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B. Hallier
Aerosol formation and transformation Role of aerosols as condensation nuclei Aerosol processes associated with anthropogenic, biogenic, and biomass burning compounds
Artificial clouds under precisely controlled temperature and super saturation conditions Isolation of particles from aerosol to study ice nucleation Portable to study ambient aerosols
Aerosol formation and evolution in the troposphere Consists of two 90 m3 reactors No cloud process abilities Supported by EPA
Static diffusion chamber Ice nucleation and electrification studies Produces study on ice habits on glass fiber Not highly subscribed
Location: 3220 m high mountain in Colorado Equipment for airborne cloud research 2|Page
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ISPA
Studies effects of pollution aerosols on snow growth by riming and snowfall amounts on the ground Results have implications for water resources in the inner mountain west Supported by Nevada, NSF, DOE
Provided aerosol and ice particle measurements during recent ACCRI tests Flow through chamber (N2) Pressure: Sea level to 50,000 ft Temp: Ambient to -70C Humidity: 0-100% (RHi) Chamber Velocity: 0.5 to 3 m/s 3 Windows and panel for probe insertion Capability for exhaust introduction Studied effect of soot and sulfuric acid on ice formation
Investigates physical and chemical processes in the polluted troposphere Flow through chamber Flow tube 1-10 m in length Temp: -40C min Used for CCN studies
7. AIDA
Location: Germany
Size: 4 m diameter, 7 m high, 84.5 m3 Pressure: 0.01 to 1013 hPa Temp: 183K to 323K Uses air as working fluid Ice saturations achieved by expansion Wall temperature actively controlled Used for both IN and CCN studies Many techniques for generating test aerosols Location: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Capability for addition of instruments
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Location: Japan Volume: 25 m3 Radon-aerosol chamber Temp: 278-303K Humidity: 30-90% Pressure between inside and outside of chamber can be negative Particle Concentration: 108-1010 m-3
Volume: 260 m3 Studies reactions of the surface of aerosols Uses high resolution FTIR spectroscopy to track gas concentrations Equipped with a scanning electrostatic classifier
Tracks interaction between clouds and aerosol particles Measures optical, chemical, physical, and cloud activation properties equipped with many additional inlets to enable additional equipment to be added Condensation Nuclei Counter Multiple-Supersaturation Cloud Nuclei and Condensation Nuclei Counter Particle/Soot Absorption Photometer
Location: Tsukuba, Japan 1 pressure vessel and one temperature vessel Volume: 1.4m3 Pressure: 1000 to below 30hPa Temp: 30 to -100C Chamber Velocity: 0 to 30 m/s Studies cloud formation and ice properties
Continuous Flow Diffusion Chamber Studies ice formation on aerosol particles Some funding from NASA
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Location: Netherlands Used to study the cloud activation of ambient aerosol Very high flow rate (30m3/min) Uses forward scattering spectrometer probe for measuring cloud droplet number concentration Uses high-flow cascade impactors for chemical characterization of aerosol Compared the number of cloud droplets created in clean marine air vs. polluted marine air
Location: Germany Volume: 9 m3 Used to study -Pinene ozonolysis in the presence of ammonium sulfate or sulfuric acid seed particles
Mission: (1) investigation of particle behavior in the atmosphere and industrial workplaces, (2) interactions of engineered and anthropogenic pollution particles with biological systems, and (3) development of advanced instrumentation and measurement methodology Relation to Jaguar (largest existing supercomputer) [see below] Funding sources include DOE and DOD
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Aerosol Types
This section covers the major natural and anthropogenic aerosols present in our atmosphere.
Natural:
Mineral Dust:
Mineral dust is composed of soil particles that have entered the atmosphere usually due to wind (Earth Gauge, n.d.). The origin of 94% of Earths mineral dust aerosols is the northern hemisphere (Earth Gauge, n.d.). Mineral dust is usually composed of metal oxides (e.g. iron oxide, aluminum oxide, and magnesium oxide) and clays and carbonates (e.g. calcium carbonate or limestone) (Earth Gauge, n.d.). The length of time that dust particles are present in the air depends on their size and the meteorological conditions in their environment. Large particles tend to undergo dry deposition more quickly than smaller particles because of their larger mass. There are many methods that aerosols such as dust are removed from the atmosphere, one being wet deposition. When precipitation occurs in the atmosphere, water can collect the dust aerosol and deposit it on the ground. Mineral dust in the atmosphere can cause droughts, snow melt, ocean cooling, and fertilization of algae in the ocean in addition to localized warming of the atmosphere (Earth Gauge, n.d.). 8|Page
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Sea Salt:
Sea salt aerosols are the largest contributors to global-mean clear-sky radiative balance over oceans and can have measurable effects upon cloud radiative properties (Mahowald, Lamarque, Tie, & Wolff, n.d.). Ice core samples show 2-5 fold changes in surface sea salt deposition between glacial and interglacial periods, which supports the idea that the climate is very sensitive to these aerosols (Mahowald, Lamarque, Tie, & Wolff, n.d.). Sea salt entrainment into clouds is equivalent to surface winds cubed meaning that small changes in wind conditions can affect salt aerosol concentrations (Mahowald, Lamarque, Tie, & Wolff, n.d.).
Dimethylsulphide:
Dimethylsulphide (DMS) is a considerably large contributor to CCN numbers over the ocean. DMS is released by planktonic algae in sea water which then enters the atmosphere and oxidizes to form a sulphate aerosol (Charlson, Lovelock, Andreae, & Warren, 1987). DMS is an important feature in the CLAW hypothesis which states that as oceans warm, phytoplankton growth increases which causes an increase in DMS and in turn causes more CCN to form leading to increased cloud albedo and cooling. Recent research done by MIT has found that dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) attracts certain microbes which then consume it and release DMS into the atmosphere (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010). MITs findings suggest that microbes are involved heavily in the oceans sulphur and carbon cycles.
Anthropogenic:
Sulfate, Nitrate, Ammonium:
Sulfate particles are a large component of anthropogenic aerosols. It is believed that sulfate and its associated cations make up to 60% of aerosol mass with a diameter of less than 2.5 m (Penner et al., 1994). The effects of Sulfate, Nitrate, and Ammonium in the atmosphere are direct backscatter of solar radiation, changes in cloud albedo, and changes in cloud lifetimes due to modification of CCN numbers (Penner et al., 1994). More data is required to more accurately estimate the effects of water-soluble inorganic species (i.e. ammonium nitrate); they are not currently included in models (Penner et al., 1994). SiO2 must also be studied to better 9|Page
B. Hallier understand the effects of its fine particles downwind from coal-burning regions such as Asia (Penner et al., 1994).
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Altitude:
Altitude is an important factor that influences aerosol behavior in the atmosphere and cloud formation. Certain cloud types are associated with certain particle sizes which tend to collect at specific altitudes. Low altitude (< 70,000 ft) cirrus clouds average particulate sizes of 30-300 microns usually originating from thunderstorm blow off (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). Nacreous clouds (75,000 ft) average 1 micron particle sizes originating from mountain waves (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). Noctilucent clouds (260,000 ft) average .1-10 micron particle sizes which tend to appear at high latitudes during the summer (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). Meteoric dust (all altitudes) averages .01-20 microns (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). And aerosols (65-75,000 ft) average .1 microns from events like volcanic eruptions and sulfate emissions (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). The size and distribution of aerosols and particulates in the air is important because they have the ability to degrade LF, cause erosion, and increase the temperature of the atmosphere (Davis, 8/26/1988, p. 1). The altitude of these particles dictates where these effects will occur (i.e. atmospheric heating or LF degradation).
Moisture (Humidity):
Humidity in the atmosphere impacts the optical properties of aerosols, their ability to serve as CCN and IN, and the length of time that they are present in the atmosphere. As humidity rises, aerosols serve as nucleation points for clouds, which can either lead to precipitation, or a cloud that is highly reflective and unable to precipitate. If precipitation occurs, a majority of the aerosol will be removed or transported to a lower level of the atmosphere through the falling water or ice. If precipitation does not occur, because the available volume of water is spread over too many points of nucleation to reach a mass large enough to precipitate, the cloud composition will consist of very small, reflective droplets which have a high albedo. Highly reflective clouds and water vapor are important because along with aerosols they reflect 80% of incoming solar radiating back to space (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, 2010, pp. 11-12).
Temperature:
Temperature is the driving force for thermophoresis, which is an aerosol transportation method. Thermophoresis is driven by temperature gradients in a gas medium. The effect of the process in aerosols smaller than the gas mean free path (less than 0.066 m) is the movement of aerosol particles from the warmer side of the gradient to the cooler side ("Thermophoretic Force and Velocity," n.d.). In larger particles the process is similar, but more complex because the particle has its own temperature gradient in addition to the surrounding temperature gradient. The result of both particle gradients is supplemented in the fact that particle movement is also influenced by the thermal conductivity of the 11 | P a g e
B. Hallier surrounding air and particle. As a large particle moves from the warmer side of the gradient to the cooler side (as small particles do), the particles with high thermal conductivities will lose velocity quickly due to their quick loss of energy through conductivity, but as a particle with low thermal conductivity moves into the cooler side of the gradient it maintains its velocity through its resistance to loss of energy due to quick heat transfer ("Thermophoretic Force and Velocity," n.d.).
Radiation:
Radiation affects aerosol characteristics by causing differential heating in the atmosphere which leads to air currents that have the ability to transport and disperse aerosols over large areas. In addition, radiation can manipulate the formation and lifetime of clouds. Aerosols have an albedo effect which reflects a great deal of solar radiation. Black Carbon is an important aerosol that opposes the net cooling effect of aerosols. Black Carbon absorbs radiation instead of reflecting it which results in warming. The presence of black Carbon on ice or in the atmosphere causes a decrease in the reflectivity of radiation and causes the atmosphere to heat (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, 2010, pp. 12).
Surface Chemistry:
The surface chemistry of an aerosol determines how it reacts in the atmosphere with other aerosols and particles. Surface chemistry affects the chance of agglomeration and whether it can dissolve in water or other liquids. Surface chemistry may be modified by incoming UV radiation. Ozone is important in the creation of OH radicals which are essential in the oxidation process of a number of particle species in the atmosphere (Moortgat, 2001). In simple terms, as Ozone undergoes photodissociation due to UV radiation, OH is formed which then reacts with particles oxidizing them and thereby removing them from the atmosphere (Moortgat, 2001). [It should be noted that photodegradation and reaction with OH radicals are known to be the main degradation processes of carbonyl compounds (Moortgat, 2001).]
Particle Production:
Aerosol dynamics influence the growth and development of aerosols in the atmosphere. Starting as a gas, unstable, quick moving molecules collide with each other forming small clusters. As the clusters continue their erratic movement, governed by the dynamics of their environment, they continue collisions and grow to a larger size. Through the process of collisional growth, the particles are now coagulated molecules. If the atmosphere in which the clusters are present is at a high temperature, the clusters may bond together in the process of sintering to form large stable particles, or if heat is not high enough to sustain sintering, the clusters will grow into larger agglomerates through condensational growth.
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Dynamics:
Understanding aerosol dynamics is essential in modeling the life cycle of clouds. Known factors that play into aerosol dynamics are:
Entrainment:
Entrainment is the uptake of environmental air into clouds. Entrainment affects the velocity and buoyancy of convectional updrafts, controlling the upward movement of clouds. The entrainment process is not well understood, and is difficult to observe. Water vapor and humidity are important in the entrainment process. For accurate modeling of entrainment in the atmosphere, extensive knowledge of humidity levels is required (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, 2010, pp. 19).
Convective Initiation:
Convective initiation is a process that transports clouds and their accompanying aerosols. It marks the beginning of the cloud life cycle where many cloud producing processes converge. Convective initiation poses a challenge to incorporate into GCMs because it is associated with many other processes, including gust fronts and troposphere thermodynamic structure, which still need more investigation to understand (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, 2010, pp. 19-20).
Agglomeration:
Agglomeration is a crucial phenomenon between aerosol particles that must be thoroughly understood to create an accurate GCM. As particles move, they often collide with other particles which can lead to the formation of a larger particle through adherence (Huang, Lin, & Wang, 2007). Particle size has important impacts on the properties of the aerosol particle (e.g. optical depth and heating potential), which is why GCMs must incorporate this dynamic process. As particles grow their ability to serve as CCN and IN changes which in turn can completely alter the degree to which other factors such as electrostatics, temperature, radiation and atmospheric turbulence have on the aerosol.
Atmospheric Turbulence:
Atmospheric turbulence causes aerosol particles to cluster in areas of low vorticity (Collins & Keswani, 2004). This effect has important effects on aerosol processes because high concentrations of aerosol particles in a small area greatly 13 | P a g e
B. Hallier increases the particle to particle collision rate and in turn allows for a higher rate of agglomeration. Similarly, the process of water droplet agglomeration in clouds, which leads to precipitation, occurs because of turbulence within the cloud (Shaw, 2003). Important Info: Turbulence causes formation of small-scale droplet inhomogeneities, and it also increases the relative droplet velocity. In addition, the turbulence affects the hydrodynamic droplet interaction. The latter increases the rate of droplet collisions. These effects are of a great importance for understanding of rain formation in atmospheric clouds. In particular, these effects can cause the droplet spectrum broadening and acceleration of raindrop formation (Elperin, Kleeorin, Liberman, Lvov, & Rogachevskii, 2007).
Electrostatics:
Most aerosols have some degree of an electric charge which affects their behavior. Aerosols can attain a charged state through direct ionization, static electrification, electrolytic effects (liquids of high dielectric constant exchange ions with metals), contact electrification, spray electrification, frictional electrification, collisions with ion, diffusion, and field charging (Ahmadi, n.d.). Electrostatics can cause aerosol particulates to diffuse or condense into a small area, increasing the chance of particle on particle collisions and agglomeration. Furthermore, Aerosol electrostatics can influence the effects that other forces like temperature gradients and electromagnetic radiation can have on the aerosols behavior (Ahmadi, n.d.). Electrostatic effects on aerosol travel: Violent disruption of a liquid surface - such as occurs when seawater droplets are created by the breaking of waves or the bursting of the thinning, roughly hemispherical bubble-films created when air bubbles rise to the ocean surface: or when air bubbles burst at the surface of lakes, ponds and other stretches of water - is accompanied by significant electric charging of the huge numbers of droplets so produced (Latham & Wick, 2002). The resulting charge, which usually affects droplets from 0.1 to several micrometers, is great enough to overpower the force of gravity and allows to droplets to rise into the atmosphere (Latham & Wick, 2002). This process is an extremely efficient mechanism of injecting biological aerosol into the atmosphere (Latham & Wick, 2002).
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The most advanced aerosol research facility, Aerosols Interaction and Dynamics in the Atmosphere, is located at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany. AIDA has a chamber with a 4m diameter and 7m height. It has a temperature range of 183K to 323K, and a pressure range of 0.01 to 1013 hPa. AIDA is used primarily for the study of IN and CCN studies and has many methods for generating test aerosols. It also has the capability for a wide range of instruments. A future NASA facility would need a large enough volume to study the effects turbulence and convection on aerosols. Additionally, incorporation of electrostatics would be necessary. Factors that should be studied at the new facility: Effects of radiation on aerosol particles Effects of convection currents on aerosol growth and development Effects of turbulence and electrostatics on aerosol behavior and agglomeration Effects of entrainment of aerosol particles into clouds on the cloud life cycle Effects of bio-aerosols on aerosol behavior and their radiative effects Evolution of aerosol particles relating to the many forces that act upon them (e.g. radiation, turbulence, reaction with other aerosols)
The new NASA facility would need to study the above and calculate their influence on more well understood topics like aerosol effects on CCN and IN. In order to develop practical GCMs all aerosol influences must be quantified in relation to each other.
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B. Hallier References Aerosol dynamics. (n.d.). Aerosol basics. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from http://www.aerosols.wustl.edu/ education/AerosolBasics/Aerosol%20dynamics.htm Ahmadi, G. (n.d.). Electrodynamics. Retrieved from Clarkson University website: http://web2.clarkson.edu/projects/crcd/me637/downloads/P_Electrodynamics.pdf Bader, D. C., Covey, C., Gutowski, W. J., Jr., Held, I. M., Kunkel, K. E., Miller, R. L., . . . Zhang, M. H. (2008, July 31). Climate models: An assessment of strengths and limitations. Retrieved from Climate Models: An Assessment of Strengths and Limitations website: http://www.climatescience.gov/ Library/sap/sap3-1/default.php Charlson, R. J., Lovelock, J. E., Andreae, M. O., & Warren, S. G. (1987, April 16). Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate. Nature, 326, 655-661. doi:10.1038/326655a0 Collins, L. R., & Keswani, A. (2004, September 17). Reynolds number scaling of particle clustering in turbulent aerosols. New Journal of Physics, 6(1). doi:10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/119 Davis, R. E. (8/26/1988). Cloud particle environment [Brochure]. Earth Gauge. (n.d.). Mineral dust and climate. Retrieved from Earth Gauge website: http://www.earthgauge.net/wp-content/CF_Dust.pdf Elperin, T., Kleeorin, N., Liberman, M. A., Lvov, V. S., & Rogachevskii, I. (2007, March 6). Clustering of aerosols in atmospheric turbulent flow. Environmental Fluid Mechanics, 173193. doi:10.1007/ s10652-007-9019-6
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B. Hallier Feltz, J. (2010, April 26). Satellite-based nowcasting and aviation application program. Retrieved July 12, 2010, from http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/snaap/convinit/ Huang, C.-B., Lin, C.-S., & Wang, S.-C. (2007). Coagulation effects on aerosol dynamics along an isothermal vertical flat plate. Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 15(4), 331-338. Retrieved from http://www.jmst.org.tw/marine/15-4/331-338.pdf Latham, J., & Wick, C. (2002, January). Factors influencing the transport of biological aerosol through the atmosphere: And their injection into it. Retrieved from http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/ GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA436080 Mahowald, N. M., Lamarque, J.-F., Tie, X. X., & Wolff, E. (n.d.). Sea salt aerosol response to climate change: Last glacial maximum, pre-industrial, and doubled-carbon dioxide climates. Retrieved from http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/tss/staff/mahowald/papers/seasaltpaperjgrrevised.pdf Markowicz, K. M., Flatau, P. J., Quinn, P. K., Carrico, C. M., Flatau, M. K., Vogelmann, A. M., . . . Liu, M. (2003, August 27). Influence of relative humidity on aerosol radiative forcing: An ACE-Asia experiment perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(D23). doi:10.1029/2002JD003066 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2010, July 15). Tiny marine microbes exert influence on global climate (w/ video). In Physorg.com. Retrieved July 16, 2010, from http://www.physorg.com/ news198402872.html Moortgat, G. K. (2001). Important photochemical processes in the atmosphere. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 73(3), 487-490. doi:10.1351/pac200173030487
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B. Hallier Penner, J. E., Charlson, R. J., Schwartz, S. E., Hales, J. M., Laulainen, N. S., Travis, L., . . . Novakov, T. (1994, March). Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty of climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. American Meteorological Society, 75(3), 375-400 . Retrieved from http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/15200477(1994)075%3C0375:QAMUOC%3E2.0.CO;2 Shaw, R. A. (2003, January). Particle-turbulence interactions in atmospheric clouds. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 35, 183-227. doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.35.101101.161125 Thermophoretic force and velocity. (n.d.). Thermophoresis. Retrieved July 15, 2010, from http://www.aerosols.wustl.edu/education/Thermophoresis/section02.html Thermophoretic force and velocity (large particles). (n.d.). Thermophoresis. Retrieved July 15, 2010, from http://www.aerosols.wustl.edu/education/Thermophoresis/section02_b.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. (2010, January). Atmospheric system research (ASR) science and program plan. Office of Science, U.S. Department of Energy. Zhou, X., Davis, A. J., Kieber, D. J., Keene, W. C., Maben, J. R., Maring, H., . . . Izaguirre, M. A. (2008, July 21). Photochemical production of hydroxyl radical and hydroperoxides in water extracts of nascent marine aerosols produced by bursting bubbles from sargasso seawater bursting bubbles from sargasso seawater. doi:10.1029/2008GL035418
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