Prior to OSI, networking was completely vendor-developed and proprietary, with protocol standards such as SNA, Appletalk, NetWare

and DECnet. OSI was an industry effort, attempting to get everyone to agree to common network standards to provide multi-vendor interoperability. It was common for large networks to support multiple network protocol suites, with many devices unable to talk to other devices because of a lack of common protocols between them. The OSI reference model (which actually predates the OSI protocol work, dating to 1977) was the most important advance in the teaching of network concepts. It promoted the idea of a common model of protocol layers, defining interoperability between network devices and software. Open System = A non-proprietary system based on publicly known standard sets of interfaces that allow anyone to use and communicate with any system that adheres to the same standards. The OSI model defines the standardized interfaces/protocols that allow network components from different manufacturers to interconnect with each other. In computer networking, "open" usually means a standardized, non-proprietary definition. The industry-standard, non-proprietary routing protocol - OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is another example of this.

Source(s):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_System

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a standard description or "reference model" for how messages should be transmitted between any two points in a telecommunication network. Its purpose is to guide product implementors so that their products will consistently work with other products. The reference model defines seven layers of functions that take place at each end of a communication. Although OSI is not always strictly adhered to in terms of keeping related functions together in a well-defined layer, many if not most products involved in telecommunication make an attempt to describe themselves in relation to the OSI model. It is also valuable as a single reference view of communication that furnishes everyone a common ground for education and discussion. Developed by representatives of major computer and telecommunication companies beginning in 1983, OSI was originally intended to be a detailed specification of

interfaces. Instead, the committee decided to establish a common reference model for which others could develop detailed interfaces, that in turn could become standards. OSI was officially adopted as an international standard by the International Organization of Standards (ISO). Currently, it is Recommendation X.200 of the ITU-TS. The main idea in OSI is that the process of communication between

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Networking Resources Network Administration The OSI Model

two end points in a telecommunication network can be divided into layers, with each layer adding its own set of special, related functions. Each communicating user or program is at a computer equipped with these seven layers of function. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data through each layer at one end down through the layers in that computer and, at the other end, when the message arrives, another flow of data up through the layers in the receiving computer and ultimately to the end user or program. The actual programming and hardware that furnishes these seven layers of function is usually a combination of the computer operating system, applications (such as your Web browser), TCP/IP or alternative transport and network protocols, and the software and hardware that enable you to put a signal on one of the lines attached to your computer. OSI divides telecommunication into seven layers. The layers are in two groups. The upper four layers are used whenever a message passes from or to a user. The lower three layers (up to the network layer) are used when any message passes through the host computer. Messages intended for this computer pass to the upper layers. Messages destined for some other host are not passed up to the upper layers but are forwarded to another host. The seven layers are: Layer 7: The application layer...This is the layer at which communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. (This layer is not the application itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions.) Layer 6: The presentation layer...This is a layer, usually part of an operating system, that converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another (for example, from a text stream into a popup window with the newly arrived text). Sometimes called the syntax layer. Layer 5: The session layer...This layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogs between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Layer 4: The transport layer...This layer manages the end-to-end control (for example, determining whether all packets have arrived) and error-checking. It ensures complete data transfer. Layer 3: The network layer...This layer handles the routing of the data (sending it in the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer does routing and forwarding. Layer 2: The data-link layer...This layer provides synchronization for the physical level and does bit-stuffing for strings of 1's in excess of 5. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management. Layer 1: The physical layer...This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier. Related glossary terms: virtual area network (VAN), 10-high-day busy period (10HD busy period), graceful degradation, online, softswitch, maximum transmission unit (MTU), traffic shaping (packet shaping), Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS), WATS (wide-area telephone service), mail user agent (MUA)

In Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model lesson, you will learn about the seven layers of OSI model and their functions If network communications need to happen with out any trouble, many problems must be solved. Coordinating all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage. To make these tasks smooth, in 1977 the International Standards Organization (ISO) proposed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model breaks down the problems involved in moving data from one computer to another computer. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model categorizes these hundreds of problems to Seven Layers. A layer in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a portion that is used to categorize specific problems. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Seven Layered reference model is only just a model. All the problems which are related to the communications are answered by specific protocols operating at different layers. The following image shows the seven layers described in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Layer 1. Physical Layer

The first layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is called the Physical layer. Physical circuits are created on the physical layer of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Physical layers describe the electrical or optical signals used for communication. Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is only concerned with the physical characteristics of electrical or optical signaling techniques which includes the voltage of the electrical current used to transport the signal, the media type (Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Optical Fiber etc), impedance characteristics, physical shape of the connector, Synchronization etc. The Physical Layer is limited to the processes needed to place the communication signals over the media, and to receive signals coming from that media. The lower boundary of the physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the physical connector attached to the transmission media. Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model does not include the transmission media. Transmission media stays outside the scope of the Physical Layer and are also referred to as Layer 0 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model.

Layer 2. Datalink Layer

The second layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is called the Datalink layer. The Data Link layer resides above the Physical layer and below the Network layer. Datalink layer is responsible for providing end-to-end validity of the data being transmitted. The Data Link Layer is logically divided into two

sublayers, The Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer. Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer determines the physical addressing of the hosts. The MAC sub-layer maintains MAC addresses (physical device addresses) for communicating with other devices on the network. MAC addresses are burned into the network cards and constitute the low-level address used to determine the source and destination of network traffic. MAC Addresses are also known as Physical addresses, Layer 2 addresses, or Hardware addresses. The Logical Link Control sublayer is responsible for synchronizing frames, error checking, and flow control.

Layer 3. Network Layer

The third layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is the Network layer. The Network layer of the OSI model is responsible for managing logical addressing information in the packets and the delivery of those packets to the correct destination. Routers, which are special computers used to build the network, direct the data packet generated by Network Layer using information stored in a table known as routing table. The routing table is a list of available destinations that are stored in memory on the routers. The network layer is responsible for working with logical addresses. The logical addresses are used to uniquely identify a computer on the network, but at the same time identify the network that system resides on. The logical address is used by network layer protocols to deliver the packets to the correct network. The Logical addressing system used in Network Layer is known as IP address. IP addresses are also known as Logical addresses or Layer 3 addresses.

Layer 4. Transport Layer

The fourth layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network mode is the Transport layer. The Transport layer handles transport functions such as reliable or unreliable delivery of the data to the destination. On the sending computer, the transport layer is responsible for breaking the data into smaller packets, so that if any packet is lost during transmission, the missing packets will be sent again. Missing packets are determined by acknowledgments (ACKs) from the remote device, when the remote device receives the packets. At the receiving system, the transport layer will be responsible for opening all of the packets and reconstructing the original message. Another function of the transport layer is TCP segment sequencing. Sequencing is a connection-oriented service that takes TCP segments that are received out of order and place them in the right order.

The transport layer also enables the option of specifying a "service address" for the services or application on the source and the destination computer to specify what application the request came from and what application the request is going to. Many network applications can run on a computer simultaneously and there should be some mechanism to identify which application should receive the incoming data. To make this work correctly, incoming data from different applications are multiplexed at the Transport layer and sent to the bottom layers. On the other side of the communication, the data received from the bottom layers are de-multiplexed at the Transport layer and delivered to the correct application. This is achieved by using "Port Numbers". The protocols operating at the Transport Layer, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) uses a mechanism known as "Port Number" to enable multiplexing and de-multiplexing. Port numbers identify the originating network application on the source computer and destination network application on the receiving computer.

Layer 5. Session Layer

The position of Session Layer of the Seven Layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is between Transport Layer and the Presentation Layer. Session layer is the fifth layer of seven layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model. The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating connections between applications at each end of the communication. In the connection establishment phase, the service and the rules (who transmits and when, how much data can be sent at a time etc.) for communication between the two devices are proposed. The participating devices must agree on the rules. Once the rules are established, the data transfer phase begins. Connection termination occurs when the session is complete, and communication ends gracefully. In practice, Session Layer is often combined with the Transport Layer.

Layer 6. Presentation Layer

The position of Presentation Layer in seven layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is just below the Application Layer. When the presentation layer receives data from the application layer, to be sent over the network, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format. If it is not, the presentation layer converts the data to the proper format. On the other side of communication, when the presentation layer receives network data from the session layer, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format and once again converts it if it is not. Formatting functions at the presentation layer may include compression, encryption, and ensuring that the character code set (ASCII, Unicode, EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded

Decimal Interchange Code, which is used in IBM servers) etc) can be interpreted on the other side. For example, if we select to compress the data from a network application that we are using, the Application Layer will pass that request to the Presentation Layer, but it will be the Presentation Layer that does the compression.

Layer 7. Application Layer

The Application Layer the seventh layer in OSI network model. Application Layer is the top-most layer of the seven layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model. Real traffic data will be often generated from the Application Layer. This may be a web request generated from HTTP protocol, a command from telnet protocol, a file download request from FTP protocol etc. In this lesson (Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model), you have learned what are the Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model and the functions of these seven layers. The top-most layer of the Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is the Application Layer and the bottom-most layer of the Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is Physical Layer. Click "Next" to Continue. Related Topics... Introduction Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI TCP/IP Encapsulation and Decapsulation

Encapsulation
In computer networking, encapsulation is a method of designing modular communication protocols in which logically separate functions in the network are abstracted from their underlying structures by inclusion or information hiding within higher level objects. The physical layer is responsible for physical transmission of the data. Link encapsulation allows local area networking and IP provides global addressing of individual computers; UDP adds application or process selection, i.e., the port specifies the service such as a Web or TFTP server. In discussions of encapsulation, the more abstract layer is often called the upper layer protocol while the more specific layer is called the lower layer protocol. Sometimes, however, the terms upper layer protocols and lower layer protocols are used to describe the layers above and below IP, respectively.

Encapsulation is a characteristic feature of most networking models, including the OSI Model and TCP/IP suite of protocols. 1. When referring to networking, encapsulation is the process of taking data from one protocol and translating it into another protocol so the data can continue across a network. 2. When referring to programming, encapsulation is information within a module or other packaged section of code that enables the program or programmer to use the code while keeping it intact so other programs can use it. In general, encapsulation is the inclusion of one thing within another thing so that the included thing is not apparent. Decapsulation is the removal or the making apparent a thing previously encapsulated.