The 2011 Libyan uprising began as a series of protests and confrontations beginning 15 February 2011 in the North African

state of Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule with protesters calling for his ousting and for immediate democratic elections. By the end of February, it had escalated into an armed conflict with rebels controlling Benghazi and other cities in much of the eastern part of the country, Gaddafi controlling Tripoli in the west with fighting and casualties fastapproaching the scale of a civil war. In early March, Gaddafi's forces, greatly outnumbering and outpowering the rebel ranks, rallied and were victorious at several coastal cities including Brega, Ra's Lanuf and Bin Jawad, then, coerced by international pressure, declaring a cease-fire on 18 March, though they continued to bomb and shell Misurata and on 19 March began an attack on Benghazi. Hours after Gaddafi's unilateral cease-fire declaration, The United Nations endorsed multinational military intervention against Gaddafi.

A series of nations have strongly condemned Gaddafi's use of force against civilians during the early protests and have continued to be critical of Gaddafi as the conflict escalated.[22] Canada, the United States, Japan, Australia, the United Kingdom, France, Jordan, and Russia have all imposed sanctions on Gaddafi, many including travel bans on the longtime leader, members of his family, and top officials in his government. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the regime in Tripoli to the International Criminal Court for investigation.[23] On 10 March, France recognized the National Transitional Council as the official government of Libya.[24] On 17 March, a further resolution was announced which authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya and "to take all necessary measures... to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force", as well as a ceasefire between pro- and anti-Gaddafi forces.[25] On 19 March, France and the United Kingdom officially announced their military intervention and leadership of the United Nations Coalition with Operation Ellamy and Opration Harmattan. On the same day, British and French jets began flying over Libya and attacking Libyan military vehicles, while American and British Tomahawk missiles and Storm Shadow missiles were launched at key Libyan targets.[26]

HistoryMain article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

Gaddafi has ruled Libya as de facto autocrat since overthrowing the monarchy in 1969.[27] Following the retirement of Fidel Castro in 2008 and the death of Omar Bongo in 2009, Gaddafi is the world's longest-ruling non-royal head of state.[28] WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".[29] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[29] Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[30] Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently are less willing to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, such governments can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to

specific government supporters.[31] The government of Libya can utilize these techniques by using the national oil resources.[32] Libya's oil wealth was spread over a relatively small population of six million,[33] with 21% general unemployment, the highest in the region, according to the latest census figures.[34]

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia.[35] Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educate and to d have a high standard of living.[36] Its corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who faced uprising before Libya.[37] This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).[35] Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world.[38][39] Once a breadbasket of the ancient world, the eastern parts of the country became impoverished under Gaddafi's economic theories.[40][41] The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 20102011 Middle East and North Africa protests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans.[42] Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.[43]

[edit] Human rightsFurther information: Human rights in Libya According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored country in the Middle East and North Africa.[44] Gaddafi's revolutionary committees resemble the systems of historical and current regimes and reportedly ten to twenty percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea.

The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.[45] Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases. Gaddafi removed foreign languages from school curriculum for a decade.[46][47] Gaddafi has paid for murders of his critics around the world.[45][48] As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.[49] The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.[45][50]

[edit] Early developments

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.[51][52]Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke

into and occupied housing that the government was building.[53][54] On 24 January 2010, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch.[55] By 27 January, the government had responded to the hous ing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.[56]

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.[57] In early February, Gaddafi met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.[58]

[edit] Protests and military conflictMain article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan uprising On 17 February, a "Day of Revolt" was called by Libyans.[59][60]

By the end of 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing,[61] resi nations and g "defections" of close allies,[62] the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration"[63] and other cities including Tobruk and Misurata reportedly falling[64] with some believing that government had retained control of "just a few pockets",[62] mounting international isolation and pressure,[62][65] and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his "disintegrating"[66] regime all but inevitable.[66]

After taking over the city of Zawiya on 24 February, loyalist troops attacked the outskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advance allong the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops had ambushed the rebel coloumn and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, loyalist forces attempted an attack on Misurata and mannaged to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts.[67]

On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by loyalist forces.[68][69] By March 15, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by the loyalists and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town

before Benghazi, was surrounded. On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council voted to imposed a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace,[70] with British, French and Arab aircraft potentially launching airstrikes within hours of its imposition. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire,[71] but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that Government forces are still fighting with rebels.[72]

[edit] Territory controlled by each sideBy the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including the major cities of Misurata and Benghazi, and the important harbours at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega.[73][74] The Libyan opposition had formed a National Transitional Council and a free press had begun to operate in Cyrenaica.[75]

On 15 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counter-offensive, retaking Mersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained in continuous control of Tripoli,[76] Sirt,[77] Zliten[78] and Sabha,[79] as well as several other towns.

Gaddafi controls the well-armed Khamis Brigade, among other loyalist military and police units, and some believe a small number of foreign mercenaries.[80] Some of Gaddafi's officials, as well as a number of current and retired military personnel, have sided with the protesters and requested outside help in bringing an end to massacres of non-combatants.

As of 17 March, out of Libya's twenty-two districts, twelve were under government control, seven were under rebel control and three were contested territories (see map).

[edit] Libyan fighting around BenghaziOn 18 March, the Libyan government declared an "immediate" ceasefire[citation needed]. Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misurata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi.[81][82] BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting.[83] Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.[84]

A Rebel Mig-23 shot down over Benghazi on 19 MarchAlso on 19 March, a Mig -23BN was shot down over Benghazi by ground fire. A rebel spokesman later confirmed that the plane belonged to the Free Libyan Air Force and had been engaged in error by rebels.[85][86] [87] [88] [89] [90][6]

The Libyan government said the rebels violated the UN "no fly" resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces

UN no-fly zone actionsSee also: Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opration Harmattan, and Operation MOBILE

The American NATO destroyer USS Barry from DC launches one of around 112 Tomahawk missiles fired initially in support of the no-fly zone, 19 MarchAt 1600 GMT, 19 March, BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sent 19 fighter planes over an area 100 km by 150 km (60 by 100 miles) over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel controlled city.[92] "Our air force will oppose any aggression by Colonel Gadhafi against the population of Benghazi," said French President Nicolas Sarkozy. BBC News reported at 16:59 GMT that at 16:45 GMT a French warplane had fired at and destroyed a Libyan military vehicle this being confirmed by French defence ministry spokesman Laurent Teisseire.[93]

At 2031 GMT the Pentagon announced that U.S. and British forces had fired 110-112 Tomahawk cruise missiles targeting 20 Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems.[94] 25 coalition ships, including 3 U.S. submarines, are in the area.[95][96][97][98] CBS New's David Martin reported that 3 B-2 stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop 40 bombs on a major Libyan airfield. Martin further reported that US fighter jets are searching for Libyan ground forces to attack.[99]

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli.[95] France's military denied earlier reports from Libyan state TV that a French aircraft had been shot down and reported that all planes had returned to their air bases.[100]

On 20 March 2011, several Storm Shadow missiles have been launched by British jets.[101] Also, sustained anti-aircraft fire erupted in Tripoli at around 2:33 a.m. Libyan time.[102]

[edit] CasualtiesMain article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan uprising Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000.[6] Whereas the International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March[103] The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.[104] On 2 March, The International Federaton for i Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed.[105] At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.[106] The Libyan Human Rights League estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March.[20][20] The whole crew of Italian ship was detained at Tripoli on 20th March. [107]

[edit] Protest movement's response[edit] Human rights

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi during the 2011 Libyan uprisingFr ee speech is reportedly practiced for the first time. An opposition-controlled newspaper called Libya has appeared in Benghazi, as well as opposition-controlled radio stations.[108] The movement opposes tribalism and defected soldiers wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".[41] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used against opposition members in the past.[109]

[edit] OrganizationMany protest movement leaders have called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multiparty democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Gaddafi's attacks and help liberate the capital Tripoli from his rule.[110] In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.[41]

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: ) was a body established by opposition forces on 27 February in an effort to consolidate the anti-Gaddafi forces.[111] The main objectives of the group do not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.[112] The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Gaddafi regime.[113] The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.[114] Gaddafi's former Justice Minister said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.[115]

[edit] Gaddafi's response to the UprisingMain article: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the 2011 Libyan uprising Gaddafi has attributed the protests against his rule to people who are "rats" and "cockroaches", terms that were cited by Hutu radicals of the Tutsi population before the 1994 Rwanda genocide began, thus causing unease in the global community. Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescaf. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol.[116][117][118][119] He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a "colonialist plot" by foreign countries, particularly blaming France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, to "control oil" and "enslave" Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to "cleanse Libya house by house" until he had crus hed the insurrection.[120][121][122][123][124] Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live".[121][123]

International journalists were banned[125][126] by the Libyan authorities[127] from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government.

[edit] MercenariesNumerous eyewitnesses and identity documents of captured soldiers show that Gaddafi is employing foreign nationalities to attack Libyan civilians. None of the African mercenaries' governments support the war. Libya and Chad has traditionally been at odds with Libya over the Aouzou Strip.

"French-speaking" fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countries such as Chad and Niger. However, some have urged caution, saying that Libya has a significant black population who could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army.[128] Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship.[128]

On 18 February, it was alleged that "armed forces with military members from Chad" were operating in Benghazi, having been "paid for 5,000 (Dinars) and the latest car models just to get rid of demonstrators."[129] Twelve people were killed on the Giuliana Bridge in Benghazi when forces opened fire.[129]

On 19 February, several Chadian mercenaries were captured in eastern Libya.[130]

On 21 February a lawyer working in Benghazi said that a local security committee formed by native civilians on the 21st took control of the city had arrested 36 mercenaries from Chad, Niger and Sudan who were hired by Gaddafis body guards or Praetorian Guard to fight in the city.[131]

On 22 February, there were reports of mercenaries from Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe, fighting in Al Bayda. A 21-year-old university student called Saddam claimed mercenaries had killed 150 people in the previous two days in the city of Al Bayda.[132] Various other accusations told of Chadians operating in Southern Libya, Benghazi and Tripoli.[133] Mercenaries from Chad, Mali and Niger were reportedly working in the rest of eastern Libya on suppressing the protests in Libya.[134]

On 23 February, there was a report that Gaddafi had deployed French-speaking mercenaries from nearby countries such as Mali, Niger and Chad.[134] Hired killers from Chad and Niger were reported to be in Benghazi and other eastern cities[135] on the 23rd.

On 24 February, the Aruba School in the coastal town of Shehat became the prison for almost 200 suspected pro-Gaddafi mercenaries from countries such as Niger and Chad.[136] They were reported to be part of Libya's "Khamees' battalion", the well-equipped 32nd brigade led by Khamis Gaddafi.[136] It was confirmed on the 24th by Col Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Malian, Nigerien, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping the besieged Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi fight off an uprising.[137] He said that the mercenaries were jobless ex-soldiers and officers who were enticed to Libya's civil war by the offer of money.[138]

On 25 February, speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya to help prop up cornered Colonel Muammar Gaddafi grew as Zimbabwes Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a straight answer to a question posed in Parliament about it.[139] On the same day, the Foreign Ministry of Chad denied allegations that mercenaries were fighting for Gaddafi, although he admitted it was possible that individuals had joined such groups.[140]

The Serbian Ministry of Defence denied rumors that of any of its active or retired personnel participating in the events in Libya as "total stupidity".[141] In a Serbian interview from Gaddafi that was the first one granted to foreign press, the day before BBC and ABC interviews, he pointed as an example of propaganda that a Serbian officer refused to lie for money and claim that Serbian planes and pilots are involved.[142]

Many eyewitnesses have documented how mercenaries have taken over ambulances to kill injured protesters.[143][144][145]

[edit] Humanitarian situationMedical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in the country.[146] On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6.4 million to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country.[147] On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.[148]

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks as well as Libyans.[149] By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-

land between Tunisia and Libya.[150] By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.[151]

With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigeriens) and 5,448 in Algeria.[152]

[edit] Domestic responsesMain article: Domestic responses to the 2011 Libyan protests

A map showing the ethnic and part of the tribal composition of LibyaSeveral officials resigned from their positions after 20 February in large part due to protests against the army's "excessive use of force", including justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil as well as Interior Minister and Major General Abdul Fatah Younis,[153] whereas Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem was reported to have fled the country.[154] Citing "grave violations of human rights", Gaddafi's cousin and close aide, Ahmad Qadhaf al-Dam, announced his defection from the government when he arrived in Egypt on 24 February.[155]

Several members of the diplomatic corps also resigned. Amongst these were the ambassadors to the Arab League,[156] Bangladesh, the People's Republic of China,[157] the European Union and Belgium,[158] India,[159] Indonesia,[154] Nigeria, Sweden and the United States. The deputy ambassador to the UN Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi did not resign but distanced himself from the Libyan government's actions.[160][161] The ambassador to the United States Ali Aujali together with the embassy staff also distanced himself from the government, "condemned" the violence and urged the international community to stop the killings. The ambassador to the United Kingdom denied reports that he had resigned.[154]

The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces.[162] This will prove a major boost for the embattled rebel forces low on funds.

Two Libyan Air Force pilots[citation needed] and a naval vessel fled to Malta, reportedly claiming to have refused orders to bomb protesters in Benghazi.[163][164]

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[154][165] The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have announced their support of the protesters.[73][166] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.[166]

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence".[73]

On 28 February, Gaddafi reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.[167]

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.[168]Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."[169] as Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.[170] On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".[171] He has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence.[172] He has asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.[173] On March 17 he returned to Libya after 41 years in exile.[174]

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated.[175] On 21 February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[176] On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.[177]

[edit] International reactionsMain article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising [edit] Official responsesA number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chvez all expressed support for Gaddafi.[178][179][180] Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.[181][182]

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".[183][184] Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters.[185] On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians.[186] Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime.[187] A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.[188] The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians.[189] The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.[190]

[edit] EvacuationsDuring the uprising, many countries evacuated their citizens.[191] China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other countries.[192][193][194] On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm.[195] South Korea evacuated 12,000 people[clarification needed], utilizing airplanes and ferries, to Malta.[196][197] Bulgaria also evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens. [198] Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals.[199] The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul.[200] The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya.[201] A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safe including ty, Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.[202][203]

Several Russians, 21 Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia at the same time[204].

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircrafts and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations.[205][206][207] China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts.[193][208] The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens.[209] The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government.[210][211] Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.[212] Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft

with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi.[213][214] A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the United Kingdom and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.[215][216][217] An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirt by helicopter failed after its 3-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance.[218][219] The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released 12 days later, but the helicopter was confiscated.[220]

[edit] Mediation proposalsThere have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis.The South African government proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war.[221] Venezuelan President Hugo Chvez also out himself forward as a mediator Although Gaddafi . accepted in principle a proposal by Chvez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later voiced some skepticism to the proposal.[citation needed] The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.[222] The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The United States and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.[223] Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.[224]

[edit] No-fly zone resolution UN Mandate (no-fly zone and other measures) Countries committed to enforcement: Belgium Canada Denmark France Greece Italy Jordan Netherlands Norway Saudi Arabia Spain

UAE United Kingdom United States

Main article: Libyan no-fly zone On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians.[238] Italy said it would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.[239] US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has been skeptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya air defenses.[240] This proposal was 's rejected by Russia and China.[241][242][243][244] Romania is utterly against the initiation of a nofly zone.[245] "Among the arguments I want to bring in order to support our position is that this mission of initiating a no fly zone is a mission that only NATO can have and not the EU. We also consider it is not the moment for a military solution in Libya," said Romanian President Traian B sescu at the EU summit on 11 March.

On 7 March, United States Permanent Representative to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions to twenty-four hours a day. On the same day, it was reported that one United Nations diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse on condition of anonymity that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone and it go before the United Nations Security Council as early as this week.[246][247]

On 12 March, the foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed to ask the United Nations to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. That brought a joint NATO/Arab-enforced fly-zone closer to establishment. The rebels have stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be enough, because the majority of the bombardment is coming from things other than aircraft particularly tanks and rockets.

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 1973 (2011), allowing for a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favor, zero against, and five abstentions. Resolution 1973 bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians[249] and authorizes member states "to take all necessary measures... to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamhariya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occu pation force".[250][251] Changing its position, the United States joined the initial supporters of the UN nofly resolution, Britain, France and Lebanon, to urge for a stronger resolution that allowed military action short of ground troups to protect civilians from air, land and sea attacks by Gadhafi's fighters.[249] British Foreign Secretary William Hague said the three criteria for taking action all have been fulfilled. The criteria for taking action a demonstrated need, clear legal basis and broad regional support have all been met according to Hague.[249]

Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opration Harmattan, and Operation MOBILE are the codenames for the British, U.S., French and Canadian participations in the no-fly zone respectively.[252]

On 1 March, Russian NATO ambassador Dmitry Rogozin stated that: "A ban on the national air force or civil aviation to fly over their own territory is ... a serious interference into the domestic affairs of another country".[253] On 18 March 2011, Chairman of the Russian State Duma International Affairs Committee Konstantin Kosachyov said that air strikes on Libya might "spark a huge conflict between the so-called West and the so-called Arab world."[254] China and India have also criticised military intervention, with India's foreign ministry saying "the measures adopted should mitigate and not exacerbate an already difficult situation for the people of Libya".[255]