Hover Bot

HOVERBO AN AUTONOMOUS QUADROTOR FLYING
T ROBOT
www.flyingrobot.co.in | SANJU.R.S
HOVERBOT – www.flyingrobot.co.in Major Project-2010
INTRODUCTION
The goal of this project is to create a semi-autonomous hovering platform, capable of
vertical lift-off and landing without a launcher, and capable of stationary hovering at one location.
The idea to build such a model-sized aerial robot is not new; several other research institutes have
been working on aerial robots based on commercially available, gasoline powered radio-control
model helicopters. However, the aerial robot proposed here, called the HoverBot, has two
distinguishing features: The HoverBot uses four rotor heads and four electric motors, making it
whisper-quiet, easy-to-deploy, and even suitable for indoor applications. Special applications for
the proposed HoverBot are inspection and surveillance tasks in nuclear power plants and waste
storage facilities.
Without a skilled human pilot at the controls, the foremost problems in realizing a model
helicopter-sized flying robot are stability and control. It is necessary to investigate the stability and
control problems, define solutions to overcome these problems, and build a prototype vehicle to
demonstrate the feasibility of the solutions. The proposed HoverBot will have five input sensors
(Roll, Pitch, X, Y, Z) for stability and control. The resulting control system is a very complex,
highly non-linear Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) system, in which practically all input
signals affect all output signals. A surprisingly simple experimental control method, called additive
control, is proposed to control the system. This method was successfully used in the current
experimental prototype of the HoverBot (although with fewer input signals). It is also proposed to
investigate two alternative control methods, adaptive control and neural networks, both of which
appear to be especially suitable for the Multiple-Input Multiple-Output control problem.
One of the main design goals was to obtain a high controlling frequency throughout the
system. To support this, our platform features a custom built onboard high-speed sensing system
which consists of gyroscopes to give relative measurements for the robot’s angles. High control
frequency precludes the use of commercially available brushless motor controllers, such as those
found in model aircrafts, as they only allow motor speed update rates of 50 Hz. This controller has
very low dead times and supports very dynamic movements. Intensive manual acrobatic flights with
loops, flips, spins, sharp turns and combined maneuvers proofed the stability of the controller in
extreme situations. Having such a high control frequency allows us to create an extremely stable
platform, even with payloads of up to 350g. Many applications for such a platform exist. The
outstanding stability of the platform makes the integration of onboard and off board position
tracking system possible. In this project we demonstrate the performance of the system using an
external motion tracking system to provide closed loop position control. Cameras mounted on the
platform also benefit from a stable image.
College of Engineering Perumon 2 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The foremost problem with model-sized helicopters is stability. All helicopters (large ones
as well as model-sized ones) are dynamically instable because of the lack of damping [Saunders,
1975]. In the absence of natural damping (typically found in ground-based vehicles in the form of
friction), a helicopter must be stabilized by the pilot. This task is easier for large helicopters,
because they have a larger time constant. In model-sized helicopters the time-constant is very small,
and stable hovering is difficult to achieve. For this reason, it takes model-helicopter pilots months
and months of exercise and training to acquire the skill of manual stable hovering [Tradelius, 1991].
In a robotic model-sized helicopter, the difficulty of stabilizing the craft falls onto the
onboard controller. Technologically, this is quite a challenge since the smaller time constants
require a much faster response time, which, in turn, requires accurate motion sensors and fast
computers. Yet, the model-sized helicopter is severely limited in its payload capacity and can only
carry lightweight, less powerful computers and less accurate sensor systems.
In our project we add a further dimension to the challenge by attempting to design an

electrically powered flying platform. If successful, an electrically powered device would have very
unique advantages for certain applications, because it would be suitable for indoor applications,
easy to deploy, and very quite. We envisage applications in hazardous environments in general, and
particularly in Nuclear Power plants, where a real need for a hovering inspection unit exists.
Other potential applications are emergency response, as well as police and military
applications. The only acceptable solution for most of these applications is an electrically powered
platform. The disadvantage of electric power compared to gasoline power is the even further
reduced payload capacity. We propose to overcome both the payload problem and the stability
problem by implementing a unique four-rotor design. Four-rotor platforms are not a new idea C the
history of vertical flight shows several attempts at implementing such designs (the earliest dating
back to 1922 [Young, 1982]). As much as these attempts improved the overall payload capacity,
they all found themselves discontinued because of the difficulty in manually controlling the four
rotors. We believe that our proposed approach will overcome the problems of earlier 4-rotor
designs and bring into existence an actually functioning, electrically powered, fully autonomous 4-
rotor flying platform. Our preliminary experimental results to date show that the payload problem,
although ever-present in all design considerations, is successfully addressed by the 4-rotor design.
The focus of this proposal is therefore the question of stability. We believe that the results of our
project will not only help create a flying robot, but they will also have direct bearing on the design
of large (people carrying) 4-rotor rotorcrafts.
The HoverBot uses four rotor heads and four electric motors, making it whisper-quiet, easy
to deploy, and even suitable for indoor applications.
Electrically Powered Rotorcrafts
We propose to develop an electrically powered rotorcraft. To date, electrical

power has been found unsuitable for rotorcrafts, except for the very lightest of model-
helicopters.
The reason for this can be explained with a few first approximation design guidelines for
rotorcrafts. As a rule of thumb, the power P required developing thrust (i.e., lifting capacity) T is
given by P α √T3
This function is sketched in the Power vs. Weight chart of Fig. The offset P0 represents the
power required for lifting the motors and structure. The battery power vs. battery weight (for a

given maximum flight duration) is plotted as a group of dotted lines, each for a given flight
duration. Because of the non-linear nature of Eq. electric helicopters cannot be scaled: It is
impossible to simply design around a larger motor and larger battery, to get a larger (read: stronger
rotorcraft). As Fig. shows in principle, there is only a small range of feasible designs. Commercially
available model helicopters demonstrate this principle: only extremely lightweight (2 - 3 lb) models
with 5-6 minutes flight duration are available. These models use ultra-light building materials and
control elements.
A robotic rotor-craft would need an onboard computer and sensors, in addition to the
conventional radio-control components. For this reason, we conclude that it is unfeasible to build a
robotic rotorcraft based on current electric power model helicopter technology. To overcome this
seemingly inherent limitation, we propose to design a multiple rotor platform, called the HoverBot.
In principal, the HoverBot can be considered as four individual electric model helicopters, linked
together at their tails. While this design slightly increases the weight of the structure, its advantage
is that certain components needed in every conventional model helicopter (such as gyros and the
receiver and its power source) can be shared among the four units, and so can special components
for autonomous operation (such as a computer board, more gyros, and other sensors).
In preliminary experimental battery endurance tests, we achieved 3-minute flights with our
prototype HoverBot and conventional NiCad battery packs. The tests were somewhat flawed by
inferior charging equipment that wouldn't allow optimal charging of the cells. Rotor blade loading,
power transmission and motors were also far from optimal in our early experiments. We expect that
by the end of a three-year project, we will have improved on these factors to achieve flight times of
4 – 5 minutes with standard NiCad batteries. More important, new battery technologies promise
additional two to threefold improvement in weight-to-charge ratios. Driven by the rapidly
expanding market of notebook computers, more powerful nickel-hydrate batteries are already in
use, which provide 1.5 – 2 times higher energy densities, and recently Byte magazine [Byte, 1993,
March, p. 24) reported on the development of new lithium-iron batteries that promise 3 times longer
operation than Alkaline batteries of the same size2.
Four-Rotor Design
In the earlier days of vertical flight experimentation (before the development of the
ingenious cyclic/collective pitch concept C which is now used by all modern helicopters) developers
looked at the intuitively easy control functionality of 4-rotor designs. While some of these
prototypes did indeed fly, none ever made it into production. The reason most often quoted was the
fact that the 4-rotor machines were difficult to control and stabilize: With manual controls, the pilot
would have to coordinate at least four control parameters (for example, the pitch of the rotor
blades), which were rather counter-intuitive (see “principle of operation,” below). Another reason to
consider multiple rotors is to achieve larger pay-load capacities then what is possible with single
rotor designs. The reason for this is the fact that the thrust of a rotary wing is proportional to the

square root of the area swept through by the rotor. This area is also called the rotor 2Ultimately, of
course, we are interested in weight-to-energy ratios. Yet, the literature quoted size to energy ratios
(relative to existing products). We quote these examples here to show the feasibility of electric
power, while the focus of the proposal is on the stability and control problem. disk. I other words,
the larger the rotor disk, the more thrust is developed. Obviously, there are technical limitations to
the maximal size of the rotor disk. Multiple rotors multiply the effective rotor disk area, although
there are, of course, losses. Most notably are losses caused by the additional weight of the structure
and losses due to turbulent interaction of the air underneath the disks. Nonetheless, tandem rotor
designs are clearly superior to single rotor helicopters in terms of pay-load capacity Lightbody and
Poyer, 1990].
Control of the HoverBot
The control system of the HoverBot is designed to allow either fully autonomous operation
or remote operation by an unskilled operator. To either, the HoverBot will appear as an
omnidirectional vehicle with 4 degrees of freedom: (1) up/down (2) sideways, (3)
forward/backward, and (4) horizontal rotation. Up/down motion is easily controlled by collectively
increasing or decreasing the power to all 4 motors. Control over (2) can be achieved as explained in
Fig: For example, increasing the power to the two left rotors lifts the left side up and generates a
thrust component to the left. Consequently, the HoverBot moves to the right. By the same principle,
adding power to the two rear rotors causes the HoverBot to fly forward. The implementation of
horizontal rotation control is less obvious:
When a rotor turns, it has to overcome air resistance. The reactive force of the air against the
rotor causes a reactive moment called the “induced moment”. The induced moment acts on the rotor
in the direction opposite to the rotation of the rotor. As everyone knows, conventional helicopters
require the tail-rotor to counteract the induced moment. In the HoverBot both sets of diagonal rotors
turn in opposite directions (as indicated by the opposite direction of the arrows in Fig). As long as
all rotors experience the same induced moment, which is mostly a function of speed of rotation and
rotor blade pitch, the sum of all induced moments is zero and there is no horizontal rotation. If one
set of rotors, for example the one that turns counter-clockwise in Fig. 4, increase their rotational
speed or their pitch, the resultant net induced moment will cause the HoverBot to rotate clockwise.
It is important to note that because of the diagonal arrangement, this operation has no effect on
translationin x or y direction. The effect on up/down motion can be compensated by reducing the
pitch or speed of the other diagonal pair, although in practice this is not quite so easy without some
sort of feedback control.

Stability
We believe that stability is the foremost challenge for any effort to build a model-sized
robotic rotorcraft. As explained before, in the absence of natural damping, all rotorcrafts must be
constantly stabilized by the pilot or auto-pilot. In model-sized helicopters this presents a formidable
difficulty, because of the much smaller time-constants. This is the reason why model-helicopter
pilots need months and months of training, just to keep their helicopters in stable hovering. Model
helicopter pilots we talked to confirm that stabilizing a small model helicopter is even more
difficult than stabilizing a larger model helicopter.
Larger Time-Constant With the Proposed HoverBot
The 4-rotor design of our proposed HoverBot C originally motivated by considerations of

payload C appears to have one unique advantage over conventional helicopter designs: the
distributed weight of the 4 rotor heads increases the moment of inertial and thereby the time
constant of the system. To illustrate this point, we can roughly estimate that the moment of inertia,
J, of a 6 kg conventional (single rotor) helicopter model around its longitudinal axis is J = 0.06
Kgm2. By comparison, the 4-rotor HoverBot with the same weight has a moment of inertia of J =
1.53 Kgm2 around its least favorable axis. In other words, the moment of inertial of the HoverBot is
approximately 1.53/0.06 = 25 times larger than that of a comparable conventional helicopter. Since
the time-constant J of the system is proportional to the square root of the moment of inertia (J %
J2), the time-constant of the HoverBot is (25)2 = 5 times larger than that of the conventional
helicopter design. Stabilization of this rotorcraft will be greatly facilitated by the much larger time-
constant.
The Dual Control Approach
Another important advantage of our 4-rotor design is the control flexibility gained from the
use of four independent motors. As we explained, the HoverBot can be fully controlled by
controlling the thrust of the four rotors. In conventional helicopters thrust is controlled in two
different ways: a) by adjusting the motor power and b) by adjusting the rotor blade pitch (the angle
of attack of the rotor blades). Adjusting the motor power is usually not an efficient means of
control, because gasoline powered engines do not respond quickly enough (especially with the large
inertia of the rotor) to the pilot's commands. By contrast, adjusting the rotor pitch has an immediate
effect on the thrust: a larger pitch angle increases the thrust. However, a larger pitch angle also
increases the power needs of the rotor and must therefore be accompanied by an increase in motor
power. Because of the kinetic energy stored in the rotor, the increase in motor power does not have
to be available immediately, a short delay is acceptable. Thus, the immediate action of pitch control
combined with the slightly delayed action of motor power control works well. In normal-sized
helicopters (without automatic control), determination of the proper mixture between pitch increase
and motor power increase is left to the skill of the pilot. The problem is different in the HoverBot.
Here, controlling the motor power is somewhat more effective because we use electric motors. We
found that we can perform the typical control functions (up/down, forward/backward and sideways
tilting, rotation) just by controlling the rotor thrust. However, in our system the craft must also be
stabilized by varying the rotor thrust. In our experimental system we found that the thrust control
must react at least ten times faster in order to dampen undesirable oscillations caused by external
disturbances. Thus, we propose a dual control approach, in which fast-acting pitch control is the
primary means for damping and stabilizing, and motor power control is the primary means for
controlling the steady state thrust and thus the motion of the HoverBot.
In practice, both control actions are strongly interrelated. Any control signal going to, say,
the front left motor must also generate a secondary control signal that affects the pitch actuator of
the front left rotor, and vice versa. The exact nature of this interaction is extremely difficult to
determine analytically. The interaction is highly non-linear and there are numerous parameters that
are practically impossible to measure. Our focus in the proposed work will be to develop
experimentally a new controller capable of performing this complicated stability and control task.
MODULAR DESIGN

MODULAR DESCRIPTION
The main modules included in the HOVERBOT are,
1. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

2. ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER
3. PWM GENERATOR SECTOR
4. PROCESSING UNIT
5. RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM
6. ADC UNIT
7. INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT
8. POWER SUPPLY
1. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
A brushless DC motor (BLDC) is a synchronous electric motor which is powered by

direct-current electricity (DC) and which has an electronically controlled commutation system,
instead of a mechanical commutation system based on brushes. In such motors, current and torque,
voltage and rpm are linearly related.
Two subtypes exist:
• Inrunner
• Outrunner
The term inrunner refers to a type of brushless motor used in radio controlled models,
especially in reference to their use in aircraft to differentiate them from outrunners. Inrunners get
their nickname from the fact that their rotational core is contained within the motor's can, much like
a standard ferrite motor. Compared to outrunner motors, in runners tend to spin exceptionally fast,
often as high as 7700 RPM per volt, far too fast for most aircraft propellers. However, inrunners
lack torque. As a result, most in runners are used in conjunction with a gearbox in both surface and
aircraft models to reduce speed and increase torque In many cases the inrunner is "ironless" in that
there is no iron stator core to magnetize. The wire is run inside the can and held in place by epoxy
or other resin material. Because there is no magnetic iron core, ironless in runners have no
"cogging", in that they spin freely with no magnetic interaction when power is disconnected. A
well-designed ironless inrunner is extremely efficient. This is because there is virtually no iron
magnetization loss and very little windage loss in the motor. However, due to the lack of a magnetic
stator core, the ironless motor has very low torque but also higher KV when compared to an iron
core motor.
The term outrunner refers to a type of brushless motor primarily used in electrically
propelled, radio-controlled model aircraft. This type of motor spins its outer shell around its
windings, much like motors found in ordinary CD-ROM computer drives. In fact, CD-ROM motors
are frequently rewound into brushless outrunner motors for small park flyer aircraft. Parts to aid in
converting CD-ROM motors to aircraft use are commercially available. Outrunners spin much
slower than their inrunner counterparts with their more traditional layout (though still considerably
faster than ferrite motors) while producing far more torque. This makes an outrunner an excellent
choice for directly driving electric aircraft propellers since they eliminate the extra weight,
complexity, inefficiency and noise of a gearbox.
In a conventional (brushed) DC motor, the brushes make mechanical contact with a set of
electrical contacts on the rotor (called the commutator), forming an electrical circuit between the
DC electrical source and the armature coil-windings. As the armature rotates on axis, the stationary
brushes come into contact with different sections of the rotating commutator. The commutator and
brush system form a set of electrical switches, each firing in sequence, such that electrical-power
always flows through the armature coil closest to the stationary stator.
In a BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the permanent magnets rotate
and the armature remains static. This gets around the problem of how to transfer current to a
moving armature. In order to do this, the brush-system/commutator assembly is replaced by an
electronic controller. The controller performs the same power distribution found in a brushed DC
motor, but using a solid-state circuit rather than a commutator/brush system.
2. ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an
electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are often used
on electrically-powered radio controlled models.
An ESC can be a stand-alone unit which plugs into the receiver's throttle control channel or
incorporated into the receiver itself, as is the case in most toy-grade R/C vehicles. Some R/C
manufacturers that install proprietary hobby-grade electronics in their entry-level vehicles, vessels
or aircraft use onboard electronics that combine the two on a single circuit board.
Function
Regardless of the type used, an ESC interprets control information not as mechanical motion
as would be the case of a servo, but rather in a way that varies the switching rate of a network of
field effect transistors, or "FET's." The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the motor
itself to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower speeds. It also

allows much smoother and more precise variation of motor speed in a far more efficient manner
than the mechanical type with a resistive coil and moving arm once in common use.
Most modern ESCs incorporate a battery eliminator circuit (or BEC) to regulate voltage for
the receiver, removing the need for receiver batteries. BECs are usually either linear or switched
mode voltage regulators.
DC ESCs in the broader sense are PWM controllers for electric motors. The ESC generally
accepts a nominal 50 Hz PWM servo input signal whose pulse width varies from 1 ms to 2 ms.
When supplied with a 1 ms width pulse at 50 Hz, the ESC responds by turning off the DC motor
attached to its output. A 1.5 ms pulse-width input signal results in a 50% duty cycle output signal
that drives the motor at approximately half-speed. When presented with 2.0 ms input signal, the
motor runs at full speed due to the 100% duty cycle (on constantly) output.
Brushless ESC
Brushless motors otherwise called outrunners or inrunners have become very popular with
radio controlled airplane hobbyists because of their efficiency, power, longevity and light weight in
comparison to traditional brushed motors. However, brushless DC motor controllers are much more
complicated than brushed motor controllers. They have to convert the DC from the battery into
phased AC (usually three phase) in order to produce the changing magnetic field.
The correct phase varies with the motor rotation, which is to be taken into account by the
ESC: Usually, back EMF from the motor is used to detect this rotation, but variations exist that use
magnetic (Hall Effect) or optical detectors. Computer-programmable speed controls generally have
user-specified options which allow setting low voltage cut-off limits, timing, acceleration, braking
and direction of rotation. Reversing the motor's direction may also be accomplished by switching
any two of the three leads from the ESC to the motor.
Classification
ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or 25 A.
Generally the higher the rating, the larger and heavier the ESC tends to be which a factor when
calculating mass and balance in airplanes. Many modern ESCs support nickel metal hydride and
lithium ion polymer batteries with a range of input and cut-off voltages. The type of battery and
number of cells connected is an important consideration when choosing a Battery eliminator circuit
(BEC), whether built into the controller or as a stand-alone unit. A higher number of cells
connected will result in a reduced power rating and therefore a lower number of servos supported
by an integrated BEC.
Applications
Cars
ESCs designed for sport use in cars generally have reversing capability; newer sport controls can
have the reversing ability overridden so that it can be used in a race. Controls designed specifically
for racing and even some sport controls have the added advantage of dynamic braking capability.
Simply put, the ESC forces the motor to act as a generator by placing an electrical load across the
armature. This in turn makes the armature harder to turn, thus slowing or stopping the model. Some
controllers add the benefit of regenerative braking. This puts the voltage being generated by the
motor back to work recharging the vehicle's drive batteries. On full-sized vehicles, regenerative
braking is used in electric and hybrid golf cars and hybrid automobiles while dynamic braking is
used in diesel-electric locomotives to help slow trains on long downgrades.
Helicopters
ESCs designed for radio-control helicopters do not require a braking feature (indeed, turning it on
would likely result in the main rotor assembly being severely damaged by the rotor blades) nor do
they require reverse direction. Many high-end helicopter ESCs do provide a "Governor mode"
which fixes the motor RPM to a set speed, greatly aiding CCPM-based flight.
Airplanes
ESCs designed for radio-control airplanes usually contain a few safety features. If the power
coming from the battery is insufficient to continue running the electric motor the ESC will reduce
or cut off power to the motor while allowing continued use of ailerons, rudder and elevator
function. This allows the pilot to retain control of the plane to glide or fly on low power to safety.
Boats
ESCs designed for boats are by necessity waterproof. Also, many are water-cooled. Like cars, boats
need braking and reverse capability.
3. PWM GENERATOR SECTOR
PWM is generated by AT89C2051. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is the term used to
describe using a digital signal to generate an analogue output signal. This is usually used to control
the average power to a load in a motor speed control circuit. It can also use it to generate a
continuously variable analogue output without using any other integrated circuits by smoothing the
PWM signal using a capacitor.

As well as saving the costs of extra chips and interfaces the Pulse Width Modulation signal
will not drift over time since it is generated from the time base of the processor i.e. a quartz crystal.
Using analogue circuits to generate accurate signals that don't drift is a difficult task so PWM is
very effective and cheap. It works by changing the average voltage level and this is done by
generating a constant frequency signal but one where the pulse width is changed (or modulated).
Examples of PWM from the AT89C2051 Micro
In the diagram the digital signal (solid line) is at a constant frequency while the pulse width
is changed (modulated). The dotted line represents the average signal (if the digital signal is
converted to an average). The duty cycle represents the amount of time that the signal is high
compared to the amount of time that the signal is low.
Duty Cycle
So the top signal is high for 10% of the period so the average is low, the middle signal is high for
50% of the period so the average is half and the bottom signal is high for 90% of the period so the
average is high. For fully off you use 0% and fully on you use 100%.
So the duty cycle is independent of the frequency of the PWM signal and you'll always see the same
type of waveform for a specific duty cycle.
PWM Frequency
The frequency of the PWM signal is important depending on the device you are driving. If the aim
is to create a dc signal then you would want the frequency high (kHz) so a low pass filter could
remove the frequency component. How high depends on how much frequency component is
allowed at output and depends on how it is used i.e. what error can be tolerated.
4. PROCESSING UNITS

P89C51RD2 microcontroller is used to process data. Processing unit is divided into two
1) Master microcontroller
2) IMU processor
Master microcontroller
Master microcontroller generates control signals for varying duty cycle of PWM
with respect to RC input.P89C51RD2 is used for this purpose.
IMU Processor
It is used to generate control signals with respect accelerometer - gyro input.
5. RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM
The radio‐control system is one of the most important components of any remote system. In
the higher end hobby RC systems, each of the major types of vehicles have their own dedicated
radio transmitter/receiver system. However, the HoverBot does not yet have its own dedicated
system; as such the use of RC helicopter transmitter/receiver will be used. RC radio technology has
largely been based around the reserved frequency bands at 27MHz and 72 MHz While these bands
are specifically reserved for RC aircraft, careful management of the frequencies in use is required.
If someone is flying an aircraft at a particular frequency, and someone else turns on a transmitter at
the same frequency, the helicopter receiver won’t know which signal to respond to and be “shot
down.” (2) The transmitting frequency is controlled by an external crystal, with several different
channels available around each frequency. The latest generation of RC radios, however, uses
spread‐spectrum technology at 2.4GHz. Pioneered by Spektrum (2), this allows nearly interference
proof flight as well as increased resolution and latency. These radios transmit on a single selected
frequency, but at a wide band that eliminates interference (3). To further combat frequency
interference, these receivers only accept data sent with the correct identification code. A 2.4 GHz
transmitter/receiver radio system will be used for this HoverBot project. In most RC helicopter
radios, a minimum of four channels is necessary: Throttle, Elevator, Aileron, and Rudder. For
higher end helicopters, more channels may be used to control collective‐pitch and, gyro gain. Many
advanced radios have as many as 10 channels available with additional features such as adjusting
the pitch curves of the stage of development, the transmitter will provide manual control of the
HoverBot. For a HoverBot, the main four channels are very similar to the helicopter system. The
minimum required channels necessary for flight control is 4: (4)
• Channel 1 – Aileron, Roll Left/Right Stick, Rev Mode

• Channel 2 – Elevator, Tilt Up/Down Stick, Rev Mode
• Channel 3 ‐ Throttle, Rev Mode

• Channel 4 – Rudder, Rotate Left/Right, Norm Mode

Throttle controls the power of the motors to achieve lift. Channel 1 and 2 controls the amount of tilt
in the listed directions. Channel 4 controls the rotation of the HoverBot around its center axis. The
mode that they operate in refers to the direction of control relative to the movement of the control
stick; i.e. for Channel 2, when the stick is moved forward, the front of the HoverBot will go down.
In addition to these four channels necessary for manual flight, a minimum of 2 additional channels
will be used to aid in the development of this project. Taking cue from other aircraft, Channel 5 will
implement a landing gear system. This system will be particularly useful as a way to prevent
damage in the event of a crash due to a system failure. The ability to turn the preplanned flight
control on and off will be implemented in Channel 6. While a kill switch is a mandatory
requirement of the IARC, this can be accomplished with the advanced features of the RC
transmitter. The specifications of the receiver for these RC systems mainly depend on the matching
transmitter. Typically, the motors of the aircraft are plugged directly into the receiver, leaving any
signal mixing or adjustment to the transmitter. This keeps the weight of this component as low as
possible. The DX6i transmitter by Spektrum (3) fulfills all the requirements of the transmitter for
use in this project. This six channel transmitter operates at the 2.4 GHz band and includes such
features as a throttle cut, a large LCD display and is compatible with the lightweight AR6100
receiver.
6. ADC UNIT
Analog to digital converters used for this application are usually designed to receive external
commands to convert and hold. For dc and low frequency signal, a dual slope type converter is
often used. The advantage is that it has a linear averaging capability and has a null response for
frequencies harmonically related to integrating period.
A\D converters based on dual slope techniques are useful for conversion of low frequency
data, such from thermocouples, especially in presence of noise. The most popular type of converter
for data system application is the successive approximation type, since it’s capable of high
resolution and high speed at moderated cost.
Higher speed is obtained by preceding the A\D converter by a sample\hold. The sample\hold
is particularly required with successive approximation type A\D converters. Since at higher rates of
the input change the later generates substantial non –linearity arose because it cannot tolerate
change during conversion process.

Direct digital conversion carried out near the signal source is very advantageous in cases
where data needs to be transmitted through a noisy environment. Even with a high level signal of
10V, a 8-bit converter can produce 1 bit ambiguity when affected by the noise of the order of
40mV.
The heart of a successive approximation type A\D converter is a 8-bit successive

approximation register (SAR), whose output is applied to a 8-bit D\A converter. The analog output
of the D\A converter is then compared to an analog input signal by the comparator. The output of
the comparator is a serial data input to the SAR. The SAR then adjusts its digital output until its
equivalent to the analog input. The 8-bit latch at the end of conversion holds onto the digital data
output.
At the start of a conversion cycle, the SAR is reset by holding the start signal high. On the
first clock pulse LOW- to- HIGH transition, the most significant output bit Q7 of the SAR is set.
The D\A converter then generates n analog equivalent to the Q7 bit which is compared with the
analog input. If the comparator output is low the SAR will clear its MSB. On the other hand if
comparator output is high the SAR will keep its MSB. The process is continued until SAR tries all
bits. As soon as LSB is tried, the SAR forces the conversion complete signal HIGH to indicate that
the parallel output lines contain valid data. The digital data appears at the output of the latch. Digital
data are also available serially as the SAR determines each bit.
7. INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT
An inertial measurement unit, or IMU, is an electronic device that measures and reports on a
craft's velocity, orientation, and gravitational forces, using a combination of accelerometers and
gyroscopes. IMUs are typically used to maneuver aircraft, including UAVs, among many others,
and spacecraft, including shuttles, satellites and landers.
The IMU is the main component of inertial guidance systems used in aircraft, spacecraft,
and watercraft, including guided missiles. In this capacity, the data collected from the IMU's
sensors allows a computer to track a craft's position, using a method known as dead reckoning
An IMU works by detecting the current rate of acceleration using one or more
accelerometers, and detects changes in rotational attributes like pitch, roll and yaw using one or
more gyroscopes.
8. POWER SUPPLY

The two most important aspects in choosing a battery are the supply voltage and the current
capacity. LiPoly batteries are the most common battery and provide the highest power output per
dollar. In this HoverBot system, because the competition flight is limited to under 15 minutes, an
off the shelf battery will be more than adequate. A commonly recommended battery is the
2200mAh 3 Cell battery. While it weighs a hefty 311g, it will provide more than enough power to
the system
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
PWM Generator Sector

Controlling Section

IMU Processing Section
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
 AT89C2051 is used to generate PWM of frequency 50Hz.This PWM is used to drive

Brushless DC Motor.
 On time of PWM is varied from 1.2 to 1.6 ms
 P89C51RD2 is used as master micro controller. This micro controller generates control
signals with respect to RC input.
 Master micro controller sense PWM signals from 3 channel of RC receiver output.
 Master micro controller also generates control signals with respect to the error signals from
the IMU processor.
 Another P89C51RD2 is used as IMU processor. This is used to generate error signal with
respect to IMU output.
 ADC0808 is an 8-Bit µP Compatible A/D Converter with 8-Channel Multiplexer. It uses

successive approximation as the conversion technique. The 8-channel multiplexer can
directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals. Its 8-channel multiplexer can be
addressed with address logic lines. Vref(+) is the positive reference voltage given to the
ADC, its adj. via 10K resistor and made 2.5V to make the full scale reading as FFh.
 This Inertia Measurement Unit Combo Board incorporates the IDG500 dual-axis gyroscope
and Analog Devices triple axis ADXL335 accelerometer in a tight footprint. The IMU board
uses a standard 0.1" footprint and includes all outputs from both the IDG500 gyro and
ADXL335 accelerometer ICs. This IMU 5DOF is the latest in a long line of development
boards. This latest version allows an unheard of 5 axis of sensing (Roll, Pitch, X, Y, Z) in
less than 1 square inch, and under 2 grams!
PCB LAYOUTS
PWM Generator Sector

Controlling Section
IMU Processing Section

PCB FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

Printed circuit board plays a vital role in determining the performance of electronic
equipment. They are used to create electric circuits and transmit signals through copper tracks,
which are firmly bounded to insulation base. A good PCB design ensures that the noise introduced
as a result of component placement and track lay out is held within limits while providing
component years of assembly maintenance and performance and reliability.
They are:
• PCBs are necessary for interconnecting a large number of electronic

components in a very small area within minimum parasitic effects.
• PCBs are simulated for mass production with less chance of wiring error.
• Small components are easily mounted and servicing is simplified.
Before proceeding with the software design of PCB, certain pre-design efforts are necessary.
This includes
• At least a hand drawn schematic of the circuit.
• Mechanical specification – board size, shape, size position of mounting holes.
• Location of connectors PCB etc.
• PCB type-single/double sided PTH or non PTH.
• Pattern size, shape of pads etc.
• Defining source files, restrictions, spacing etc.
• Selecting measurement units and colour scheme.
• Creating board outlines and setting grid defining.
PCB should design with minimum number of jumpers. The most sophisticated and compact
layout is to be adopted. The basic circuit diagram is to be drawn in any PCB stimulation software.
PCB FABRICATION

In a single sided PCB, conductor tracks run only one side of copper clad board. Thus
crossing of conductors is not allowed. Base materials are selected according to the application. It is
to be mechanically and chemically cleaned. The base materials used for PCB are glass epoxy paper,
polyester etc.
Copper foil used for copper clad is manufactured by the process of electron deposition. The
track should have a fine line definition. The properties of copper foil are:
• Thickness:- 35 micrometer
• Thickness tolerance:- +/- 5 micrometer
• Purity of copper:- 99.8%
Ferric chloride, chromic acid, and alkaline ammonia are some of the electro chemical
etchants used. Screen-printing and photo resist are the most commonly used lithographic
techniques. In screen printing a stencil of the layout is made on a plastic transparent sheet and is
used as a mask. Vanish coating are given on the interconnecting marks. After the vanish dries out
the clad is etched using FeCl in etching the copper out of the clad.
Wherever the vanish coating is present copper layer is preserved. After etching completely
the vanish is removed using turpentine solution or with water and oxalic acid.
In the second method, the photo resist is an organic solution which when exposed to light of
proper wave length change the solubility in the developers. The developer after exposure to light
will not be soluble. Laminated coating of photo resist is done by spray coating, dip coating or roller
coating.
The coated copper clad laminated film negative is kept in a glass frame having intimated
contact with each other. The assembly is exposed to UV light for three minutes, the exposed board
rinsed in the developer tank. Proper developer has to be used for particular photo resist. Then the
PCB is dried in a tray. The dye reveals the print to use for a particular photo resist. The required
holes are drilled by using a twist drill. The size of the hole or drill is selected as per the requirement.
Now on the component side, the values of the corresponding components are printed. The PCB’s
are now ready for soldering.
SOLDERING & DESOLDERING

SOLDERING
Soldering is the joining together of two metals to give physical bonding and good electrical
conductivity. It is used primarily in electrical and electronic industry. Solder is a combination of
metals, which are solid at room temperatures and becomes liquid in between 180 and 200 C. Solder
bonds well to various metals, and extremely well to copper.
Soldering is a necessary skill you need to learn to successfully build electronics circuits. It is
primary way how electronic components are connected to circuit board, wires and sometimes
directly to other components.
To solder you need a soldering iron. A modern basic electrical soldering iron consists of a
heating element, a soldering bit (often called the tip), a handle and a power cord. The heating
element can be either a resistance wire wound around a ceramic tube, or a thick film resistance
element printed on to a ceramic base. The element is then insulated and placed into a metal tube for
strength and protection. This is then thermally insulated from the handle. The heating element of
soldering iron usually reaches temperature of around 370 to 400 c (higher than needed to melt
solder). The soldering bit is specially shaped piece of copper plated with iron and then usually
plated with iron or chrome. The tip planting makes it very resistant to aggressive solders and fluxes.
In order to make the surfaces accept the solder readily, the component terminals should be
cleaned chemically or by abrasion using blades or knives. Small amount of lead coating can be done
on the cleaned portion of the leads using soldering iron. This process is called tinning. Zinc chloride
or ammonium chloride separately or in combination are the most commonly used fluxes. These are
available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. A solder joint can at first glance to be okay, but under
close examination it could be a ‘Dry Joint’. A dry joint is when either the circuit board or the leg of
the component has not been properly heated to allow the solder to flow between the surfaces freely.
This creates an intermittent or no electrical connection. This can also be caused by a lack of flux or
if you reuse old solder. Quite often, reheating a bad join will cure the problem but in a lot of cases,
the old solder will need to be removed and some new solder applied. The residues, which remain
after the soldering, may be washed out with more water, accompanied by brushing.
Soldering iron is the tool used to melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. It
operates in 230V mains supply. The iron bit at the tip of it gets heated up within a few minutes.
50W and 25W soldering irons are commonly used for soldering purposes.
PROCEDURE
1. Make a layout of the circuit.

2. Straighten and clean the component leads using blade or knife. Apply a little flux on
the leads. Take a little solder on soldering iron and apply the molten solder on the leads.
3. Mount the components on the PCB by bending the leads of the components using nose-
pliers.
4. Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Soldering must be done in minimum time to
avoid dry soldering and heating up of components.
5. Wash the residues using water and brush.
DESOLDERING
Due to various faults, which would have been made during first soldering, desoldering is
often required. Applied solder on a joint is removed by
• Making use of desoldering pump and desoldering wick.
• Using special instruments like desoldering tip or extractor.
RESOURCES
• BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR & PROPELLERS - www.unitedhobbies.com
Model: TowerPro BM2409-18T

Specifications: Model: 2409-18

Weight: 70g
Voltage: 10v (2~3 Cell lipo pack)
Idle Current: .9
Kv: 1000
RPM : 1000/V
Shaft: 3mm Diameter
Max efficient current: 15.5A
Max Load: 20A
Max Power Output:180W
Suggested Propeller: 8*.3.8 or 8*6
Propeller (Maxx Products EPP1045): 10x4.5 (counter rotating RC aircraft propellers)
• ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER - www.unitedhobbies.com
BESC: 25A (programmable)

Current: 25-30A
Voltage: 6-12V
BEC 2-3 Cell Lipo
Size: 45x38x10mm 24.5grams
• RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM - www.unitedhobbies.com
 2.4Ghz transmitter system
 In industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands 2.4 G Hz is license-free
 LED display
 Following mode is supported in each mode.
 Heli mode:
HP1 : Normal helicopter with 1 servo
HP2: Swash helicopter with 2 servos
HP3: CCPM 120 swash helicopter with 3 servos
 AERO mode:
AP: Normal aero plane

VP : V-tail plane
DP: Delta wing plane
Throttlehold supported
Gyro sensitivity adjust supported
Beep when battery voltage low than 8.6V (Once per second).
• INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT - www.sparkfun.com

IMU, is an electronic device that measures and reports on a craft's velocity, orientation, and
gravitational forces, using a combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes.
 Incorporates the IDG500 dual-axis gyroscope and Analog Devices triple axis
ADXL335 accelerometer
 5 axis of sensing (Roll, Pitch, X, Y, Z)
 Used in aircraft, including UAVs and spacecraft, including Shuttles, Satellites
and Landers
Dimensions: 20x23mm
Weight: 2g
• POWER SUPPLY - www.atbatt.com

11.1V - 2200mAh LiPo Battery Pack
 Rechargeable batteries
 High Current rating. So life is longer.
 Lithium polymer batteries last much longer than NiMH as they have a far
better energy density
• CARBON FIBER SQUARE TUBE - www.unitedhobbies.com
 Material consisting of extremely thin fibers about 0.005–0.010 mm in diameter and

composed mostly of carbon atoms
 Carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals

 Very strong, light weight, and expensive
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
• High Stability
• High Reliability
• Vertical lift off - no need of runway
• Suitable for indoor applications
Disadvantages
• Less Flight Time (around 15 min max)
• Payload Limit
APPLICATIONS
 Applications In Hazardous Environments Like Nuclear Power Plants
 Defense
 Security & Surveillance

 Inspection and Surveillance Tasks in Nuclear Power Plants and Waste Storage Facilities
 Spy work & Anti terrorism application
 Visual photography
 Space Exploration
 Remote Sensing Applications
 Disaster Rescue
 Military Applications
 Mapping Applications
 Applications in the Domain of Disaster Monitoring, namely Forest Fires
PRODUCT PHOTO

OUR SPONSORS
WIRELESS MINI CAMERA & KEYCHAIN SPY CAMERA
NATIONAL POWER CONVERSION (INDIA)
NATIONAL POWER CONVERSION located in Heart of India, New Delhi is a

an emerging company in the Field of CCTV ,DVR equipments,GSM & RF
JAMMERS, spy Cameras,Remote GSM cameras,GSM remote alarms,
Power Savers,safety alarms, & vast Range of Bio-metric devices.
Multiplex LN-5014 Lithium, NiCd, NiMH and Lead-Acid Battery Charger

RobotShop Distributon Inc.(CANADA)
Founded in 2003, RobotShop Distributon Inc. is proud to put robotics at your service. We specialize
in personal and professional robot technology and offer a wide range of robotic products and
services in this sector. Our head office is located in Boisbriand, Quebec.
AeroQuad Shield v1.7 and supporting components:
Carancho Engineering (USA)
Carancho Engineering have over 15 years of experience developing large scale automated test and
measurement systems utilizing LabVIEW. We've built test systems using DAQ, GPIB, VXI and
Ethernet in both the Windows OS and LabVIEW Real-Time to provide the most flexible test
solution at a cost effective price.
Gyros:
Dual axis IDG 300

UITRON Online (THAIWAN)
UITRON Online is an online supplier of electronic and software components and tools for various system
builders.
Dual Axis Gyro Breakout - IXZ500
Watterott electronic (GERMANY)
Watterott electronic is a fast growing company that is specialized in electronics.
It was founded by Stephan Watterott in spring 2008.

The company is located in Hausen, Thuringia - in the green heart of Germany.
Arduino Mega:

ThaiDuino (THAILAND)
Thaiduino is a leading online open source electronic solution provider; open source hardware &
Arduino in Thailand ("Enjoy learning and building").
GPS Logger:
SkyTraq (TAIWAN)
SkyTraq is a leading high-performance GPS chipset and module

solution provider. The Venus positioning engine has been adopted by market leaders into wide
range of mobile devices such as PND, smart phone, MID, personal tracker, AVL, GPS fitness and
recreational GPS products. The Venus638 is a high-sensitivity 10mm x 10mm 60mW GPS receiver
module in a single-chip form factor, requiring just antenna and power to provide continuous
navigation.
Arduino Duemilanove w/ ATMEGA 328 and supporting components:

Gravitech LLC (USA)
Gravitech is a company that likes to share, enable, and have fun with electronics. We design boards
and provide tools so that engineers, students, and hobbyists can play with electronics with ease. We
take pride in supplying innovative, unique and economical products to provide excellent and
prompt solutions to all your electronic projects, while our goal for Gravitech LLC is to make an
electronic experience the best experience. That comes from the wide range of products we design
and sell.
BATTERY : (11.1V - 2200mAh 30C LiPo Battery Pack (1 Quantity) &

AA size,1.2V NiMH Rechargeable Battery (6 Quantity))
Atbatt (USA)

AtBatt.com is a supplier of rechargeable batteries, chargers and

power supplies for laptops, digital cameras, cell phones and other mobile gadgets.Established in
1998, they have built a reputation as one of largest database for battery reference data, msds and
information. They carry li-ion, nimh, alkaline and eco-friendly solar powered batteries.
CMOS Video Camera (640X480) :
DIY Drones (USA)
DIY Drones is a large social network for all things about amateur Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs).
Miscellaneous Components and testing facilities:
Prasens Innovative Solutions (INDIA)
Prasens is thrived by innovative technology, specialising in Embedded Systems, real life electronic
Product developing.

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
• Longer Flight Times and Larger Payload Capabilities
• GPS Tracking
• Platform Launching
• Automatic Range Control-Using Magnetic Compass
• More Stability and Payload Capacity Using More Rotors

CONCLUSION
In this project we presented a reliable and efficient solution for a UAV. Our solution is
simple, stable, and inexpensive. The key innovation is a platform capable of very high update
rates and the development of simple, adaptive, and highly optimized controllers.
This project has been successfully completed and demonstrated. Each section of the project
was done in each lab and the output was obtained. Finally the circuit was mounted on a PCB
and the output was demonstrated which was quite satisfactory. Here we implement a major
project on “Autonomous Quad Rotor Flying Robot”. We managed to complete our project in
required time itself. In short we got an opportunity to learn many things and the work was
undoubtedly informative. All details of this project available on our major project website
www.flyingrobot.co.in
PROBLEMS WE FACED
 Procuring the components, hard to find in India
 Pricing and Payment mode
 The Great Indian Customs department
 Very little technical details and manuals available currently
 RC and IMU control and stabilization issues
BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. The 8051 microcontroller – Kenneth Ayala

2. Baker, N.C., MacKenzie, D.C., and Ingalls, S.A, 1992, "Development of an

Autonomous Aerial Vehicle: A Case Study." Journal of Applied Intelligence Vol. 2, No.
3, Sept. 1992. pp. preprint.
3. Borenstein, J., "Multi-layered Control of a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Mobile Robot With

Compliant Linkage." Accepted for presentation at the 1993 IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2-7, 1993.
4. BYTE Magazine, 1993, March, p .24
5. Feng, L, Koren, Y., and Borenstein, J.: "An Adaptive Motion Controller for a
Differential-Drive Mobile Robot." Submitted for publication to the IEEE Journal of
Robotics and Automation. February 1993.
6. Johnson, W., 1980, "Helicopter Theory" Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press.
7. Lewis, M.A., Fagg, A.H., and Bekey, G.A., 1993, "The USC Autonomous Flying
Vehicle: An Experiment in Real-Time Behavior Based Control." Submitted for
publication in the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Georgia,
1993.
8. MacKenzie, D.C. and Arkin, R.C., 1992, "Autonomous Helicopter Position

Determination Using An On-board Integrated Vision System." Presented at the Applied
Machine Vision Conference '92, Atlanta, Georgia, June 1-4, 1992.
9. Saunders, G. H., 1975, "Dynamics of Helicopter Flight" New York : Wiley.
10. Tradelius, P., 1991, A Basics of Radio Control Helicopters.@ Air Age, Inc., Wilton,
Connecticut.
REFERENCE

• WWW.RCGROUPS.COM
• WWW.DIYDRONES.COM
• WWW.ATMEL.COM
• WWW.ALLDATASHEETS.COM
• WWW.GADGETMADNESS.COM
• WWW.SPARKFUN.COM
• WWW.ALLERC.COM
• WWW.UNITEDHOBBIES.COM
• WWW.RCTOYS.COM
• WWW.MAXXPROD.COM

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HOVERBO AN AUTONOMOUS QUADROTOR FLYING

College of Engineering Perumon 2 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In our project we add a further dimension to the challenge by attempting to design an

Electrically Powered Rotorcrafts

We propose to develop an electrically powered rotorcraft. To date, electrical

College of Engineering Perumon 4 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

College of Engineering Perumon 5 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

Control of the HoverBot

College of Engineering Perumon 6 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

Larger Time-Constant With the Proposed HoverBot

The 4-rotor design of our proposed HoverBot C originally motivated by considerations of

The Dual Control Approach

College of Engineering Perumon 8 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

College of Engineering Perumon 9 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

2. ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER

3. PWM GENERATOR SECTOR

5. RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM

7. INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT

A brushless DC motor (BLDC) is a synchronous electric motor which is powered by

Two subtypes exist:

2. ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER

College of Engineering Perumon 11 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

3. PWM GENERATOR SECTOR

College of Engineering Perumon 13 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

Examples of PWM from the AT89C2051 Micro

College of Engineering Perumon 14 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

It is used to generate control signals with respect accelerometer - gyro input.

5. RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM

• Channel 1 – Aileron, Roll Left/Right Stick, Rev Mode

College of Engineering Perumon 15 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

• Channel 4 – Rudder, Rotate Left/Right, Norm Mode

College of Engineering Perumon 16 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

The heart of a successive approximation type A\D converter is a 8-bit successive

7. INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT

College of Engineering Perumon 17 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

College of Engineering Perumon 18 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

College of Engineering Perumon 19 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

IMU Processing Section

 AT89C2051 is used to generate PWM of frequency 50Hz.This PWM is used to drive

 On time of PWM is varied from 1.2 to 1.6 ms

 ADC0808 is an 8-Bit µP Compatible A/D Converter with 8-Channel Multiplexer. It uses

College of Engineering Perumon 21 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

IMU Processing Section

College of Engineering Perumon 22 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

PCB FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

College of Engineering Perumon 23 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

• PCBs are necessary for interconnecting a large number of electronic

• Small components are easily mounted and servicing is simplified.

• At least a hand drawn schematic of the circuit.

• Mechanical specification – board size, shape, size position of mounting holes.

• Location of connectors PCB etc.

• PCB type-single/double sided PTH or non PTH.

• Pattern size, shape of pads etc.

• Defining source files, restrictions, spacing etc.

• Selecting measurement units and colour scheme.

• Creating board outlines and setting grid defining.

College of Engineering Perumon 24 Dept. of Electronics & Communication

• Thickness tolerance:- +/- 5 micrometer

• Purity of copper:- 99.8%

SOLDERING & DESOLDERING

1. Make a layout of the circuit.