Power Systems Stability

A report on Reactive Power in Power Systems.

Reactive Power

AC voltage and current pulsate at the same frequency, they peak at different
times. Power is the algebraic product of voltage and current. Over a cycle,
power has an average value, called real power, measured in volt-amperes,
or watts. There is also a portion of power with zero average value that is
called reactive power, measured in volt-amperes reactive, or vars. The total
power is called apparent power, measured in volt-amperes, or VA.

Reactive power has zero average value because it pulsates up and down,
averaging to zero; reactive power is measured as the maximum of the
pulsating power over a cycle. Reactive power can be positive or negative,
depending on whether current peaks before or after voltage. By convention,
reactive power, like real power, is positive when it is “supplied” and negative
when it is “consumed.” Consuming reactive power lowers voltage
magnitudes, while supplying reactive power increases voltage magnitudes.

Because voltage and current are pulsating, the power on a transmission line
also pulsates. In a transmission system, this pulsating transfer of stored
energy results in a loss of power called line losses. The letter Q is commonly
used to designate reactive power. Real power is commonly designated as P.

Sources of Reactive Power

Reactive power is an inherent part of the generation, transmission and

distribution of electricity. Inductance and capacitance are inherent properties
of the electric power system elements such as transmission lines,
transformers and capacitors. Inductance consumes reactive power and
capacitance supplies reactive power. Most of the electric power loads are
inductive in nature. Induction motors and transformers consume reactive
power. Common examples of applications of induction motors include air
conditioners, household appliances, mining, industrial equipment and
manufacturing processes. Underground and overhead transmission lines
have inductance and capacitance, and can either supply reactive power or

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consume reactive power depending on the line loading. Generators can
supply or consume reactive power within limits.

Reactive power needs to be managed or compensated in a way to ensure

sufficient amounts are being produced to meet demand and so that the
electric power system can run efficiently. Significant problems (e.g.,
abnormal voltages and system instability) can occur if reactive power is not
properly managed. Capacitors, which supply reactive power, can be switched
into a system in real-time to compensate for the reactive power consumed
by the electric power system during periods of heavy loading. Similarly,
inductors, which consume reactive power, are added to compensate for the
reactive power supplied by the electric power system during periods of light
loading.

These devices are installed throughout the electric power system to maintain
an acceptable voltage profile for a secure and efficient power system
operation. Generators can also provide or absorb reactive power. Reactive
power compensation can be either static (e.g. capacitors or inductors) or
dynamic (e.g. generators) in nature.

Most equipment connected to the electricity system will generate or absorb

reactive power, but not all can be used economically to control voltage.
Principally synchronous generators and specialized compensation equipment
are used to set the voltage at particular points in the system, which
elsewhere is determined by the reactive power flows.

Synchronous Generators - Synchronous machines can be made to

generate or absorb reactive power depending upon the excitation (a
form of generator control) applied. The output of synchronous
machines is continuously variable over the operating range and
automatic voltage regulators can be used to control the output so as to
maintain a constant system voltage.

Synchronous Compensators - Certain smaller generators, once run

up to speed and synchronized to the system, can be declutched from
their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power.
This mode of operation is called Synchronous Compensation.

Capacitive and Inductive Compensators - These are devices that

can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels. A capacitive
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 compensator produces an electric field thereby generating reactive
power whilst an inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to
absorb reactive power. Compensation devices are available as either
capacitive or inductive alone or as a hybrid to provide both generation
and absorption of reactive power.

Overhead Lines and Underground Cables - Overhead lines and

underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage,
both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field
which absorbs reactive power. A lightly loaded overhead line is a net
generator of reactive power whilst a heavily loaded line is a net
absorber of reactive power. In the case of cables designed for use at
275 or 400kV the reactive power generated by the electric field is
always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field
and so cables are always net generators of reactive power.

Transformers - Transformers produce magnetic fields and therefore

absorb reactive power. The heavier the current loading the higher the
absorption.

Consumer Loads - Some loads such as motors produce a magnetic

field and therefore absorb reactive power but other customer loads,
such as fluorescent lighting, generate reactive power. In addition
reactive power may be generated or absorbed by the lines and cables
of distribution systems.

Importance of Reactive Power

Voltage control in an electric power system is important for proper operation

of electric power equipment to prevent damage such as overheating of
generators and motors, to reduce transmission losses and to maintain the
ability of the system to withstand disturbances and prevent voltage collapse.
In general terms, decreasing reactive power causes voltages to fall, while
increasing reactive power causes voltages to rise. A voltage collapse occurs
when the system is trying to serve much more load than the voltage can
support.

Inadequate reactive power supply lowers voltage; as voltage drops, current

must increase to maintain the power supplied, causing the lines to consume
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more reactive power and the voltage to drop further. If current increases too
much, transmission lines trip, or go off-line, overloading other lines and
potentially causing cascading failures. If voltage drops too low, some
generators will automatically disconnect to protect themselves. Voltage
collapse occurs when an increase in load or loss of generation or
transmission facilities causes dropping voltage, which causes a further
reduction in reactive power from capacitors and line charging, and still
further voltage reductions. If the declines continue, these voltage reductions
cause additional elements to trip, leading to further reduction in voltage and
loss of load. The result is a progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage,
all because the power system is unable to provide the reactive power
required to supply the reactive power demand.

Physical characteristics and costs

Reactive power may be supplied by several different sources, including

transmission equipment (such as capacitors, reactors, static var
compensators and static compensators), generators and synchronous
condensers. Reactive power does not travel over long distances at high line
loadings due to significant losses on the wires. Thus, reactive power usually
must be procured from suppliers near where it is needed. This factor limits
the geographic scope of the reactive power market and, thus, the number of
suppliers that can provide reactive power and the amount of competition at
any place and time, at least in the short term before other suppliers can
enter the market.

But while competition may be limited in reactive power markets, there may
be at least some existing alternative sources of reactive power supply in
many locations, and new sources may be able to enter the market over the
longer term. The goal should be to develop rules that ensure that adequate
supplies of reactive power (including reactive reserves) are available in all
locations to ensure that operation of the grid is reliable and efficient and that
reactive power is procured at least cost over the short and long run. As we
discuss below, transparent and nondiscriminatory markets and prices for
reactive power have the potential to promote this goal.

Generally, reactive power support is divided into two categories: static and
dynamic. Static reactive power is produced from equipment that, when
connected to the system, cannot quickly change the reactive power level as
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long as the voltage level remains constant, and its reactive power production
level drops when the voltage level drops. Capacitors and inductors supply
and consume static reactive power. Dynamic reactive power is produced
from equipment that can quickly change the Mvar level independent of the
voltage level. Thus, the equipment can increase its reactive power
production level when voltage drops and prevent a voltage collapse. Static
var compensators, synchronous condensers and generators provide dynamic
reactive power.

Characteristics of Voltage-Control Equipment

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