~ 1 Supersonic: M > 1 Hypersonic: M > 5

Compressible Flow
To analyze compressible flow we need to review some concepts from Thermodynamics. The usual method to introduce Thermo is to examine the processes that take place in a cylinder-piston arrangement (next slide). Trapped in the cylinder is an amount of gas, say n moles. Initially the gas is at some p, V, T. Boyles Law states that if T is a constant then the product pV=con. or p2V2=p1V1.

Compressible Flow
Plotting this relation on a p-V diagram (next slide) you see that moving up the curve represents a compression and down the curve, an expansion. The area under the curve has a significant interpretation. It is the work input during a compression and the work output during an expansion.

Compressible Flow
We next need to consider the First Law of Thermodynamics which is the Conservation of Energy including heat transfer and thermal energy. U = Q Wk. U: change in molecular energy, a function of T only. Q: heat flow across a boundary. Wk: work done by a moving boundary. There are four primary processes that can be illustrated on a p-V diagram (next slide).

Compressible Flow
p=con.(isobaric), V=con.(isochroic), T=con.(isothermal), Q=0(adiabatic). These four processes, the perfect gas law, and the First Law of Thermo form the basis for internal combustion engines which we will discuss later. The processes can be visualized as follows: p=con., a fixed weight is placed atop the piston; V=con., the cylinder is a fixed wall container like a can; T=con., the cylinder is

Compressible Flow
immersed in a constant temperature reservoir like an ice bath; Q=0, the cylinder is thermally insulated or what is usually the case, the process is too fast for any heat transfer to take place. Lastly, the term isentropic refers to a reversible, adiabatic process, i.e. frictionless with no heat transfer. This condition leads to the relations on the next slide which we need to use when the flow is compressible.

Compressible Flow
Compressible flow: T0/T1 = 1 + [(-1)/2]M12 Isentropic flow: p0/p1 = {1+[(-1)/2]M12}/(-1) 0/1 = {1+[(-1)/2]M12}1/(-1) Ucal2 = [2aSL2/(-1)] ({[(p0-p1)/pSL]+1}(-1)/ -1) aSL ,pSL standard sea level values Utrue : use a1 , p1 (local values)

Compressible Flow
You can use the preceding equations or perhaps the simplest move would be to use the chart on the next slide to provide a compressibility correction to convert the Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) to Equivalent Air Speed (EAS). The True Air Speed (TAS) is obtained by: TAS = EAS/ (Fig. 1.1, Hurt) or use (Fig. 1.6, Hurt). The conversions are: 1 ft =0.3048m and 1 knot = 0.5144 m/s.

Problems 3 & 4
The airspeed indicator of an airplane reads 355 knots. There are no instrument or position errors. If the airplane is flying at a pressure altitude of 25,000 ft, find the equivalent airspeed, EAS. (Hurt, Fig 1.6, p.12) Find the true airspeed (TAS) of the airplane in the preceding problem if the outside air temperature is -40 C. (Hurt, Fig 1.6, p.13)

Acknowledgements
Slide 3 Anderson, Introduction to Flight Slide 11 Anderson, Ibid Slide 13 Anderson, Ibid Slide 16 Dr. Z, PhD thesis Slide 17 DANTEK, poster Slide 19 DANTEK , poster Slide 29 Serway, Physics for Sci. & Engineers Slide 31 Serway, Ibid Slide 33 Young & Freedman, Univ. Physics Slide 38 Hurt, Aero. for Naval Aviators