REFRESHER COURSE: COMPLEX NUMBERS

DEFINITION
A complex number z is of the form x + yi where x, y ∈ \ and i = −1 .
x is called the real part of z, denoted by Re(z). y is called the imaginary part of z, denoted by Im(z).
Note: Two complex numbers z1 and z2 are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal.

ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS

Addition: z1 + z2 = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i , a, b, c, d ∈ \

Subtraction: z1 − z2 = (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i

Multiplication:
(i) k z1 = k(a + bi) = ka + kbi , k ∈ \
(ii) z1 z2 = (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + (ad + bc)i + bdi2
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i Note that i = −1 , so i 2 = −1
Division:
z1 = a + bi = (a + bi )(c − di ) = (ac − adi + bci − bdi 2 ) = (ac + bd ) + (bc − ad )i = (ac + bd ) (bc − ad )
+ 2 i
z2 c + di (c + di )(c − di ) (c 2 − cdi + dci − d 2i 2 ) c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2 c + d2

COMPLEX CONJUGATE
If z = x + yi, then the complex number x − yi is called the complex conjugate of z. We denote the complex
conjugate of z by z*.

Properties of complex conjugates:

S/No. Properties S/No. Properties

*
1 z=z ⇔ z is real 6 z z* = x + y2
2

2 (z*)* = z 7
( z1 ± z 2 ) * = z1* ± z2*
3 (kz)* = kz*, k ∈\ 8 (z1 z2)* = (z1*)(z2*)
4 z + z* = 2 Re(z) 9 (zn)* = (z*)n, where n ∈ Z +
5 z − z* = 2i Im(z) 10 ⎛ z1 ⎞ * ( z1 *)
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ z2 ⎠ ( z2 *)

COMPLEX ROOTS OF A POLYNOMIAL EQUATION WITH REAL COEFFICIENTS

If z = a + bi is a root of a equation P(z) = 0 where, P(z) is a polynomial of degree n with real coefficients,
then z* = a − bi is also a root of the equation.
By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, any polynomial P(z) of degree n has exactly n roots, real or
complex.

Example 1: [NJC Prelim 07/P1/Q1]

Verify that −2 + 3i is a root of the equation z 3 + 5 z 2 + 17 z + 13 = 0 and determine the other roots of the
equation.

http://education.helixated.com 1
An Open Source Education Project
 MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Let P represent the complex number z = x + iy .
Modulus of z is the distance between point P representing z and the origin, and is denoted by z where,

z = x2 + y 2

Argument of z is the angle measured from the positive real axis to the line segment joining P and the origin
and is denoted by arg ( z ) .
Im(z) Im(z) Im(z) Im(z)
P(x,y) P(x,y)
Re(z) Re(z)
θ θ
θ
θ
Re(z) Re(z) P(x,y) P(x,y)
⎛ y⎞ ⎛ y⎞ ⎡ ⎛ y ⎞⎤ ⎛ y⎞
arg ( z ) = θ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ arg ( z ) = θ = π − tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ arg ( z ) = θ = − ⎢π − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ arg ( z ) = θ = − tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ x⎟
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ x⎠

If 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , the argument of the complex number is measured in the anti-clockwise direction.

If −π < θ ≤ 0 , the argument of the complex number is measured in the clockwise direction.
−π < θ ≤ π is called the principal range.

COMLPLEX NUMBER IN ALGEBRAIC, POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM.

Im(z)
Algebraic form: z = x + yi P(x,y)
Polar (Trigonometric) Form: z = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) where, r = z and θ = arg ( z ) . r
r sin θ
Exponential form: z = re iθ
where, e iθ
= cos θ + i sin θ . θ
Re(z)
r cos θ
MUTILPLICATION AND DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Let z1 = aeiα and z2 = beiβ .

z1 ⋅ z2 = aeiα ⋅ beiβ = abe (

i α +β )
= ab ⎡⎣cos (α + β ) + i sin (α + β ) ⎤⎦
From the above result, we observe that:

1) z1 ⋅ z2 = z1 . z2 ⇒ zn = z
n

2) arg ( z1 ⋅ z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 ⇒ arg( z n ) = n arg( z )

In the same way for division of complex numbers,
z1 aeiα a i(α − β ) a
= = e = ⎡⎣cos (α − β ) + i sin (α − β ) ⎤⎦
z2 beiβ b b
From the above result, observe that:
z1 z
3) = 1
z2 z2

⎛ z1 ⎞
4) arg ⎜ ⎟ = arg z1 − arg z2
⎝ z2 ⎠
http://education.helixated.com 2
An Open Source Education Project
 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION
Addition And Subtraction Of Two Complex Numbers:
Geometrically, the addition and subtraction of 2 complex numbers, e.g., z1 and z2 , are in accordance with
the vector parallelogram that represents the addition and subtraction of vectors as shown.
Im(z)
P4 ( z1 + z2 )
P2 ( z 2 )

P1 ( z1 )
0 Re(z)

P5 ( z1 − z 2 )
P3 (− z2 )

The vectors representing z1 + z2 and z1 − z2 are the diagonals of the parallelogram whose sides are
represented by the line segments OP1 and OP2 with P1 and P2 representing the complex numbers z1 and z2
respectively.

Multiplication And Division Of Two Complex Numbers:

Let P be the point representing complex number, z = aeiα and Q be the point representing complex number
w = beiβ .
z ⋅ w = abe (
i α +β )
= ab ⎡⎣cos (α + β ) + i sin (α + β ) ⎤⎦
i.e., z.w = z . w = ab and arg ( z.w ) = arg ( z ) + arg ( w ) = α + β R Im
(z.w)
Im
Q(w) Q(w)
P(z) α P(z)
z.w = ab
β β
α α
Re Re
O O
When complex number z is multiplied to complex number w, the line segment OQ is rotated anti-clockwise
through α and scaled by a factor of a as shown in the diagram above
Similarly, when complex number w is divided by complex number z, the line segment OQ is rotated
1 Im
clockwise through α and scaled by a factor of .
a
( iz ) P(z)
When complex number z is multiplied by i, the line segment OP is rotated
π
anti-clockwise through as shown in the diagram on the right. Similarly,
2
α
when complex number z is multiplied by −i , the line segment OP is rotated Re
π π O
π −i
clockwise through . Note that: i = e 2 and −i = e 2
2
( -iz )

http://education.helixated.com 3
An Open Source Education Project
 Example 2: [2008 RJC Term 3 Common Test Qn 5a]
The complex number 7 + 5i is represented by the point A in an Argand diagram with origin O. Given that
OABC is a rectangle described in a clockwise sense with OC = 2OA , find the complex numbers represented
by the points B and C in the form x + iy , where x and y are real.
DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATION
z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) = r n einθ
Example 3:
Find the cube root of the complex number 4( 3 + i ) .

LOCI IN THE ARGAND DIAGRAM

Definition: The locus of a complex variable z = x + iy is a set of points in the complex plane which satisfies
a given equation. The set of points form a curve when the condition is an equation and a region if the
condition is an inequality.

Standard Loci
• Re ( z ) = k , k ∈ \ is equivalent to the vertical line x = k .

• Re ( z ) ≥ k is equivalent to the region x ≥ k .

• Re ( z ) < k is equivalent to the region x < k .

• Im ( z ) = h , h ∈ \ is equivalent to the horizontal line y = h .

• Im ( z ) ≥ h is equivalent to the region y ≥ h .

• Im ( z ) < h is equivalent to the region y < h . y

Circle (The locus of a variable from a fixed point)

z − z0 = r , r ∈ \ + O P0 (z0) x

The locus of the point P representing z is a circle with centre r

P0 and radius r.

Perpendicular Bisector (The locus of a variable from 2 fixed points) y

P1 (z1)
z − z1 = z − z2

The locus of the point P representing z is the

perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the
O x
points P1 and P2, representing z1 and z2 respectively.
P2 (z2)
Half-Line (The locus of a variable whose argument is fixed) y
arg( z − z0 ) = θ

The locus of the point P representing z is the half- O x

P
line starting from P0 (excluding P0) and making an
angle θ with the positive x-axis. θ
http://education.helixated.com 4
P0 (z0)
An Open Source Education Project
 Example 4:
Sketch in separate Argand diagrams the following loci

a) 3 ( z − i ) = 75 b) arg(1 − iz ) = arg ( −1 + i )
2
c) iz − 4 = 2 − 4i − z

Example 5:
Sketch in an Argand diagram the set of points representing all complex numbers z satisfying the following
π
inequalities: z + 1 ≥ iz − 1 , 2z −1 < i 3 +1 and 0 ≤ arg( z − 0.5) <
2
EXCERCISE:
[JJC MYE 07/P2/ Q10a Modified]
1. If w = (−1 + i) , find the modulus and argument of w in exact form. Hence, show that the roots of the
8

(1 − 3 i)
4

equation ( z − 1)3 = (−1 + i) can be expressed in the form of ⎛⎜ 2cos θ ⎞⎟ ei 2 , where the values of θ are to be
8 θ

(1 − 3 i)
4
2 ⎝ ⎠
determined.

[JJC MYE 07/P2/ Q10c]

2. a) Write down, in the form eiθ , all the 8th roots of unity, i.e. the roots of the equation z 8 = 1 .

b) Using the result ( z − eiθ )( z − e − iθ ) = z 2 − (2 cos θ ) z + 1 , express z 8 − 1 as the product of two linear
factors and three quadratic factors, where all the coefficients are real and expressed in a non-
trigonometric form.

[PJC Prelim 07/P1/Q12 Modified]

3. In a single Argand diagram, sketch the set of points representing all complex numbers z satisfying both of
5π
the following inequalities: z + 3 + 3i ≤ 1 + 2i and 0 ≤ arg( z + 3 + 3i) ≤ .
6
Hence, find
a) the maximum and minimum value of arg( z + 1 + 3i)
b) the maximum and minimum value of z + 1 + 3i .

Answers for Examples:

1) z = −2 + 3i, − 2 − 3i, and − 1 2) c = 10 − 14i, b = 17 − 9i ( 18 18 )
3) 2 cos kπ + i sin kπ , k = −11,1,13

4 a) A circle with centre at ( 0,1) and radius 5 units.

4 b) A half-line from the point ( 0, −1) making an angle of − 3π with the positive x-axis.
4

4 c) A perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the points ( 0, −4 ) and ( 2, −4 ) .

Answers for Exercise:

kπ
, arg ⎡⎢ (−1 + i) ⎤⎥ = − 2π , θ = − 2π , 4π , − 8π .
8 i
1) ( − 1 + i) 8
=1 2a) z = e 4
, where k = 0, 4, ±1, ±2, ±3
(1 − i 3) 4 ⎣ (1 − i 3) ⎦
4
3 9 9 9
2π
2b) ( z − 1)( z + 1)( z 2 − 2 z + 1)( z 2 + 1)( z 2 + 2 z + 1) 3a) π , b) 13 , 2 − 3
3

http://education.helixated.com 5
An Open Source Education Project