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1, JANUARY 1999
(Invited Paper)
Abstract—An approach to Darlington’s synthesis is described paraphernalia of cutoff in an unterminated infinite structure.
which is based entirely on a single Foster reactance (LPR) How do you build a finite two-port of reactors operating
function. The procedure stems from the remarkable result that between resistive loads, which transmits frequencies in a
any section producing an arbitrary transmission zero within its
class (Brune, type C, type D, reciprocal, or nonreciprocal), can passband and reflects them in an adjacent stopband? As
be extracted from any prescribed LPR function, leaving an LPR pointed out by Kuh and Sandberg, in the introduction to this
remainder of reduced degree. The nonreciprocal sections play a Darlington Memorial Issue, the answer came in two parts.
prominent role in the discussion. First, find a rational transfer function which approximates
the desired frequency response and is physically realizable.
I. SOME HISTORICAL NOTES
Then synthesize the response function by a doubly terminated,
with a mirror image set of roots in the LHP. The root factors “odd part.” Also, . The form (10a)
then yield an even polynomial in , so that , and corresponds to the choice of upper signs in (9), and (10b)
is symmetric. If there is an additional root of odd multiplicity to the lower signs, and when , reciprocity is satisfied
at the origin, then is odd, and using , reciprocity with the plus and minus signs corresponding to even and
is still satisfied. For example, assume has the factor , odd, respectively. It is readily shown that when the two-port
( real and positive). Then has the factor , and a is terminated in a resistor, its input impedance can be
nonreciprocal realization is required. On the other hand, if the expressed as
root is also present, the resulting factor in is
(LHP and RHP roots paired) which appears identically in (11)
so reciprocity is not violated.
Reciprocity can be assured by the following device. If there Clearly, the matrix of can be generated from .
are any real (except at ) or complex plane roots, simply The LBR property of translates into the following real-
multiply by common factors so that izability properties of .
is a perfect square. In the spectral factorization, choose all • or equivalently, . That is
the LHP roots for so it remains a Hurwitz polynomial, the impedance is skew Hermitian on the boundary, or
but the roots of are selected to be LHP and RHP image paraskew. If reciprocity holds .
pairs. Furthermore, since , all root factors • All the poles of are simple and on the boundary.
in are already perfect squares and are assigned equally • The residue matrix at each pole is Hermitian
to and as purely even or odd (if a zero at the origin) and nonnegative definite, i.e., , and
factors. Depending on whether is even or odd, we can finally . In the reciprocal case, all the residues are
choose for , and reciprocity is assured. Once real, and .
the superfluous factors are introduced, the functions and The synthesis procedure employs the concept of zeros of
are recomputed. The new scattering matrix is no longer transmission. These are the closed RHP zeros of ,
minimal in degree, but it is reciprocal. or equivalently of when all common factors are
To summarize: we have shown that a rational, even trans- canceled. The zeros are counted according to multiplicity, but
ducer gain bounded by zero and unity can always be realized boundary zeros are counted to half multiplicity. The function
by a lossless reciprocal two-port with resistive source and load contains zeros of transmission, but if , have
terminations. When has roots in the interior of the LHP private poles or excess poles,1 then the corresponding zeros of
or RHP, a minimal realization of the reactance two-port may transmission will not appear in the transfer impedances.
be nonreciprocal if the reciprocal form of is achieved using Keeping in mind the partial fraction expansions of the ,
augmentation by common factors. it is evident that we can represent as a two-port with
If at the outset, the assigned function is a positive real (PR) series branches at the input and output containing resonators
driving point impedance , then is the corresponding to the excess and private poles, plus a remainder
corresponding BR reflectance. Starting with this function, and whose residue matrices are all compact.
setting , we can use a procedure similar to that Following the preceding discussion, we are now ready to
discussed above to once again arrive at the Belevitch form tackle the problem of the cascade synthesis of a reactance two-
of a scattering matrix representing a resistively terminated port , whose residue matrices are all compact, and which has
reactance two-port. This establishes Darlington’s classic result, no private poles in . This means that is automatically
that any rational PR impedance is always realizable as a determined if only three (two in the reciprocal case) of the four
reciprocal lossless two-port terminated by a resistor. are realized. One should mention that when this two-port
is terminated in a resistor, its input impedance is a minimum
III. DARLINGTON SYNTHESIS BASED reactance PR function, i.e., it has no poles on .
ON A SINGLE FOSTER FUNCTION The synthesis is carried out by operating on the Foster
The impedance matrix of the reactance two-port follows reactance function , of the LPR matrix . This function
from the scattering matrix of (9) by using the inversion is attractive to work with, because it is so simply described.
equation It is rational and odd. All its poles are simple, on , and
have real positive residues. The minimum number of elements
required for its realization is the higher degree of the two
(10a) polynomials or in (10).
The procedure is accomplished by employing full or partial
zero/pole extractions from to produce individual lossless
sections each corresponding to a transmission zero whose
removal, it can be shown, leaves a Foster function remainder
1 Private poles are those that reside exclusively in Z
11 or Z22 . The transfer
(10b)
functions Z12 ; Z21 cannot have private poles. If the determinant of the
residue matrix at a j! pole is zero, it is compact at that pole. If a residue
matrix is not compact, the Z matrix possesses an excess pole. A portion of the
Referring to (9), , , , excess pole may be extracted from Z11 or Z22 to make the residue matrix
; subscripts “ ” and “ ” mean “even part” and compact.
CARLIN: DARLINGTON SYNTHESIS REVISITED 17
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Brune section ( M> 0) and type C reciprocal section ( M < 0).
(b) Type C nonreciprocal section.
square. The matrix is compact at all poles, except that , and form a “Tee” of capacitors with elastances
includes the excess pole . Find the cascade representation satisfying , so that . The
of . elastance “Tee” has as equivalent a capacitor followed by
First we find the D section for the complex zeros of an ideal transformer of turns ratio
transmission. Extract from to force the
remainder to satisfy . Thus Equating
real and imaginary parts, , . (These are
guaranteed to always be positive.) If the resulting remainder
admittance is expanded in partial fractions
(16)
(12)
We wish to prove is LBR, which in turn would prove that
is LPR. The first factor of (16) is an LBR reflectance of
The zeros are at . A second form has replaced
unit amplitude on since is an LPR function. The
by .
second allpass factor has unit amplitude on as well. Thus
The residue matrix at the pole is compact. Setting
. Hence were it not for the single RHP pole at
poses no loss of generality, since an ideal trans-
, would be LBR. But the numerator of the first
former can always be introduced at the output. The equivalent
factor conveniently provides a canceling zero at , so is
circuit for (12) is shown in Fig. 1(b). We have taken the gyrator
LBR. Furthermore, is odd, so ; the
equations as , .
denominator of the first factor cancels in the numerator
The problem before us now is to show that starting out with
of the second. The remainder impedance is therefore LPR,
the global matrix for the entire reactance two-port
and one degree lower than that of and we have established
containing a zero of transmission on the axis, we can remove
the realizability of the nonreciprocal C section extraction. A
a nonreciprocal lossless C section by operating on the Foster
similar derivation follows if the elastance is replaced by
function , leaving a remainder of reduced degree which is
inductance .
still a Foster function. Suppose the type C section of Fig. 1(b)
Example 2: Consider the transducer gain
is extracted. We note that at the zero of transmission there is
zero current at the output port of the section, no matter how
it is terminated. In other words, at the loading of the C
section can be replaced by an open circuit, with resulting input (17)
impedance . (Refer to Fig. 1(b), and
use the fact that the input to a gyrator is a short circuit when the The gain corresponds to a system with simple zeros of
output port is open-circuited.) Furthermore, , so that transmission at , and at . Construct a nonreciprocal
realization, and compare with the reciprocal case.
(13)
First consider the reciprocal case. Referring to (17), the
The positive values of and follow because is function of on the right is , and must be multiplied
LPR, hence positive real on positive . Thus we have a by the common factor in numerator and denominator
lossless realizable section.4 so that the zeros occur with even multiplicity. Then
Let be the remainder impedance after the C section is
extracted. We wish to show it is a realizable LPR function. (18)
We start by expressing input impedance in terms of
and the of the C section. We can also invert to find in Referring to (6), (8), and the surrounding discussion,
terms of and the . , , and by factorization
. Using (10a)
(14a)
(14b) (19)
section with the configuration shown in Fig. 1(a). The system Equate real and imaginary parts and solve (23) for and .7
comprises a total of three reactors, one for the type A section5
and two for the C section. (24)
If superfluous factors are not employed the realization is
minimal, but nonreciprocal. Thus , Since is LPR, then at any point in the RHP ,
, , and . Furthermore, by examining the partial fractions
expansion for it follows that . Therefore,
we are guaranteed that , . At the zero of
transmission , or ; but ,
(20)
which gives the value of , followed by that of
which should be compared with (18). The nonreciprocal
impedance matrix may now be computed from (10a). (25)
REFERENCES
We have by (26), . In the neighborhood of , [1] S. Darlington, “Synthesis of reactance 4-poles which produce prescribed
, and , with insertion loss characteristics,” J. Math. Phys., vol. 18, no. 4, pp.
257–353, Sept. 1939.
since is LPR, so , . [2] H. J. Carlin and P. P. Civalleri, Wideband Circuit Design. Boca Raton,
Referring to (22) FL: CRC, 1997.
[3] V. Belevitch, Classical Network Theory. San Francisco, CA: Holden
Day, 1968.
[4] P. I. Richards, “Resistor transmission lines,” Proc. IRE, vol. 36, pp.
217–220, Feb. 1948.
[5] D. Hazony, Elements of Network Synthesis. New York: Reinhold,
1963.
where is a squared pure reactance. Thus in
the neighborhood of the pole