Fieldworks Freshwater module Help:

Freshwater species and their adaptations:

Fauna (Animals) or Flora (Plants)
General characteristics of rivers and lakes
General characteristics of plants living in freshwater
General characteristics of animals living in freshwater
Background Information:
1. Abiotic factors affecting distribution
1.1 Velocity
1.2.Oxygen
1.3 Carbon dioxide

1.4 pH
1.5 Temperature
1.6 Light
1.7 Suspended solids
1.8 Sediment size
2. Biotic factors affecting distribution
2.1 Competition
2.2 Predation
2.3 Dispersal
2.4. Community organisation: competition, predation and
disturbance
3.Productivity
4.Succession
5.Oligotrophic and Eutrophic lakes

6.Monitoring water quality

6.1. Chemical and Physical tests
6.2. Biological tests :
Trent Biotic Index,
Chandler Score
Biological Monitoring Working Party -BMWP
Gammarus:Asellus ratio
RIVPACS
6.3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
6.4. Levels of substances in potable water
6.5 Water Treatment and Domestic water consumption

7. Sampling methods
7.1 Biological
7.2 Physical
8. Pollution 8.1 Organic pollution
Effects of organic pollution on rivers
Eutrophication

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 Nitrates and the environment
Phosphates and the Environment
8.2 Inorganic chemicals
8.3 Toxic chemicals
Effect on otters
8.4 Thermal pollution

8.5 Radioactive substances

effect of the Chernobyl accident on aquatic wildlife
8.6 Oestrogenic compounds
8.7 Acid rain
8.8 Pollution references
9. Management of rivers
10. Project suggestions
11.Freshwater references
12.Risk Assessment for Field Work
13.Equipment Suppliers
14.Program support
15.Minimum system requirements

16.About Fieldwork
17.Licence and Warranty

Sampling methods - Biological

Sampling invertebrates in rivers and streams

1. Effort based - 'Kick' sampling

Place a net on the stream bed downstream of the area to be sampled. Remove any large
stones making sure any organisms on the stones get washed into the net. Dislodge
organsims on the stream bed by disturbing the substrate using the foot. remove the
organisms from the net into a sample tray containing water. Sort out the invertebrates and
record the number of different species found. The same amount of effort should be made
for each sample taken. The correct time of kicking or number of kicks can be found by
sampling for an increasing time or kicks and constructing the following graph:

The correct sampling time is where the graph starts to level off (ie 120 seconds): less time
would mean that not all the species had been sampled, more time would mean effort was
wasted.

2. Area based

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Use a 'surber sampler' (Surber, 1970) which is basically a quadrat with a net behind it. This
means assessment can be made of a known area ie how many species per unit area, or how
many of each species per unit area.

3. Drift nets

A surber sampler can be used or a net devised specifically for this purpose. Make sure it is
securely fastened to the base of the stream

Sampling invertebrates in ponds and lakes

1. Effort based - sweep nets
Sweep a net through the pond for a certain number of times, this can be repeated and a
graph constructed (as above) to work out the optimum number of sweeps to get the
majority of species. The same amount of effort should be made for each sample taken.

2. Plankton sampling - using a plankton net

This can be used by dragging it through the pond or lake, it is usually most effective to do it
from a boat. If there is too much vegetation it will be impossible to do.

Vegetation sampling - Transect

The vegetation can be sampled from the bank into the water and a kite diagram (or similar)
constructed (see FieldWorks species distribution module)

For other methods see Doberski and Brodie (1991)

Sampling methods - Physical

1. Flow rate or velocity

a. Using a flow meter:

For a flow meter, the propeller must be facing up-stream and should be positioned
approximately 1/3rd of the way up the water column from the bottom.

Sources of flow meters

It is possible to obtain a range of flow meters, from complex electronic to more simple
designs.
All are provided with calibration curves or equations.eg.
MJP

Tel :01837 810195

Digital flow meter
Calibration : Velocity (m/s)= 0.000854xC + 0.05 where C is the number of propellor
revolutions in one minute
Owens and Boyd Field Study Products

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Tel :01656 660311
Owens and Boyd produce the Hydro-Prop flow meter which is an 'intermediate technology'
design using no electronics, though it does require a stop watch.
Calibration : Velocity (m/s) = 0.0277 + (3.2805 / propeller travel time in secs)

b. Using the 'orange' or 'dog biscuit' method

A floating object such as an orange, dog biscuit, weighted cork, is timed over a certain
distance. All floats must be unaffected by any wind and different floats may float at
different speeds eg. dog biscuits float on a
average 15% slower than oranges (Frew, 1993)
Use the equation

Velocity (m/sec) = Distance (m) / Time(sec)

Calculate average time taken for c. 3 floats to move a set distance.

With floats, only the surface speed has been measured. This needs to be corrected to give
mean water velocity by multiplying by 0.85. (Lenon and Cleves,1994)

2. Oxygen

a. Using an oxygen meter

These are available from most biological suppliers. They are expensive and fragile

b. Using the Winkler Method

Austin (1983) gives a simple version of the classic Winkler method for measuring
dissolved oxygen

c. Using Oxygen kits

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These are relatively inexpensive and the results are as, or often more, reliable than meters.
They involve a mini-titration and can be performed in the field. Some of the chemical used
are potentially hazardous so rubber gloves should be used.

They are available from Biological suppliers eg Philip Harris

3. Light

This is usually measured using a Secchi disc. This is a metal disc which is divided into
four and painted alternately black and white. It can be bought or made using a weighted
plastic disc. The disc is lowered using a graduated line into the lake or pond and the depth
recorded when it disappears from view. The disc is lowered still further and then raised up
and the depth recorded when it comes into view again. The mean of the depths gives a
measure of light penetration. However it is known that plants can photosynthesise 2.5
times the depth recorded with the disc.

4. pH

A variety of pH tests kits are available: Philip Harris supply Hanna and Palintest kits. Or
they can be obtained direstly from the manufacturer: Palintest, Kingsway, Team Valley,
Gateshead, Tyne & Wear, NE11 0NS

5. Temperature

A range of thermometers are available and can be used for surface temperatures. However,
if more detailed analysis at depth is required, temperature probes can be used, for example
to look at change in temperature through the thermocline in a lake.

6. Nitrate, phosphate, ammonia, chlorine

A variety of tests kits are available: Philip Harris supply Hanna and Palintest kits. Or they
can be obtained direstly from the manufacturer: Palintest, Kingsway, Team Valley,
Gateshead, Tyne & Wear, NE11 0NS

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7. B.O.D.

The test involves collecting two water samples, the oxygen content of one is measured
immediately, the second is incubated for 5 days at 20°C in the dark (to prevent any
photosynthesis of diatoms etc.) after which the oxygen concentration is measured. The
BOD is the difference in the oxygen concentration between the two samples.

A test kit is available from Palintest, Kingsway, Team Valley, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear,
NE11 0NS. This will give an estimate of B.O.D. in half an hour

Chemical and Physical Tests

For example temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, suspended solids, nitrate,
chloride,detergents,organic matter, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Advantages of chemical and physical tests

1. Very low levels of substances can be detected.

Disadvantages of chemical and physical tests

1. Measurements can vary depending when and where they are taken
2. Intermittent pollution events will not be detected (this may be overcome by continuous
monitoring systems)

3. Chemical sampling will only detect those chemicals for which analyses are carried out
4. Expensive to operate

Sampling methods - Physical

Biological Tests

It is important to choose the right organisms for study that will relate to water quality not an
ecological factor. The method of assessment must be quantifiable so that comparisons can
be made with other sites and should reflect the conditions at the point of sampling only.
Generally it is unwise to choose a single species as the indicator: the species may vary both
spatially and over time due to other biotic factors rather than due to pollution. Species such
as bacteria, algae and macrophytes have all been used (see Mason, 1996), but more widely
used are the macroinvertebrates, the presence of certain species are thought to indicate
clean water, others to indicate polluted water, these are called indicator species, however
certain species which may indicate clean water may not be present for other reasons than
pollution, for example stoneflies are not common in lowland streams. A biotic index (eg
Trent Biotic Index, Chandler Score, Biological Monitoring Working Party -BMWP,
Gammarus:Asellus ratio will give more meaningful results. Diversity indicies (eg Shannon-

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Weiner, Simpson) can be useful but variations occur with the season, and seasonal
variations at one site have been found to be greater than differences between different sites
(Murphy, 1978).

The most recent and sophisticated system involves using environmental data to predict
what organisms will be found. A software package, River Invertebrate Prediction and
Classification System (RIVPACS), (Wright et al 1993) is used.

Simple Indicators of water quality:

1. Very clean water

Mayfly and Stonefly nymphs, some Caddis can only occur in clean water, though others
can survive in water which is quite polluted, Caddis at order level are therefore not such a
good indicator species. Trout and salmon occur.

2. Clean water
As above but coarse fish (roach, perch etc.) replacing trout and salmon

3. Fairly clean
Few fish. Common invertebrates are Ascellus (Freshwater hog louse) and Gammarus
(Freshwater shrimp)

4. Doubtful
As above but with no fish

5. Bad
Only Chironomids and Tubifex worms will survive

Advantages of biological tests

1. Cheap to operate
2. Does not require expensive equipment and can be done on the spot.

3. Effect of a pollution incident may be reflected for a long time in the biota therefore
pollution can be picked up sometimes days after it has occurred

Disadvantages of biological tests

1. Does not specify the cause of pollution
2. Sampling must allow for natural variations in species: indicator species may disappear
for other reasons than pollution.
3. Species which are sensitive to one pollutant may be tolerant of another eg stonefly
nymphs cannot tolerate organic pollution but can tolerate high concentrations of heavy
metals.

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4. Macro-invertebrates show a patchy distribution in a stream so one sample may catch
only a few whereas another may catch a lot purely by chance not because they are not
present.
5. Skill in identifying species

Sampling methods- Biological

Chandler Score

This is additiveand relies on species abundance as well as presence or absence. It assumes a

3 minute kick sample.
The results are dependent on the sampling effort and sampling effectiveness in covering all
habitats.
It requires a higher level of identification skill than the Trent Biotic Index, but is more
sensitive.

Number in kick sample Present Few Common Abundant Very Abundant

Groups present in sample 1-2 3-10 11-50 51-100 100+

each species of Stonefly 90 94 98 99 100

each species of mayfly 79 84 90 94 97

each species of casedcaddis

and alderfly 75 80 86 91 94

each species of freshwater limpet 70 75 82 87 91

genera of midge (fly) larvae 60 65 72 78 84
genus Similium (black fly larvae) 56 61 67 73 75
genera of beetles 51 55 61 66 72
genera of Baetis (mayfly) 44 46 48 50 52
genera of Gammarus (shrimp) 40 40 40 40 40
each species of uncased caddis 38 36 35 33 31
each species of flatworm 35 33 31 29 25
genera of water mites 32 30 28 25 21
each species of Mollusc 30 28 25 22 18
each species of Chironomid 28 25 21 18 15

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each species of freshwater hog louse 25 22 18 14 0
each species of leech 24 20 16 12 8
each species of Tubifex 22 18 13 12 9
each species of air breathers 19 15 9 5 1

References
Chandler, J.R. (1970) A biological approach to water quality management. Water Pollution
Control 1970, 415-421

BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party)

This has superseded the Trent Biotic Index and the Chandler Score. The method is a 3
minute sample in all the habitat types. NB. the results are dependent on the sampling effort
and sampling effectiveness in covering all habitats.
Identification is to family level and no account is taken of abundance. Species which are
least tolerant of pollution are given the highest score. The total score is then added up. To
standardise the technique the final score is divided by the numbers of taxa to give the
Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT). This is thought to be more accurate as a larger sample
is likely to have more families. Another criticism of these indicies is that they vary
seasonally, however Armitage et al (1983) found no such effect though Zamora-Munoz et
al (1995) working in Spain found temperature did affect the results of ASPT, but not
BMWP.

A Simplified BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party) Score System

Phylum Family Score

Stonefly (Plecoptera) All except:Nemouridae 107
Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) Leptophlebiidae 10
Ephemerellidae 10
Ephemeridae 10
Ecdyonuridae 10

Caddis flies (Trichoptera)

Cased All except:Limnephilidae 107

Crustacea Astacidae
(freshwater crayfish) 8

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Dragonflies (Odonata) All river families 8

Caddis flies (Trichoptera)

Caseless Families range: 5-8
Psychomyiidae, Philopotamidae 8
Rhyacophilidae, Polycentropidae 7
Hydroptilidae 6
Hydropsychidae 5

Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) Caenidae 7

Molluscs nerite snail (Neritidae) 6

Banded snail (Viviperidae) 6
Freshwater limpet (Ancylidae) 6
Freshwater mussel (Unionidae) 6

Crustacea Freshwater shrimp (Gammaridae) 6

Damselflies (Odonata) Most river families 6

Beetles and Water Bugs
(Coloeptera and Hemiptera) Most river families 5
Fly larvae (Diptera) All families except:Chironomidae 52
Flatworms (Tricladida) All families 5
Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) Baetidae 4
Alderfly (Neuroptera) Sialidae 4
Leeches (Hirudinea) All families except 3
Piscicolidae 4
Molluscs Valve snail (Valvatidae) 3
Spire snail (Hydrobiidae) 3
Bladder snail (Physidae) 3
Ramshorn snail (Planorbidae) 3
Pea mussel (Sphaeriidae) 3
Crustacea Water hog louse (Asellidae) 3
Oligochaeta True worms 1

References
Chesters, R.K. (1980) Biological Monitoring Working Party. The 1978 National Testing
Exercise. Department of the Environment. Water Data Technology Memo, 19, 1-37

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is often used as an indicator of the pollution potential
of organic wastes. BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required by micro-
organisms to break down the biodegradable material present. It is an index of water
quality: the lower the BOD the less organic pollution there is. The test involves collecting
two water samples, the oxygen content of one is measured immediately, the second is

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incubated for 5 days at 20°C in the dark (to prevent any photosynthesis of diatoms etc.)
after which the oxygen concentration is measured. The BOD is the difference in the
oxygen concentration between the two samples.

Examples of typical BOD levels (mg/litre)

BOD(mg/litre)
treated domestic sewage 20-60
raw domestic sewage 300-400
cattle slurry 10,000 - 20,000
milk 140,000
silage 50,000

Estimating the Biochemical Oxygen Demand using Methylene Blue (Byrne, 1993)
1. Use a 250ml sample bottle with a ground glass stopper. Fill this completely with river
water so no air gets in.

2. Add 1 ml of 0.1% methylene blue below the surface of the water and replace the stopper.

3. Gently shake the bottle to mix and incubate at 20°C in the dark.

4. Check the bottle at regular interval and note the time when the colour disappears.

Project suggestions

Projects involving river and pond work need to be carefully thought out as it is difficult to
separate out any one environmental factor, they are all interrelated. The following gives
some examples and where appropriate, the types of statistical analysis that can be applied to
the data.

Rivers and streams

1. Comparison of velocity with distribution
2. Comparison of sediment size with number of different species or with number of a
particular species

3. Colonisation of sediment
4. Invertebrate drift over time.
5. Size of Gammarus (freshwater shrimp) in relation to substrate size
6. Distribution of species in one stretch of river
7. Seasonal occurrence of mayfly species
8. Distribution of species from an upstream to estuary site
9. Influence of pollution
10 Estimation of the Biochemical Oxygen Demand

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11 The Gammarus:Asellus ratio

12. Oxygen consumption of invertebrates

13. The effect of plant detritus on organisms found on the stream bed.

Ponds
1. Distribution of plants from the bankside into water
2. Predation experiments
3. Photosynthetic rate of microscopic algae using light and dark bottle method.
4. Compare ponds from two different areas
5. Oxygen concentration from the surface of the pond to the mud over 24 hours

6. Choice of macrophyte species by gastropod molluscs

Other
1. Effect of oestrogenic substances on freshwater organisms:
2. Feeding rate of blackfly larvae

PROJECTS
1. Comparison of velocity with distribution:

Many studies have shown that certain species are found in areas of high velocity and others
found in slower flowing areas (Brooker and Morris, 1980, Edington, 1968, Scullion et al,
1982) although it is suggested that velocity is of secondary importance in the distribution of
species when compared with substrate and food availablility (Ulfstrand 1967 , Cummins
and Lauff 1969 ). This work suggested that the microdistribution of invertebrates was
influenced by velocity, physical and chemical factors in the water, food and substrate
particle size but that the latter two factors were the most important.

The velocity recorded using a flow meter will be considerably greater than the velocity
experienced by the organisms on the stream bed, most will avoid the current by using the
boundary layer on the surface of the substrate, where the flow is greatly reduced.

Method: Measure the velocity using a flow meter or by timing a floating object over a
metre distance. Sample the organisms at that point, using kick sampling or a surber
sampler. Repeat at different flow rates. Record the number of a particular species, for
example Ecdyonurus sp. (mayfly) or a net-spinning caddis, Hydropsyche sp (Edington,
1968)., or a blackfly, Similium spp (Hart, 1986, Armitage et al, 1974). See if there is any
correlation between flow and a particular species. A Spearman's Rank Correlation
coefficient can be calculated on the results if there are more than 7 sets of data.

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This graph would suggest a positive correlation between the flow rate and numbers of a
particular species.

High riffle densities may be associated with requirements connected with respiration, or the
lack of silt on the stone surface which may affect some species or prevent them attaching
(eg Simulium spp.), or, in the case of predators, the occurrence of their prey.

Distribution of species from an upstream to estuary site

Changes in species from the headwaters to the estuary can be recorded, especially if it
possible to find a stream where the distance between the headwaters and the estuary is not
great. Try to standardise other abiotic factors (velocity, substrate, depth etc). Certain
species are tolerant of salinity changes (eg. Gammarus spp) whereas others are intolerant.
Other species which are usually found in saline water migrate up rivers (eg. the flounder,
Platichthys flesus).

Draw bar charts or similar to compare the regions studied. Account for any patterns
observed especially in relation to salinity. Similarity indicies and diversity indices can be
calculated.

Influence of pollution
Find a site where there is an input of a pollutant eg from farming, from forestry, from a
sewage works. Look at the effect of the pollutant on species diversity (eg Shannon Weiner
and Simpson) and calculate biotic indicies (see Trent Biotic Index, Chandler Score and
BMWP). The stream should be sampled upstream of the point of discharge, and
immediately below the effluent plus further downstream until, if possible, the stream has
recovered. Also measure abiotic factors which are appropriate (eg pH, nitrate levels).
Remember the pollutant may not be continually being discharged and therefore chemicals
may not be detected (see . Chemical and Physical tests for further details).

IMPORTANT: When handling potentially polluted water take precautions! see Risk
Assessment for Field Work

Effects of organic pollution on rivers

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References
Aston, R.J. and A.G.P. Miller (1980) A comparison of populations of the isopod Asellus
aquaticus above and below power stations in organically polluted reaches of the River
Trent. Freshwater Biology, 10, 1-14
Byrne, K (1993) Biology of Freshwater Pollution. Ecology and Environmental Science
Factsheet. Number 5. The Environment Press.

Chandler, J.R. (1970) A biological approach to water quality management. Water Pollution
Control 1970, 415-421
Davies, L.J. and Hawkes, H.A. (1981) Some effects of organic pollution on the distribution
and seasonal incidence of Chironomidae in riffles in the River Cole. Freshwater Biology,
11, 549-559
Hynes, H.B.N. (1960) The Biology of Polluted Waters. Liverpool University Press
Learner, M.A., Densem, J.W. and T.C. Iles (1983) A comparison of some classification
methods used to determine benthic macro-invertebrate species associations in river survey
work based on data obtained from the River Ely, South Wales. Freshwater Biology, 13, 13-
26

Mason, C.F. (1996) The Biology of Freshwater Pollution. Longman. 3rd Edition.
Scullion, J., and R.W. Edwards (1980) The effects of coal industry pollutants on the macro-
invertebrate fauna of a small river in the South Wales coalfield. Freshwater Biology, 10,
141-162
Watton, A.J. and Hawkes, H.A. (1984) Studies on the effects of sewage effluent on
gastropod populations in experimental streams. Water Research, 18, 1235-1247
Whitehurst, I.T. and B.I. Lindsey (1990) The impact of organic enrichment on the benthic
macroinvertebrate communities of a lowland river. Water Research, 24, 625-630

Woodiwiss, F.S. (1964) The biological system of stream classification used by the Trent
River Board. Chemistry and Industry, March 14, 1964, pp443-447
Wright, J.F., Moss, D, Armitage, P.D. and Furse, M.T. (1984) A preliminary classification
of running-water sites in Great Birtain based on macro-invertebrate species and the
prediction of community type using environmental data. Freshwater Biology, 14, 221-256

FIELDWORKS SPECIES DISTRIBUTION MODULE HELP:

Contents
How to..... information

Worked examples ( eg.species distributions)

Background information on a range of habitats

Sand dunes, Salt marshes, Rocky shores,, Moorland

Information on species adaptations and distribution patterns

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 Sand dune species, Rocky shore species,
Salt marsh species Moorland species

Help system contents

Tutorial

Sample data files

Setting preferences

Program support

Minimum system requirements

About FieldWorks

About Hallsannery Field Centre

Licence and Warranty

Edition

1. SAMPLING METHODS

It is impossible to look at everything in the area to be examined unless it is small, therefore

a sample should be examined. It can also be very destructive if the whole area is trampled
over.The sampling method used depends on the habitat to be studied and the aims of the
investigation. Sampling must be random or systematic to eliminate bias, throwing a quadrat
is haphazard, not random..

1.1.Where there is an environmental gradient

A transect (ie. sample line)is generally used to investigate changes in flora and fauna (ie
zonation) which may be related to a change in a habitat factor causing an environmental
gradient to occur. For example a change in the salinity of soil water across a salt marsh
can affect the distribution of salt marsh vegetation.The line of the transect should be placed
at right angles to the zones and can be either systematic or random

1.1.1.Systematic

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 LINE TRANSECT
Data is collected along a single line and records are made of every plant that touches
the line. This is unlikely to
give a comprehensive picture of the site.
CONTINUOUS BELT TRANSECT
A belt usually 0.5 or 1m in width is laid out and everything recorded, usually using
sequential quadrats
INTERRUPTED BELT TRANSECT
Everything in a belt of chosen width is recorded at fixed intervals or interrupts (the
size of the interrupt, or interval, is variable, depending on the habitat, the rate of change of
vegetation types or environmental variables, time, etc.) along the transect line

1.1.2 .Random -
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The areas (or strata) to be sampled along the transect are chosen. These could be,
for example at 10m
intervals. At each strata quadrat(s) are placed along a line at right angles to the
transect line, using random
numbers from a random number table . A coin can be used to decide whether to go
left or right of the line.

1.2Where no environmental gradient occurs

1.2.1.Systematic

The use of random sampling can result in some important areas of ground not being
sampled. Systematic sampling can overcome this. An example of systematic quadrat
sampling is to record at regular intervals across a grid

1.2.2.Random

Random numbers should be used

a. Grid method

Lay out a grid of eg 10m x 10m. Always using the same axis as x and y, choose 2 random
numbers as the x and y coordinates, this is the position of the quadrat. Repeat for
subsequent quadrats

b. Random walking

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Use pairs of random numbers for the number of paces in one direction and then the number
at right angles(either left or right depending on the spin of a coin).Subsequent quadrats are
located in the same way, preferably starting from the same place each time. Walking over
the sample grid in this way causes high levels of trampling, which may not be acceptable.

2. What do we use to take our samples?

A quadrat is used. These can be either frame or point quadrats. Size of frame quadrats vary
and the correct size to use should be worked out for each particular habitat to be studied. A
point quadrat consists of a single bar with 10 holes, usually spaced every 5 cm, through
which pins can slide freely and vertically.

FRAME QUADRAT

a. Size of quadrat

The size, morphology and distribution pattern of the plants being sampled influence the
choice of quadrat size. As a general rule a small quadrat tends to be used if the species are
small and numerous and a large quadrat is chosen for species which are large and/or thinly
scattered.

To find the optimum size of quadrat to use :

1. When sampling an area use the smallest frame first and count the number of species in
this first quadrat

2. Double the size of the first quadrat. Record the number of new species found.

3. Continue to double the quadrat size and count the new species present until there is no
significant increase in the number of new species.

4. Plot a cumulative frequency curve. The optimum size of quadrat which is suitable to use
for the habitat is the point at which the curve levels out on the graph. From this point an
increase in the size of the quadrat is unlikely to record new species unless another habitat is
entered. This method saves wasted effort when the quadrat is too large and avoids
inaccurate records caused when the quadrat is too small.

b.Number of quadrats (or samples)

If only one size of quadrat is available then the correct number of quadrats of that size
needs to be worked out for each area sampled in the same way as for correct quadrat size.

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Put out a series of quadrats and count the number of species in the first. Then for each
successive quadrat count the number of new species. A graph of number of quadrats (x
axis) versus cumulative number of species (y axis) can be constructed.

c. Divided quadrats

Quadrats are often subdivided, for example a 50cm x 50cm quadrat can be subdivided into
100 5 x 5cm units. These are most useful when recording frequency and cover (see later).
They are not suitable for use when the vegetation is high as it is then flattened or when
animal species need to be removed from the quadrat to be recorded (eg on the seashore).

POINT QUADRATS

When using a frame quadrat for assessment of plant cover the result tends to be subjective.
A more objective approach can be achieved by reducing the area of the quadrat to a very
small area ie a point. This is useful when plants are small but not suitable for vegetation
that is taller than the bar of the frame. Care should also be taken to avoid trampling the
area to be sampled. One, few or all pin positions can be used at each sample site.

Point quadrats can be used for determining abundance of vegetation in a number of ways:

1. Total cover

All ‘hits’ of the pin are recorded as it is lowered to the ground. This gives a measure of the
bulk of plant material and can be related to yield and biomass. This method is detailed and
lengthy.

2. Percentage cover

The first ‘hit’ on each new species is recorded. The records for each species are then
represented as a percentage of the total number of point quadrats recorded (ie hits and
misses)eg

The sum of the figures for percentage cover for all the species is likely to be greater than
100% because of overlap between aerial parts of adjacent plants.

3. Top cover

(Canopy shading)Only the first hit of each pin is recorded. For each species the percentage
cover can be calculated

4. Frequency

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For each point record whether a species is present or absent ie whether or not the species is
‘hit’ as the pin is lowered to the ground. This is then expressed as a percentage of the total
number of hits and misses (ie total number of point quadrats)

Disadvantages:

1. Should not be used when the vegetation is higher than the bar.

2. Plants with different shaped leaves may be over- or under-estimated

3. The vegetation must not be trampled.

FRAME AND POINT QUADRATS can be used together in the following ways:

1. Use a divided quadrat and the points are the intersections of the lines. This can be used
to assesss top cover (percentage cover) within the area of the frame quadrat. This is less
subjective than a frame estimate of cover

2. Use a pin frame systematically across the quadrat area.

3. How should the data be recorded ?

3.1. Qualitative or subjective measurements

3.1.1. The simplest method would be to list the species present

3.1.2. The relative abundance of each species can be used eg ACFOR (A=abundant, C=
common,

F= frequent, O= occasional, R=rare) The terms are defined and applied anew at each site
with considerable personal bias. The ACFOR scale has been quantified for seashore
organisms and in this case can be used for some statistical tests.

Disadvantages

As this is used on subjective estimates it cannot be used where abundance data is processed
mathematically.

Some organisms tend to be over-estimated eg. plants with large leaves or those in flower

19
3.2.Quantitative

These are essential if tests of significance are to be applied and if mean scores are
calculated.

3.2.1. DENSITY The number of plants, clumps, flowering shoots per unit area.

The number of individuals of the species can be counted in randomly placed quadrats.The
data can be used in the following ways

a. The average number of individuals per quadrat is determined and density is expressed as
numbers per unit area (eg per m2, hectare etc) which allows for comparison between sites.

b. Density is expressed as a total number for the whole area.Higher numbers of quadrats
give increased accuracy.

A population estimate can be made for an individual species :

Estimated population (N)= area of plot x total no. of plants counted /area of quadrat x no. of
quadrats

Disadvantages:

1. Can only be used for plants which can be easily identified as separate, individual plants ,
not plants with rhizomes, tillers, stolons etc. Also difficult to use in dense clumps of
vegetation.

2. Measuring density is very time consuming.

3.2.2. PERCENTAGE COVER

Proportion of the ground covered by the aerial parts of a plant species. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of the total quadrat area and a mean value for each plant species
at a given site can be calculated.Three ways of estimating:

a. Using scales - these are semi-quantitative.

Cover-abundance scales such as Domin and Braun-Blanquet have a subjective element.

20
b. Direct estimate: disadvantage of personal bias and is unlikely to produce accurate results
though can be used when the divided quadrat cannot.

c. Divided quadratThe frame quadrat is divided into sub-quadrats. All sub quadrats in
which the species occupies more than 50% of the area is recorded.

Disadvantages:

1. Difficult where vegetation is tall or of different heights.

2. Smaller species are often ignored

3. Large leafy plants are often overestimated

4. Time consuming unless only a small number of species are being sampled.

3.2.3.FREQUENCY

This is the number of percentage of sampling units (eg quadrats) in which the species
occurs. Therefore if a species has a frequency of 20% it should occur once in every 5
quadrats, providing the sample is large enough.It can be measured using a divided quadrat
in which case it is known as local frequency.Frequency should also be standardised into
root or shoot frequency. Root frequency records a plant as present if it is rooted in the
quadrat (which relates to density) and shoot frequency records a plant as present if part of
its leaves overlap into the quadrat (which is related to cover)Its advantage is that it is quick
and reduces the problem of under estimating small plants.

Disadvantages:

a. The size of quadrat used can influence the results.

b. Size of the individuals of different species ie larger species with the same density as a
smaller species will often have a higher frequency.

c. Spatial distribution of the individuals, eg if plants are clumped their frequency will be
reduced.

References

21
Chalmers and Parker (1986)The OU Project Guide. Field Studies Occasional Publication
N0.9. Field Studies Council.

Sampling - belt transect

A belt usually 0.5 or 1m in width is laid out and species recorded along the belt using
consecutive quadrats

transect line

ACFOR scale

Abundant
Common
Frequent
Occasional
Rare

or sometimes used as DAFOR

Dominant
Abundant
Frequent
Occassional
Rare

These abundance scales are the most subjective and descriptive methods of describing
vegetation abundance, unless the categories are well defined.

A rocky shore version, with precise definitions,using different quadrat sizes for different
groups of species and adding two extra categories Extremely abundant and Super abundant,
is given in Chalmers and Parker,(1986)

Categorical measurements

Categorical measurements are where you can say that an object belongs only to a
category.eg.

22
if investigating sea anemone distribution, possible categories might be 'in a rock pool' or
'out of a rock pool'

Statistical references
Interval measurements
Ordinal measurements

Statistics references

Chalmers, N. and Parker, P. (1986). The OU Project Guide. Fieldwork and Statistics for
Ecological Projects. Field Studies Council Occasional Publication No.9.Field Studies
Council. 108pp.
Ebdon, D.(1988). Statistics in Geography. Blackwell, Oxford.232pp.
Hampton, R.E. (1994). Introductory Biological Statistics. W.C.Brown. Oxford,. 233pp.
Hutcheson, K. (1970). A test for comparing diversities based on the Shannon formula.
Journal of Theoretical Biology 29, 151-4

Kent, M and Coker,P.(1992). Vegetation Description and Analysis : A Practical Approach.

Belhaven Press, London.363pp.
Lenon, B.J. and Cleves, P.G.(1983). Techniques and Fieldwork in Geography. Bell and
Hyman, London.124pp
McIntosh, R.P. (1967). An index of diversity and the relation of certain concepts of
diversity. Ecology 48, 392-404.
Magurran, A. (1988). Ecological Diversity and its Measurement. Croom Helm. London.
Slingsby, D and Cook, C.(1986). Practical Ecology.Macmillan Education, Basingstoke.
213pp

Williams, B.W. (1993). Biostatistics : Concepts and Applications for Biologists. Chapman
and Hall, London. 201pp.

Interval level measurements

Interval level measurements are variables such as length, height, width, weight, etc.
Further reading is recommended in Statistical references

Ordinal level measurements

Ordinal level measurements are measurements where there is an element of subjectivity eg,
the Powers scale of Roundness where it is possible to say that any sediment has a
particular Powers score and to say that one piece of sediment has a higher score than
another and therefore the values can be ranked, or ordered .It is not however possible to say
that a Powers score of 4 represents a roundness twice that of a score of 2 . Other examples
would include the Domin, Braun-Blanquet and ACFOR scales of vegetation abundance.

23
Categorical measurements

Categorical measurements are where you can say that an object belongs only to a
category.eg.
if investigating retail distribution, possible categories might be shop types or function.

Profile data recording

24
 D1

Ranking
Pole
Ranking Hanging
Pole string spirit level H1
H2

D2

Ranging poles

1. The simplest method is to use two ranging poles, preferably marked in centimetres so
that readings can be taken directly, and a piece of string held taught and level to determine
height differences.

The disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to keep the string taught over distances
greater than about 15m. Levels of accuracy are reasonable, but not as good as those
obtained using expensive professional levelling equipment. Hanging spirit levels are readily
available from builders merchants and DIY stores. Similar results can be obtained using a
water level, instead of the string and hanging spirit level.

Sample recording sheet for profiling:

Station nº D1 D2 H1 H2 H1-H2 Total height

25
TRANSECT DATA - TYPICAL METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION

Transect data is traditionally represented as either kite diagrams, bar charts or centralised
bar charts.

The choice of presentation depends on the type of data being plotted, eg.whether it is :

- vegetation data recorded as %cover, % frequency, shoot number, etc

- vegetation data recorded as Domin class, Braun-Blanquet class, ACFOR class,
- numbers of animals

- the distance between sampling stations

- personal preferences and perceived ease of interpretation

Good summaries of the options and the advantages and disadvantages of each method can
be found in the references given below.
Plotting graphs

References
Crothers, J.H. (1981). On the graphical presentation of quantitative data. Field Studies,5,
487-511
Slingsby,D and Cook, C.(1986) Practical Ecology.Macmillan Education, Basingstoke.
213pp

Kite diagrams

Kite diagrams are used to present transect data as they are visually effective

26
and are relatively easy to interpret eg.some simple seashore data.

The data value for each station is divided in half, and half plotted above the centre line and
half below as points; the points are then joined and the resulting kites shaded.There are
however some problems with their use which are discussed in Crothers (1981).
The problems include the assumption that by drawing a line between stations that there is a
relationship between the stations and that sampling at any point in between would give a
value approximating to that indicated by the line. This may not be a problem over short
distances, or where species distribution changes gradually, but over long distances and
where vegetation changes abruptly eg. between dunes and slacks, kite diagrams may not be
appropriate.

- if using ordinal data ie. a scale such as Domin, Braun-Blanquet or ACFOR, then
mathematically meaningful lines cannot be drawn between different sampling stations - this
is because, for example, using the Domin scale a 10 would indicate 91-100% and a 5 would
indicate 11-25%, and though 5 is half of 10, 11-25% is not half of 91-100%. Similar
problems apply to all scale data and in addition it is not possible to take a mean of this type
of data directly.

There is a transformation available for the Domin scale to allow mathematical operations to
be performed and the above limitations do not apply if using the transformed Domin .

Plotting graphs
References

Bar charts

A typical example is given from a rocky shore. No assumptions are made about species
abundance between sample stations.

Plotting graphs

Domin scale
Vegetation abundance is often measured using subjective scales such as the Domin.There
are several published variations of the Domin scale eg. Kent and Coker(1992) and Slingsby
and Cook(1986) which differ slightly at the lower end of the cover scale. The table below is
a composite.
The Domin scale translates estimates of %cover value for a given species into a score
and is often used to allow different recorders to produce similar, reproducible
results. It is a non-linear score and therefore theoretically should not be used in any
mathematical or statistical calculations unless it is transformed

27
% cover Domin Score

91- 100 10
76-90 9
51-75 8
34-50 7
26-33 6
11-25 5
5-10 4
<5% many individuals 3
< 5% several individuals 2
< 5% few individuals 1

The scale as originally published includes a lowest value of + , and this is not acceptable
to any computer package for data analysis or presentation; it is therefore suggested that if
required , any vegetation present at a cover value of less than 5%, with only 1 or 2
individuals should be recorded as 0.5, or alternatively simply recorded as a 1 in the Domin
scale.

Domin references

Sand dunes : typical transect data

This data was collected using stratified random sampling, with dunes and slacks as the
main strata.
A 10m x 10m grid was placed in each strata and quadrat positions determined using
random numbers as
x y co-ordinates. Quadrat size was 50c x 50cm and vegetation was recorded using the
Domin scale.
Presentation uses a bar chart as distance between sample stations was >100m - using a kite
diagram would make unreasonable assumptions about species distribution between sample
sites.

The Shannon-Weiner Index () of species diversity

28
NB.If species abundance data is recorded using an abundance scale, such as the non-linear
Domin scale, the data should not theoretically be used in any mathematical or statistical
calculations unless it is transformed . This applies to any ordinal data.

The index is calculated using the formula :

H = - sum of (Ni / N x ln (Ni / N)

In the species distribution module, the diversity of each sample station or site can be
calculated

(see how to calculate species diversity..) This is particularly useful for investigating
changes in species diversity with succession, or with changes in environmental factors in
general. It is useful to compare the results obtained with the Simpson Index , Margalefs
Index. and the McIntosh Index

It can be simply calculated by hand if the data is arranged in a similar format to the table
below :

Worked example for a single site where data on abundance of several species has been
collected:

Species Number of individuals Proportion ln Proportion Proportion x ln Proportion

Ni Ni/N ln(Ni/N) Ni/N x ln(Ni/N)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

a 24 0.216 -1.53 -0.33

b 12 0.108 -2.22 -0.24

c 29 0.261 -1.34 -0.35

d 2 0.018 -4.02 -0.07

e 7 0.063 -2.76 -0.17

f 37 0.333 -1.10 -0.37

29
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N= 111 = 1.53

This is probably the most widely used non-parametric diversity index. Reliability increases
as sample size increases, with greatest reliability if the sample size is above 200.

depends on both the evenness of distribution and abundance of species and the range is
from 0 to a maximum value of about 5 (using natural logarithms).

The evenness of distribution (E) is calculated by :

E = / lnN

It is possible to use a t-test to test for significant differences between species diversities in
two samples.

It is possible to use a t-test to test for significant differences between species diversities in
two samples.

The Simpson Index of Species Diversity

NB.If species abundance data is recorded using an abundance scale, such as the non-linear
Domin scale, the data should not theoretically be used in any mathematical or statistical
calculations unless it is transformed . This applies to any ordinal data.

This index is based on the probability that two individuals picked at random will belong to
the same species .
For any sample :

C = å Ni (Ni-1) / N (N-1)

In the species distribution module, the diversity of each sample station or site can be
calculated (how to calculate species diversity). This is particularly useful for investigating
changes in species diversity with succession, or with changes in environmental factors in

30
general. It is useful to compare the results obtained with Margalef’s Index ,the Shannon-
Weiner Index. and the McIntosh Index

Species Number of individuals

Ni Ni(Ni-1)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

a 24 24(23)

b 12 12(11)

c 29 29(28)

d 2 2(1)

e 7 7(6)

f 37 37(36)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N=111 åNi(Ni-1)=11787 C = 11787 / 111(110)
C = 0.49

NB. Often the reciprocal is used so that higher values represent greater species diversity
D= 1/C = 2.03

The Sorenson Qualitative Index of Similarity (Cn)

This is generally used for a simple comparison of species composition of two sites. It uses
only presence or absence of a species and takes no account of species abundance.

Cn = 2j / (a+b)

where j = the number of species common to both sites; a= the number of species at site a;

b= the number of species at site b

31
It can easily be calculated in the Species Distribution module (see how to...)

The following data set represents the numbers of individuals of each species found at two
separate sites:

sp1 sp2 sp3 sp4 sp5

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Site a 23 0 3 8 15

Site b 0 12 0 18 1

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

j = 2, a = 4, b = 3

Cn = 2 (2) / 4 + 3

Cn = 0.57

The index will have a minimum value of 0 and a maximum value of 1, where the same
species occur at each site.

For more detailed comparisons, use Sorensons Quantitative Index.

The Sorenson Quantitative Index of Similarity (CN)

32
This is different from the Sorensons Qualitative Index in that it uses the abundance of
species, rather than simply their presence or absence.

CN = 2 x sum of jN / ( sum of aN + sum of bN)

where

sum of jN = the sum of the lower of the two abundances for species occuring at both sites

sum of aN = the sum of the abundances of all species at site a

sum of bN= the sum of the abundances of all species at site b

It can easily be calculated in the Species Distribution module (see how to...)

The following data set represents the numbers of individuals of each species found at two
separate sites:

eg. the following data set represents the numbers of individuals of each species found at
two separate sites:

sp1 sp2 sp3 sp4 sp5

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Site a 23 0 3 8 15

Site b 0 12 0 18 1

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

sum of jN = 8 + 1 = 9

sum of aN = 23 + 3 + 8 + 15 = 49

sum of bN = 31

33
CN = 2 (9) / 49 + 31 = 0.225

The index will have a minimum value of 0 and a maximum value of 1, where the same
species occur at each site with the same abundance values.

FIELDWORKS : HYDROLOGY MODULE HELP

Contents
As well as the usual how to.. information , the Help system contains detailed background
information on a range of river features and a case study of the Lyn drainage basin

How to....use Fieldworks hydrology module

Index of how to...
Planning an investigation
Field methods
Channel cross section measurement
Velocity measurement
Bedload measurement
Field recording sheets
Safety
Stream characteristics and features
pools
riffles
meanders
bankfull level

overland flow
flooding
Case studies
Lyn drainage basin
Glossary
References
Edition

Pools/Riffles

34
Riffles normally occur at spacing of between 5 to 6 times the channel width (Waugh,
1990)

Pool/riffle sequence on R.Yeo, North Devon. River width is approximately 5m and riffle
spacing is 20-30m

Meanders
A typical meander (Jan.1998)on an upland stream on Exmoor, with deposition on the inside
of the bend and erosion on the outside

Bankfull level
When a river is flowing at bankfull level,this means that the river channel is full and it is
close to spilling over on to the flood plain. it represents the most effective discharge for
sediment transport and maintenance of channel width(Callow and Petts, 1994) and the
highest energy state.

Bankfull discharge generally has a return period between 1 and 3 years, but may be longer -
up to 32 years on some rivers (Callow and Petts, 1994)

Tributary of R.Torridge, North Devon, at bankfull (December 1997)

Overland flow occurring after several weeks of heavy rain, December 1997 at
Hallsannery, Bideford, North Devon

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS (STATISTICS MODULE)

Mean

The mean is an 'average' of a group of values and is obtained by adding the values together
and dividing the total by the number of individuals

Interpretive Solutions Ltd.1999, 2000

Sample standard deviation

The sample standard deviation measures the spread of the measurements around the mean

If a set of data has a near normal distribution then approximately :

68% of the values will fall within one standard deviation of the mean (+ and -)
95% of the values will fall within 2 standard deviations (+ and -)
100% will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean (+ and -)

35
A small standard deviation indicates that there is little variation from the mean and that the
population is fairly homogenous.

The variance of the sample, , can then be calculated if required.

36