Nutritionists classify nutrients into six main groups: (1) water, (2) carbohydrates, (3) fats, (4) proteins,

(5) minerals, and (6) vitamins. The first four groups are called macronutrients, because the body needs them in large (or macro) amounts. The last two are required in only small quantities and so are known as micronutrients. Water is needed in great amounts because the body consists largely of water. Usually, between 50 and 75 percent of a person's body weight is made up of water. The body requires large quantities of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins because these nutrients provide energy. The energy in food is measured in units called kilocalories. A kilocalorie is equal to 1,000 calories. A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one Celsius degree. However, kilocalories are often referred to as simply "calories." The "calories" mentioned in this article are actually kilocalories. Although minerals and vitamins are needed in only small amounts, they are as vital to health as any other nutrients. Minerals and vitamins are needed for growth and to maintain tissues and regulate body functions. Water is, perhaps, the most critical nutrient. We can live without other nutrients for several weeks, but we can go without water for only about one week. The body needs water to carry out all of its life processes. Watery solutions help dissolve other nutrients and carry them to all the tissues. The chemical reactions that turn food into energy or tissue-building materials can take place only in a watery solution. The body also needs water to carry away waste products and to cool itself. Adults should consume about 21/2 quarts (2.4 liters) of water a day in the form of beverages or water in food. Carbohydrates include all sugars and starches. They serve as the main source of energy for living things. Each gram of carbohydrate provides about 4 calories. (A gram is about 0.035 ounce.) There are two kinds of carbohydrates--simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates, all of which are sugars, have a simple molecular structure. Complex carbohydrates, which include starches, have a larger and more complicated molecular structure that consists of many simple carbohydrates linked together. Most foods contain carbohydrates. The main sugar in food is sucrose, ordinary white or brown sugar. Another important sugar, lactose, is found in milk. Fructose, an extremely sweet sugar, comes from most fruits and many vegetables. Foods containing starches include beans, breads, cereals, corn, pasta (macaroni, spaghetti, and similar foods made of flour), peas, and potatoes.

Fats are a highly concentrated source of energy. Each gram of fat provides about 9 calories. All fats are composed of an alcohol called glycerol and substances called fatty acids. A fatty acid consists of a long chain of carbon atoms, to which hydrogen atoms are attached. There are three types of fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated. A saturated fatty acid contains as many hydrogen atoms as its carbon chain can hold. A monounsaturated fatty acid is lacking a pair of hydrogen atoms. In a polyunsaturated fatty acid, the carbon chain contains at least four fewer hydrogen atoms than it could hold. Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids must be included in the diet because the body cannot manufacture them. These essential fatty acids serve as building blocks for the membranes that surround every cell in the body. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in the oils of such plants as corn and soybeans and in such fish as salmon and mackerel. Common sources of monounsaturated fatty acids include olives and peanuts. Most saturated fatty acids are contained in foods derived from animals, such as butter, lard, dairy products, and fatty red meats. Proteins provide energy--like carbohydrates, 4 calories per gram--but more importantly, proteins serve as one of the main building materials of the body. Muscle, skin, cartilage, and hair, for example, are made up largely of proteins. In addition, every cell contains proteins called enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions. Cells could not function without these enzymes. Proteins also serve as hormones (chemical messengers) and as antibodies (disease-fighting chemicals). Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. The body must have a sufficient supply of 20 amino acids. It can manufacture enough of 11 of them. Nine others, called essential amino acids, either cannot be made by the body or cannot be manufactured in sufficient amounts. They must come from the diet. The best sources of proteins are cheese, eggs, fish, lean meat, and milk. The proteins in these foods are called complete proteins because they contain adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids. Cereal grains, legumes (plants of the pea family), nuts, and vegetables also supply proteins. These proteins are called incomplete proteins because they lack adequate amounts of one or more of the essential amino acids. However, a combination of two incomplete proteins can provide a complete amino acid mixture. For example, beans and rice are both incomplete proteins, but eaten together

they provide the correct balance of amino acids. Minerals are needed for the growth and maintenance of body structures. They are also needed to maintain the composition of the digestive juices and the fluids that are found in and around the cells. People need only small amounts of minerals each day. Unlike vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, minerals are inorganic compounds. This means that they are not created by living things. Plants obtain minerals from the water or soil, and animals get minerals by eating plants or planteating animals. Unlike other nutrients, minerals are not broken down within the body. The required minerals include calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are essential parts of the bones and teeth. In addition, calcium is necessary for blood clotting. Milk and milk products are the richest sources of calcium. Cereals and meats provide phosphorus. Whole-grain cereals, nuts, legumes, and green leafy vegetables are good sources of magnesium. Still other minerals are needed only in extremely tiny amounts. These minerals, called trace elements, include chromium, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Iron is an important part of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells. Copper helps the body make use of iron to build hemoglobin. Manganese and zinc are required for the normal action of various enzymes. Green leafy vegetables, whole-grain breads and cereals, seafood, and liver are good sources of trace elements. Vitamins are essential for good health. Small amounts of these compounds should be supplied daily in the diet. Vitamins regulate chemical reactions in which the body converts food into energy and tissues. There are 13 vitamins: vitamin A; the vitamin B complex, which is a group of 8 vitamins; and vitamins C, D, E, and K. Scientists divide vitamins into two general groups, fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins. The fat-soluble vitamins--vitamins A, D, E, and K--dissolve in fats. The vitamins of the B complex and vitamin C dissolve in water. Vitamin A is necessary for healthy skin and development of the bones. Sources of this vitamin include liver, green and yellow vegetables, and milk. Vitamin B-1, also called thiamine, is necessary for changing starches and sugars into energy.

It is found in meat and whole-grain cereals. Vitamin B-2, also known as riboflavin, is essential for complicated chemical reactions that take place during the body's use of food. Milk, cheese, fish, liver, and green vegetables supply vitamin B-2. Vitamin B-6, also called pyridoxine, and two other B vitamins known as pantothenic acid and biotin all play a role in chemical reactions essential for growth. Liver, yeast, and many other foods contain these vitamins. Vitamin B-12 and folic acid, also called folate or folacin, are both needed for forming red blood cells and for a healthy nervous system. Vitamin B-12 is found in animal products, especially liver. Folic acid is present in green leafy vegetables. Doctors recommend that all women who are capable of becoming pregnant consume small amounts of folic acid each day to reduce the risk of spina bifida, which is a serious birth defect. Niacin is also part of the B complex. Cells need niacin in order to release energy from carbohydrates. Liver, yeast, lean meat, fish, nuts, and legumes contain niacin. Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is needed for the maintenance of the ligaments, tendons, and other supportive tissue. It is found in fruits and in potatoes. Vitamin D is necessary for the body's use of calcium. It is present in fish-liver oil and vitamin D-fortified milk. Vitamin D is also formed when the skin is exposed to sunlight. Vitamin E, also known as tocopherol, helps maintain cell membranes. Vegetable oils and whole-grain cereals are especially rich in this vitamin. It is also found in small amounts in most meats, fruits, and vegetables. Vitamin K is necessary for proper clotting of the blood. Green leafy vegetables contain vitamin K. It is also manufactured by bacteria in the intestine.

1. TABLES OF METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT In the metric system of measurement, designations of multiples and sub-divisions of any unit may be arrived at by combining with the name of the unit the prefixes deka, hecto, and kilo meaning, respectively, 10, 100, and 1000, and deci, centi, and milli, meaning, respectively, onetenth, one-hundredth, and one-thousandth. In some of the following metric tables, some such multiples and sub-divisions have not been included for the reason that these have little, if any currency in actual usage.

In certain cases, particularly in scientific usage, it becomes convenient to provide for multiples larger than 1 000 and for subdivisions smaller than one-thousandth. Accordingly, the following prefixes have been introduced and these are now generally recognized: yotta, zetta, exa, peta, tera, giga, mega, kilo, hecto, deka, (Y), (Z), (E), (P), (T), (G), (M), (k), (h), (da), meaning 1024 meaning 1021 meaning 1018 meaning 1015 meaning 1012 meaning 109 meaning 106 meaning 103 meaning 102 meaning 101 deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico, femto, atto, zepto, yocto, (d), (c), (m), (u), (n), (p), (f), (a), (z), (y), meaning 10-1 meaning 10-2 meaning 10-3 meaning 10-6 meaning 10-9 meaning 10-12 meaning 10-15 meaning 10-18 meaning 10-21 meaning 10-24

Units of Length 10 millimeters (mm) 10 centimeters 10 decimeters 10 meters 10 dekameters 10 hectometers = 1 centimeter (cm) = 1 decimeter (dm) = 100 millimeters = 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters = 1 dekameter (dam) = 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters = 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters Units of Area 100 square millimeters (mm2) 100 square centimeters 100 square decimeters 100 square meters 100 square dekameters 100 square hectometers = 1 square centimeter (cm2) = 1 square decimeter (dm2) = 1 square meter (m2) = 1 square dekameter (dam2) = 1 are = 1 square hectometer (hm2) = 1 hectare (ha) = 1 square kilometer (km2) Units of Liquid Volume 10 milliliters (mL) 10 centiliters 10 deciliters 10 liters 10 dekaliters 10 hectoliters = 1 centiliter (cL) = 1 deciliter (dL) = 100 milliliters = 1 liter1 = 1000 milliliters = 1 dekaliter (daL) = 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100 liters = 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000 liters Units of Volume

1000 cubic millimeters (mm3) 1000 cubic centimeters 1000 cubic decimeters

= 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 1 cubic decimeter (dm3) = 1 000 000 cubic millimeters = 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1 000 000 cubic centimeters = 1 000 000 000 cubic millimeters Units of Mass

10 milligrams (mg) 10 centigrams 10 decigrams 10 grams 10 dekagrams 10 hectograms 1000 kilograms

= 1 centigram (cg) = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams = 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams = 1 dekagram (dag) = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)

Ingredient Amount Substitutes -------------------------------------------------------------------------Ingredient Amount Substitutes -------------------------------------------------------------------------Allspice 1 teaspoon * 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon and 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves -------------------------------------------------------------------------Apple pie spice 1 teaspoon * 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon, 1/4 teaspoon nutmeg and 1/8 teaspoon cardamom -------------------------------------------------------------------------Arrowroot starch 1 teaspoon * 1 tablespoon flour * 1 1/2 teaspoon cornstarch -------------------------------------------------------------------------Baking powder 1 teaspoon * 1/4 teaspoon baking soda plus 5/8 teaspoon cream of tartar * 1/4 teaspoon baking soda plus 1/2 cup sour milk or buttermilk or yogurt (decrease liquid called for in recipe by 1/2 cup) * 1/4 teaspoon baking soda plus 1/2 tablespoon vinegar or lemon juice used with sweet milk to make 1/2 cup (decrease liquid called for in recipe by 1/2 cup) * 1/4 teaspoon baking soda plus 1/4 to 1/2 cup molasses (decrease liquid in recipe by 1 to 2 tablespoons) * 1/3 teaspoon baking soda plus 1/2 teaspoon cream of tartar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Bay leaf 1 whole * 1/4 teaspoon cracked bay leaves --------------------------------------------------------------------------

Beau monde seasoning

* 1 teaspoon seasoning salt * 1/2 teaspoon table salt plus dash of garlic, onion and celery salts or powders -------------------------------------------------------------------------Beef stock base, 2 teaspoons * 1 beef bouillon cube instant -------------------------------------------------------------------------Beef stock base, 4 teaspoons * 1 can (10 1/2 ounces) condensed, instant dissolved undiluted beef bouillon or consumme' in 1 1/4 cups water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Bread crumbs, 1/3 cup * 1 slice of bread dry -------------------------------------------------------------------------Bread crumbs, 3/4 cup * 1 slice bread soft -------------------------------------------------------------------------Broth, beef or 1 cup * 1 bouillon cube dissolved in 1 cup chicken boiling water * 1 teaspoon powdered broth base dissolved in 1 cup boiling water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Butter 1 cup * 7/8 to 1 cup hydrogenated fat plus 1/2 teaspoon salt * 7/8 cup oil plus 1/2 teaspoon salt * 7/8 cup lard plus 1/2 teaspoon salt * 1 cup margarine * 7/8 cup oil -------------------------------------------------------------------------Carob powder If recipe * 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate calls for 3 tablespoons carob powder plus 2 tablespoons water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Catsup 1 cup * 1 cup tomato sauce, 1/2 cup sugar and 2 tablespoons vinegar (for use in cooking) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chicken stock 1 1/2 * 1 chicken bouillon cube base, instant teaspoons -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chicken stock 1 tablespoon * 1 cup canned or homemade chicken base, instant dissolved in broth or stock 1 cup water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chili sauce 1 cup * 1 cup tomato sauce, 1/4 cup brown sugar, 2 tablespoons vinegar, 1/4 teaspoon cinnamon, dash of ground cloves and dash of allspice -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chives, finely 2 teaspoons * 2 teaspoons finely chopped green onion chopped tops

1 teaspoon

-------------------------------------------------------------------------Chocolate chips, 1 ounce * 1 ounce sweet cooking chocolate semisweet -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chocolate, 1-2/3 ounces * 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate plus semisweet 4 teaspoons sugar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chocolate, 6 ounce * 2 squares unsweetened chocolate plus semisweet package 2 tablespoons shortening and 1/2 cup pieces, melted sugar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Chocolate, 1 ounce or * 3 tablespoons cocoa plus 1 tablespoon unsweetened square butter or margarine * 3 tablespoons carob powder plus 2 tablespoons water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cocoa 1/4 cup or * 1 ounce (square) chocolate (decrease 4 tablespoons fat called for in recipe by 1/2 tablespoon) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Coconut 1 tablespoon * 1 1/2 tablespoons fresh, grated grated, dry -------------------------------------------------------------------------Coconut Cream 1 cup * 1 cup cream -------------------------------------------------------------------------Coconut Milk 1 cup * 1 cup milk -------------------------------------------------------------------------Corn Syrup 1 cup * 1 cup sugar plus 1/4 cup liquid (use whatever liquid is called for in the recipe) * 1 cup honey -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cornstarch 1 tablespoon * 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour (for thickening) * 4 to 6 teaspoons quick-cooking tapioca -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cracker crumbs 3/4 cup * 1 cup bread crumbs -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream cheese * Part skim milk ricotta cheese or lowfat cottage cheese beaten until smooth -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, 1 cup * 7/8 cup whole milk plus 1/2 tablespoon half-and-half butter or margarine * 3 tablespoons oil plus milk to equal 1 cup * 1 cup evaporated milk -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, heavy 1 cup * 3/4 cup milk plus 1/3 cup butter or (36 to 40% fat) margarine (for use in cooking and baking) * 2/3 cup buttermilk plus 1/3 cup oil * Evaporated skim milk or equal parts of part-skim milk ricotta cheese and nonfat yogurt beaten until smooth (this mixture cannot be heated because of separation) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, light 1 cup * 1 cup undiluted evaporated milk

(18 to 20% fat)

* 14 tablespoons milk plus 3 tablespoons butter or margarine -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, sour 1 cup * 3 tablespoons butter plus 7/8 cup sour (See Sour milk cream, cultured) * 7/8 cup buttermilk plus 3 tablespoons butter -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, whipped * Chill a 13 oz. can of evaporated milk for 12 hours. Add 1 teaspoon lemon juice. Whip until stiff. * Beat until stiff: 1/2 cup ice-cold water and 1/2 cup nonfat dry milk. Add 1/2 cup sugar, slowly, while beating. Then add 2 tablespoons lemon juice and beat until mixed well. -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream, whipping 1 cup * 2 tablespoons lemon juice, 2 tablespoons sugar, 1 cup evaporated milk * 3/4 cup milk plus 1/3 cup butter (for cooking only) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Cream of tartar 1/2 teaspoon * 1 1/2 teaspoon lemon juice or vinegar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Dill plant, 3 heads * 1 tablespoon dill seed fresh or dried -------------------------------------------------------------------------Egg 1 whole (3 tablespoons) * 3 tablespoons slightly beaten egg * 3 tablespoons plus 1 teaspoon frozen egg, thawed * 2 1/2 tablespoons sifted dry whole egg powder plus 2 1/2 tablespoons lukewarm water * 1/4 cup egg substitute * 1 egg white and 2 teaspoons oil * 2 egg whites * 2 yolks plus 1 tablespoon water (in cookies) * 2 yolks (in custards, cream fillings and similar mixtures) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Egg substitute 1 egg * 2 egg whites. May add 1 to 3 teaspoons vegetable oil for each yolk omitted. * 1 egg white, 2 1/4 teaspoons nonfat dry milk powder, and 2 teaspoons vegetable oil (may store 1 week in refrigerator or freezer) * In cookies and cakes only -- use 2 tablespoons water plus 1/2 teaspoon baking powder * In cookie and cake recipes that call for 2 or 3 eggs -- for each egg, use 2 tablespoons flour, 1/2 tablespoon shortening, 1/2 teaspoon baking powder, 2 tablespoons liquid (use liquid called for in recipe)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------Egg white 1 white * 2 tablespoons frozen egg white, thawed (2 tablespoons) * 2 teaspoons sifted dry egg white powder plus 2 tablespoons lukewarm water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Egg yolk 1 yolk * 2 tablespoons sifted dry egg yolk (1 1/2 powder plus 2 teaspoons water tablespoons) * 1-1/3 tablespoons frozen egg yolk, thawed -------------------------------------------------------------------------Extracts 1 teaspoon * 1/4 teaspoon oil of similar flavor (example: mint 1/4 teaspoon * 2 drops oil of similar flavor (oils extract) won't evaporate at high temperatures) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flavor-based oil 1/4 teaspoon * 1 teaspoon extract of same flavor (example: oil of 2 drops * 1/4 teaspoon extract of same flavor peppermint) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, 1 tablespoon * 1/2 tablespoon cornstarch, potato all-purpose starch, rice starch or arrowroot (for thickening) starch * 1 tablespoon granular tapioca * 2 to 3 teaspoons quick-cooking tapioca * 1 tablespoon waxy rice flour * 1 tablespoon waxy corn flour * 2 tablespoons browned flour * 1 1/2 tablespoons whole wheat flour * 1/2 tablespoon whole wheat flour plus 1/2 tablespoon all-purpose flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, 1 cup sifted The following flours require more all-purpose leavening than wheat flour, so add (Note: Speciality 2 1/2 teaspoons baking powder per cup of flours added to flour. An even lighter product results yeast bread when buttermilk plus 1/2 teaspoon baking recipes will soda is substituted for each cup of milk result in a in the recipe: reduced volume and a heavier * 1 1/4 cups rye flour product) * 3/4 cup rice flour * 1 1/2 cups oat flour * 1 cup corn flour * 3/4 cup coarse cornmeal * 1 cup fine cornmeal * 5/8 cup potato starch flour * 1-1/8 cups cake flour * 1 1/2 cups bread crumbs * 1 cup rolled oats * 1 1/2 cups barley flour * 1 cup unsifted all-purpose flour minus 2 tablespoons * 1/3 cup cornmeal or soybean flour plus 2/3 cup all-purpose flour * 1/2 cup cornmeal, bran, rice flour,

rye flour or whole wheat flour plus 1/2 cup all-purpose flour * Substitute whole wheat flour for 1/4 to 1/2 of white flour called for in a recipe * 1/4 cup soybean flour plus 3/4 cup all-purpose flour * 1/3 cup wheat germ plus 2/3 cup all-purpose flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, cake 1 cup sifted * 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons sifted all-purpose flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, pastry 1 cup * 7/8 cup all-purpose flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, 1 cup * 1 cup minus 2 teaspoons all-purpose self-rising flour plus 1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder and teaspoon salt -------------------------------------------------------------------------Flour, whole 1 cup * 1 cup white wheat flour wheat * 1 cup graham flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Garlic 1 clove, * 1/8 teaspoon garlic powder or 1/4 small teaspoon instant minced garlic -------------------------------------------------------------------------Garlic salt 3/4 teaspoon * 1 medium size clove or 1/2 teaspoon minced fresh -------------------------------------------------------------------------Gelatine, 3-ounce * 1 tablespoon plain gelatine plus 2 flavored package cups fruit juice -------------------------------------------------------------------------Ginger 1/8 teaspoon, * 1 tablespoon candied ginger rinsed in powdered water to remove sugar, finely cut * 1 tablespoon fresh ginger, grated -------------------------------------------------------------------------Herbs, dried 1 teaspoon * 1 tablespoon fresh, finely cut -------------------------------------------------------------------------Herbs, fresh 1 tablespoon, * 1 teaspoon dried herbs finely cut * 1/2 teaspoon ground herbs -------------------------------------------------------------------------Honey 1 cup * 1 1/4 cups sugar plus 1/4 cup liquid (use liquid called for in recipe) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Horseradish 1 tablespoon, * 2 tablespoons bottled fresh -------------------------------------------------------------------------Lemon 1 teaspoon * 1/2 teaspoon vinegar juice 1 medium * 2 to 3 tablespoons lemon juice and 1 to 2 teaspoons rind -------------------------------------------------------------------------Lemon peel, 1 teaspoon * 1 to 2 teaspoons grated fresh lemon dried peel * grated peel of 1 medium size lemon * 1/2 teaspoon lemon extract -------------------------------------------------------------------------Macaroni 2 cups, * 2 cups spaghetti, uncooked, (2 inch

(4 cups cooked)

pieces) * 4 cups noodles, uncooked -------------------------------------------------------------------------Maple sugar 1/2 cup * 1 cup maple syrup -------------------------------------------------------------------------Maple sugar 1 tablespoon * 1 tablespoon white granulated sugar (grated and packed) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Marshmallows, 1 cup * 10 large miniature -------------------------------------------------------------------------Mayonnaise (for 1 cup * 1/2 cup yogurt and cup mayonnaise or use in salads salad dressing and salad * 1 cup salad dressing dressings) * 1 cup sour cream * 1 cup yogurt * 1 cup cottage cheese pureed in a blender -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, buttermilk 1 cup * 1 cup plain yogurt -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, buttermilk 1 cup * 1 cup minus 1 tablespoon sweet milk or sour plus 1 tablespoon lemon juice or vinegar (allow to stand 5 to 10 minutes) * 1 cup sweet milk and 1 3/4 teaspoons cream of tartar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, evaporated If recipe * 1 cup liquid whole milk (whole or skim) calls for 1/2 cup plus 1/2 cup water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, evaporated 1 can (about * Whip until smooth: 12 ounces) 1 cup nonfat dry milk 1 3/4 cups warm water Keep refrigerated -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, skim 1 cup * 4 to 5 tablespoons nonfat dry milk powder and enough water to make one cup, or follow manufacturer's directions 1/4 cup * 4 teaspoons nonfat dry milk powder plus water to make 1/4 cup, or follow manufacturer's directions 1/3 cup * 2 tablespoons nonfat dry milk powder plus water to make 1/3 cup, or follow manufacturer's directions -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, sweetened 1 can (about * Heat the following ingredients until condensed 1-1/3 cup) sugar and butter are dissolved: 1/3 cup and 2 tablespoons evaporated milk 1 cup sugar 3 tablespoons butter or margarine 1 cup * Heat the following ingredients until

uncooked

sugar and butter are dissolved: 1/3 cup evaporated milk 3/4 cup sugar 2 tablespoons butter or margarine * Add 1 cup plus 2 tablespoons dry milk powder to 1/2 cup warm water. Mix well. Add 3/4 cup sugar and stir until smooth. -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, sweetened To make about * Combine 1 cup instant nonfat dry milk, condensed 1 1/4 cups in 2/3 cup sugar, 1/3 cup boiling water blender and 3 tablespoons margarine. Blend until smooth. To thicken, let set in refrigerator for 24 hours. -------------------------------------------------------------------------Milk, whole 1 cup * 1 cup reconstituted nonfat dry milk plus 2 1/2 teaspoons butter or margarlne * 1/2 cup evaporated milk plus 1/2 cup water * 1 cup buttermilk plus 1/2 teaspoon baking soda (for use in baking, decrease baking powder by 2 teaspoons) * 4 tablespoons whole dry milk plus 1 cup water or follow manufacturer's directions * 1 cup fruit juice or 1 cup potato water (in baking) * 1/4 cup nonfat dry milk, 7/8 cup water and 2 teaspoons butter or margarine * 1 cup water plus 1 teaspoons butter (in baking) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Molasses 1 cup * 3/4 cup sugar plus 2 teaspoons baking powder (increase liquid called for in recipe by 5 tablespoons and decrease baking soda by 1/2 teaspoon) * 3/4 cup sugar plus 1 1/4 teaspoons cream of tartar (increase liquid called for in recipe by 5 tablespoons) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Mushrooms 1 pound fresh * 3 ounces dried mushrooms * 6- or 8-ounce can -------------------------------------------------------------------------Mushrooms, 1 tablespoon * 3 tablespoons whole dried mushrooms powdered * 4 ounces fresh * 2 ounces canned -------------------------------------------------------------------------Mustard, dry 1 teaspoon * 1 tablespoon prepared mustard * 1/2 teaspoon mustard seeds -------------------------------------------------------------------------Oil, flavor-based * See Flavor-Based Oil (example: oil of peppermint) --------------------------------------------------------------------------

Onion

* 1/4 cup chopped, fresh onion * 1-1/3 teaspoons onion salt * 1 to 2 tablespoons minced onion * 1 teaspoon onion powder -------------------------------------------------------------------------Orange 1 medium * 6 to 8 tablespoons juice -------------------------------------------------------------------------Orange peel, 1 tablespoon * 2 to 3 tablespoons grated fresh orange dried peel * Grated peel of 1 medium-size orange 2 teaspoons * 1 teaspoon orange extract -------------------------------------------------------------------------Orange peel, 1 medium * 2 to 3 tablespoons grated fresh orange fresh peel -------------------------------------------------------------------------Parsley, dried 1 teaspoon * 3 teaspoons fresh parsley, chopped -------------------------------------------------------------------------Peppers, 1 tablespoon, * 3 tablespoons fresh green pepper, green bell dried chopped -------------------------------------------------------------------------Peppers, 1 tablespoon, * 3 tablespoons fresh red bell pepper, red bell dried chopped * 2 tablespoons pimiento, chopped -------------------------------------------------------------------------Peppermint 1 tablespoon * 1/4 cup fresh mint, chopped extract * See also Extracts -------------------------------------------------------------------------Pimiento 2 tablespoons * 1 tablespoon dried red bell peppers, chopped rehydrated * 3 tablespoons fresh red bell pepper, chopped -------------------------------------------------------------------------Pumpkin pie 1 teaspoon * 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon, 1/4 teaspoon ginger, 1/8 teaspoon allspice and 1/8 teaspoon nutmeg -------------------------------------------------------------------------Rennet 1 tablet * 1 tablespoon liquid rennet -------------------------------------------------------------------------Rice 1 cup regular, * 1 cup uncooked converted rice uncooked (3 cups cooked) * 1 cup uncooked brown rice * 1 cup uncooked wild rice 1 cup cooked * 1 cup cooked bulgur wheat * 1 cup cooked pearl barley -------------------------------------------------------------------------Rum 1/4 cup * 1 tablespoon rum extract plus 3 tablespoons liquid (use liquid called for in recipe or water) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Shortening, 1 cup * 1 cup cooking oil (cooking oil should melted not be substituted if recipe does not call for melted shortening) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Shortening, 1 cup * 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons lard (used in baking) * 1-1/8 cups butter or margarine (decrease salt called for in recipe by 1/2 teaspoon)

1 small

-------------------------------------------------------------------------Shrimp, fresh 1 cup cleaned, * 3/4 pound raw in shell, clean and cook cooked * 7-ounce package frozen, peeled shrimp, cooked * 4 1/2- or 5-ounce can of shrimp -------------------------------------------------------------------------Sour cream, 1 cup * 7/8 cup sour milk or buttermilk plus cultured 1/3 cup butter or margarine * Blend until smooth: 1/3 cup buttermilk, 1 tablespoon lemon juice and 1 cup cottage cheese * 1-1/8 cups non-fat dry milk powder, 1/2 cup warm water, and 1 tablespoon vinegar (mixture will thicken in refrigerator in a few hours) * 1 cup evaporated milk at 70F plus 1 table-spoon vinegar (allow to stand until it clabbers) * 1 cup plain yogurt (in cooking add a tablespoon of cornstarch to each cup to prevent separating) * 3/4 cup milk, 3/4 teaspoon lemon juice and 1/3 cup butter or margarine * 3/4 cup buttermilk plus cup oil * 1 cup cottage cheese and 2 or 3 teaspoons of lemon juice, pureed in blender -------------------------------------------------------------------------Spearmint, 1 tablespoon * 1/4 cup fresh mint, chopped extract * See also Extracts -------------------------------------------------------------------------Sugar, brown 1 cup, firmly * 1 cup granular sugar packed * 1 cup granulated sugar plus 1/4 cup molasses -------------------------------------------------------------------------Sugar, 1 cup * 3/4 cup granulated sugar confectioners' or powdered -------------------------------------------------------------------------Sugar, white 1 teaspoon * 1/2 to 3/4 teaspoon honey or molasses 1 cup * 2 cups corn syrup (reduce liquid called for in recipe by 1/4 cup. Never replace more than 1/2 of sugar called for in recipe with corn syrup.) * 1 cup brown sugar, firmly packed * 1 3/4 cups confectioners' sugar (for uses other than baking) * 1 cup molasses plus 1/2 teaspoon soda (omit baking powder or use very little. Substitute molasses for no more than half the sugar. Reduce liquid in recipe by 1/4 cup per cup of molasses.) * 3/4 cup maple syrup (Reduce liquid called for in recipe by 3 tablespoons.)

* 1 cup honey (decrease liquid called for in recipe by 1/4 cup. In baked goods, add 1/2 teaspoon of baking soda for each cup of honey substituted and lower baking temperature 25 degrees. In cookie recipes using eggs and no additional liquid, increase the flour by about 2 tablespoons per cup of honey. Chill before shaping and baking. Half of the sugar in cakes, can be replaced with honey. Two-thirds of the sugar can be replaced in fruit bars, but replace no more than a third of the sugar in ginger snaps with honey. When making cakes or cookies, first mix honey with the fat or the liquid, then mix with other ingredients. If this is not done, a soggy layer may form on top of the baked product.) -------------------------------------------------------------------------Sugar, white Sweeteners: * Sugar Twin and Sprinkle Sweet: measure like sugar. Substitute 1 teaspoon sweetener for 1 teaspoon sugar, 1 cup sweetener for 1 cup sugar. * Equal: 1 packet = 2 teaspoons sugar * Sweet 10: 10 drops = 1 teaspoon sugar 1 tablespoon = 1/2 cup sugar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tapioca, 1 tablespoon * 2 tablespoons pearl tapioca granular 2 teaspoons * 1 tablespoon flour -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tomato juice 1 cup * 1/2 cup tomato sauce plus 1/2 cup water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tomatoes, fresh 2 cups, chopped * 16-ounce can -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tomato sauce 15-ounce can * 6-ounce can tomato paste plus 1 cup water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tomatoes, chopped 16-ounce can * 3 fresh medium tomatoes * 16-ounce can stewed tomatoes -------------------------------------------------------------------------Tomato soup 10 3/4-ounce can * 1 cup tomato sauce plus 1/4 cup water -------------------------------------------------------------------------Vanilla extract 1 teaspoon * 1-inch vanilla bean split and simmered in liquid of recipe -------------------------------------------------------------------------Wine 1 cup * 13 tablespoons water, 3 tablespoons lemon juice and 1 tablespoon sugar -------------------------------------------------------------------------Worcestershire 1 teaspoon * 1 teaspoon bottled steak sauce sauce -------------------------------------------------------------------------Yeast, 1 tablespoon * 1 cake (6/10 ounce), compressed

active dry

(2/3 ounce) * 1 packaged (1/4 ounce) active dry yeast -------------------------------------------------------------------------Yogurt, plain 1 cup * 1 cup buttermilk * 1 cup cottage cheese blended until smooth * 1 cup sour cream --------------------------------------------------------------------------

The information given herein is for education purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the NDSU Extension Service is implied.