SLMQC_UMHKH LKEMGLKJ HCJ KJXMRJKLG RSLG

AKESJXKH HC MLNCLMC_MK HC IMLKU
ICEKLMEK HC _GEKU MM

EJKUMAMEKEMGL NCGICEKLMEK _IM

RMLCHK RKXKXMLNG _gllmc ;>;866
[SMURC K_KRK Crvms _gly 26?6=5
[SMURC FSK]XK _gikrmg Ikrtml ;;2652

UKLXGU UKLXGU _gy Ikmcr ;>8>55

R_CUCLXKHG KJ4
Mln. KNSUXÉL RC_CT [SMURC
CJKOG_KHG RG_4

RSLG RC_S
?2?2
 

MLX_GHSEEMGL4

Jk ncgiceëlmek cs ulk fcrrkimcltk iuy mipgrtkltc pkrk jk mlnclmcrék hc imlks , pucs lgs
 pcrimtc cvkjukr y egiprclhcr jk mipgrtklemk y cj egipgrtkimcltg hc jjks
ks rgeks y jgs ikemzgs
rgegsgs , pgr cjjg cs hc vmtkj mipgrtklemk egiprclhcr jgs ermtcrmgs y jks ejksmamekemglcs

hmvcrsks
klkjétmek yhmvcrsks
vkjgrkemglcs
vkjgrkemglcs hcj ikemzg
smtukemglcs rgegsg, quc
quc mlvgjuerkl lgs cxpjmekl hc quc
cj egipgrtkimcltg iklcrk cxpcrmicltkj
tmclcs jgs ikemzgsy
rgegsgs arcltc k ulk cxekvkemõl tkltg supcramemkj egig suotcrrëlck, quc sc puchcl prcscltkr
cl lucstrk vmhk prgacsmglkj egig auturgs mlnclmcrgs, cs pgr cjjg quc cl cj prcscltc trkokdg sc
clagekrk y klkjmzkrk hctkjjkhkicltc jgs prmlempmgs hc jk cstmikemõl hc ul ikemzg rgegsg
ichmkltc jk vkjgrkemõl _IM (_ge` Ikss Mlhcx) rckjmzkhk pgr Rkjistrgi cl cj kûg hc ;==3
 pkrk gptkr cj nrkhg hc RfH. Cl jk ulmvcrsmhkh hc Gsjg ―  Lgrucnk.
 Lgrucnk.

Jk ejksmamekemõl _IM trkhuemhk kj cspkûgj egig Élhmec hc Ikemzg _gegsg lgs ormlhk jk
mlagrikemõl hc jk egiprcsmõl k jk rcsmstclemk ulmkxmkj hcj Ikemzg _gegsg pkrk cvkjukr cj
egipgrtkimcltg hcj imsig kltc jks cxekvkemglcs , pgr gtrg
gtr g jkhg , cstg mipjmek tclcr hktgs hc
cltrkhk pkrk su klëjmsms tkjcs egig 4
Cj tkikûg hcj ojgquc klkjmzkhg, ekrketcréstmeks hcj hmkejkskimcltg y jk rcsmstclemk k jk
egiprcsmõl hc jk rgek mltketk.
K su vcz sc puchc cvkjukr cstgs ermtcrmgs pkrk4
-Jk ekrketcrmzkemõl hc jk rcsmstclemk y hcagrikomjmhkh hcj ikemzg rgegsg.
-Cj eëjeujg hc jks eglstkltcs hcj ermtcrmg hc rupturk hc Fgc` ] Orgwl pkrk ikemzgs rgegsgs.
-Qkjgrkemõl g cstmikemõl hcj nrkhg hc pclctrkemõl hc iëqumlks tulcjkhgrks XOI
Rgstcrmgricltc sc cvkjôk cj sgstclmimcltg quc sc puchc gptkr cl jk cxekvkemõl ichmkltc cj
usg hc ighcjgs iktciëtmegs y ëokegs, ighmamekhgs eglstkltcicltc pkrk ulk ikygr
khkptkomjmhkh y cxketmtuh pkrk ksé pghcr nkrkltmzkr jk cstkomjmhkh hc jks imsiks, hmsimlumr y
cjmimlkr cj hcsprclhmimcltg hc rgeks y kpjkstkimcltgs hurkltc jk cdceuemõl hc gorks
suotcrrëlcks y supcramemkjcs.
 

HCUK__GJJG

MLHMEC HC IKEMTG _GEGUG

Rkrëictrg vgjuiítrmeg quc rcjkemglk hc agrik kprgxmikhk jk rcsmstclemk k jk egiprcsmõl
ulmkxmkj hc jk rgek k jk rcsmstclemk k jk egiprcsmõl hcj ikemzg rgegsg.
Hcamlmhk egig4
Rkrk rgeks hmkejkskhks4  Hglhc4

 9   υe 9 rcsmstclemk k jk egiprcsmõl ulmkxmkj hc jk

rgek hc 32 ii hc hmëictrg

  9 2.?      Dp 9 Rkrëictrg hc hmkejkskhg.

De 9 Aketgr hc cstkhg g eglhmemõl hc jks
(92.5> ∟.)  hmkejksks.
Qo 9 Qgj hcj ojgquc ichmhg cl i5,
nclcrkjicltc sc usk Ho 9 Qo\;/5 (hmëictrg
  9  ∞   cqumvkjcltc hcj ojgquc).

Dj 9 Aketgr hc tkikûg g egltmlumhkh hc jks

hmkejksks.
 9    9   2.?1 ∔ 
  Dr 9 Aketgr hc rungsmhkh hc jks hmkejksks.
Dk 9 Aketgr hc kjtcrkemõl hc jks hmkejksks.
Rkrk rgeks iksmvks4
υe 9 rcsmstclemk k jk egiprcsmõl ulmkxmkj hc jk

 9      rgek hc 32 ii hc hmëictrg.

  92.23/.  a υ 9 Rkrëictrg hc iksmvmhkh hc rgek

2.23/. ≆ 2.3  Ho 9 Qo\;/5

Nclcrkjicltc cxmstcl rgeks iksmvks euklhg

Ho <?i cj vkjgr hc a υ ksuic 2.3
Euklhg Dp: a υ 
 

Rkrk jks ekrketcréstmeks iës egiulcs hc jks hmkejksks cj vkjgr hc De tgik ;.>3
Rgr jg tkltg jks ceukemglcs cl rgeks hmkejkskhks sc ighmamek hc jk smnumcltc iklcrk

9    

  9 2.?  ∟.   Um De 9 ;.>3
(92.5> )  H92.559;/5
(De\2.3)2.? 9 ;.5?(2.?) 92.?1
_ccipjkzklhg4


 9    9   .  ∔ 
 
JK EJKUMAMEKEMGL _IM XMCLC RK_KICX_GU HC

  
 : 2.2; 
 92.2;2.; 
  9 2.;  ; 
   9 <; ;2;2   
 

Ekoc rcskjtkr quc cj vkjgr hc _IM sgjg cs ul aketgr hc cltrkhk pkrk cstmikr cj sgstclmimcltg
khceukhg quc sc trkokdkrk iës khcjkltc.
 

RK_KICX_GU HC CLX_KHK HCJ _IM

 

_csmstclemk k jk egiprcsmõl smipjc hc jks rgeks (rgek mltketk)

Ejksmamekemõl hcj nrkhg hc hmkejkskimcltg

Ichmhk hcj Qgjuicl hc Ojgquc Qo4

Rkrk cstmikr cstc pkrëictrg sc puchc rckjmzkr hc hmvcrsks iklcrks, puchcl scr ichmkltc tcstmngs
u goscrvklhg cj ikemzg rgegsg k pkrtmr hc jks ichmhks hcj cspkemkimcltg hc jks hmkejksks.

K vcecs lg cs pgsmojc vcr cj ojgquc egipjctkicltc cl cj kajgrkimcltg g cl jk supcramemc hc jk

cxekvkemõl suotcrrëlck cspcemkjicltc euklhg sc prcscltkl iclgs hc 5 akimjmks hc
hmsegltmlumhkhcs. Cl tkjcs eksgs sc puchc cstmikr.

Euklhg sgjg sc vck ulk akimjmk hc hmkejksks4

 ≆ ;  3 ;2; 9 32; 
3;  ;2
 

Hglhc4 U; cs cj cspkemkimcltg prgichmg cltrc jks hmsegltmlumhkhcs hc jk akimjmk hc hmkejksks

Euklhg sc prcscltkl hgs akimjmks hc hmkejksks4

;2; 9 ;2;  ? 

 ≆ ;  ?  ;2
Hglhc4

U; cs cj prgichmg hcj cspkemkimcltg hc jks hmsegltmlumhkhcs hc jk akimjmk ; hc jks hmkejksks.

U? cs cj prgichmg hcj cspkemkimcltg hc jks hmsegltmlumhkhcs hc jk akimjmk ? hc jks hmkejksks.

Egrrcjkemõl cltrc cj Qgjuicl hc Ojgquc (Qo) y cj Luicrg Qgjuiítrmeg hc Hmkejksks (Dv).

Cxprcsmõl nclcrkj
 9    ∟
 
Cxprcsmõl pkrk jks agriks iës egiulcs hc
Jgs ojgqucs (hglhc 951 )
 9 51   ∟ 

Hglhc4
 9 aktgr hc agrik hcj ojgquc, quc
_cprcscltk cj pktrõl hc hmkejkskimcltg. Uu

Qkjgr puchc cstmikrsc hc

 ≆ ?2 + >   / iml 

    rcprcscltkl jks hmiclsmglcs
Ikygr y iclgr hcj ojgquc, rcspcetmvkicltc)

Hglhc4

U;, U? ] U5 sgl jgs

cspkemkimcltgs prgichmg cl
ul ictrg euomeg hc rgek
cxprcskhgs cl ictrgs
 

ICXGHG _IM RK_K UGUXCLMIMCLXG

Rkrk cvkjukr cj sgstclmimcltg, cstks sc ejksmamekl cl hgs nrupgs4

k) Egig iktcrmkj hmkejkskhg cl ojgqucs , hgimlkhg pgr ojgqucs mlhmvmhukjcs y jks ekrketcréstmeks
hc jks hmkejksks g dultks.

o) Egig egltmlug, iksk hc iktcrmkj hglhc jk iknlmtuh hc jks tclsmglcs hc jk rgek cs mipgrtkltc.

Xcrrclg Hmkejkskhg4

Jk cstkomjmhkh hc ul tcrrclg rgegsg hmkejkskhg (cl ojgqucs) cstë mlajuclemkhg prmlempkjicltc pgr

Cj tkikûg y agrik hcj ojgquc

Jk rcsmstclemk k emzkjjkhurk hc jks hmsegltmlumhkhcs quc hcjmimtkl cj ojgquc

Jk grmcltkemõl hc jks hmkejksks g dultks cl rcjkemõl k jk grmcltkemõl hcj cdc hc jk cxekvkemõl.

Rgr jg tkltg, jks ceukemglcs quc rmncl jgs pkrëictrgs hcj sgstclmimcltg hc _im sgl4

Jk ekjmhkh hcj tcrrclg Ne

 
 9       
 9   
Hõlhc4 UJ9 Aketgr hc kdustc pgr lmvcj hc tclsmglcs (kjturk hcshc jk supcramemc fkstk jk cxekvkemõl).

E9 Aketgr hc kdustc pgr jk nrkvchkh pkrk cj sgstclmimcltg cl cj tcefg g jgs fkstmkjcs

9   Hglhc4    9 ëlnujg hcj ouzkimcltg hc jk supcramemc hc jk

cxekvkemõl ichmhk rcspcetg k jk fgrmzgltkj.

Aketgr hc csekjk cxprcskhg egig jk rcjkemõl hc tkikûgs Ur

 )  ()    9 (  ) ()    9 (  ) () 
 9   / 9 (     
Xz 9 pgtclemk g cspcsgr hc jk zglk hcomjmtkhk sm tz<ht sm tz:ht 

Hglhc4 EA 9 Eglhmemglcs hc tclsmõl y egltmlumhkh hc tcrrclg

EA 9 Ht/Ho 0 Ht4 Hmëictrg hc jk cxekvkemõl cl its, pkrk fkstmkjcs sc usk su

s u kjturk wt

Ho4 Hmëictrg cqumvkjcltc hcj ojgquc

9 ∔ 
    
Eg4 Aketgr hc kdustc pgr jk grmcltkemõl
g rmcltkemõl hc jk akimjmk prmlempkj hc
hmkejksks g hmqucs (vctks, nrmctks, amsurks)

Lm4 Aketgr hc kdustc pgr lôicrg hc akimjmks hc hmkejksks


 9 
 
   9  

  
 

 

 
 

Xcrrclgs Egltmlugs4

Jgs tcrrclgs egltmlugs geurrcl euklhg EA : 3 kprgxmikhkicltc (rgek iksmvk),

iksmvk ), cl cj eukj hgimlkl
jks prgpmchkhcs hc jk rgek mltketk, pgr gtrg jkhg, euklhg EA < ;22 (rgek kjtkicltc arketurkhk),
hglhc cj tcrrclg sc egipgrtk egig iksk hc iktcrmkj.

Cl tcrrclgs iksmvgs

 9   /   ≆ 2.3  /  

 9  En4 Aketgr hc egipctclemk
υζ4 Xclsmõl tklnclemkj kpjmekhg
Xclsmõl tklnclemkj cl cj tcefg
 9        ;
tclsmõl tklnclemkj cl cj fkstmkj4
  Rv4 Rrcsmõl vcrtmekj
@4 _cjkemõl hc csaucrzgs
 9       tklnclemkjcs

Cl tcrrclgs kjtkicltc arknicltkhgs

9 
 9   / 
 

KOKEGU HC UGUXCLMIMCLXG
 

Rkrëictrg hc hmkejkskimcltg Dp

Kokeg pkrk cstmikr cj sgstclmimcltg hc tcrrclgs egltmlugs (iksmvgs g kjtkicltc trmturkhgs)

 

Kpjmekemõl rcegiclhkhk pkrk iktcrmkjcs hmkejkskhgs y pkrk tcrrclgs egltmlugs

Cdcipjg Rrëetmeg4
Hurkltc jk cxekvkemõl hc ul tôlcj k ;32 i hc prgaulhmhkh hcshc jk supcramemc sc fk
clegltrkhg egl ulk zglk trmturkhk hc Xz96 i hc cspcsgr. Eglsmstc hc nrklmtg, jmncrkicltc
ictcgrmzkhg egl υe 9 ;22 Ipk0 jgs ojgqucs cl jk zglk híomj eglsmhcrkhk, tmclcl tkikûg
Qo92.2;-2.;hi5 (prgichmg Qo92.23hi592.22223i5)0 egl rcjjclg hc kremjjk cl jk ikygrék
hc jks hmkejksks. Fky 8 akimjmks hc dultks, hc egrtk jglnmtuh. Jk grmcltkemõl hc jk zglk
trmturkhk, egl rcjkemõl kj cdc hcj tôlcj, cs hc ruiog 12² y ouzkimcltg 9 ?3²
Ugj4
Rkrtmigs hc jk ceukemõl mlmemkj

9 ∔ 
     υe 9 ;22 Ipk

Qo92.23hi592.22223i5
Ho 9 (2.22223) \ 2.55
Ho 9 (2.256)
Ho 9 2.28i
 

 
 

Ekjeujklhg cj aketgr hc cstkhg hc jks hmkejksks4

  9  ∞   

9 ?( )

9 2.?

Kfgrk ekjeujkigs cj pkrëictrg hc hmkejkskhg4

hm kejkskhg4

  9 2.?        ∟. 

H92.5>

DR 9 2.2223> H92.5>*2.?∟.  9 2.3;

Ekjeujklhg cj _Im4

 9    

_IM 9 ;22Ipk * 2.2223>

υe 9 ;22 Ipk  y DR 9 2.2223>

_IM 9 2.23> Ipk

CQKJSKEMGL HCJ UGUXCLMIMCLXG UCNÔL _IM

 9    9        

Ekjeujg hc Aketgr hc ekjmhkh hcj tcrrclg

Ne 9 2.23>*;*;

Ne 9 2.23>

Ekjeujg hcj aketgr hc csekjk0 sm tz 9 6i y ht 9 3i0 tz<ht

Ur 9 (Xz/Ht) * (Eg/Ld)

Ur 9 (6/2.28) * (?/2.>3)

Ur 9 ?22 * ?.1 9 3?2

 

Kj igicltg hc egipkrkr cl cj ëokeg cstc lgs mlhmek quc hcocrékigs kpjmekr fgrimnõl
prgycetkhg iës rcvcstmimcltg hc fgrimnõl, cstg tmclc scltmhg pucs cj iktcrmkj prcscltc cl jks
arketurks egig rcjjclg cs kremjjk y cstk tmclhc k hcsjmzkrsc
hcsjmz krsc aëemjicltc pgr scr ulk zglk trmturkhk.

EGLEJSUMGLCU
Jk ekrketcrmzkemõl _IM ormlhk ul pkrëictrg pkrk hcamlmr cj sgstclmimcltg khceukhg hc jks
cxekvkemglcs suotcrrëlcks.
Cs iuy mipgrtkltc klkjmzkr ekhk hctkjjc hc jgs pkrëictrgs quc ciprclhcl jk ejksmamekemõl _IM y
tkiomíl jgs hgs nrklhcs nrupgs quc jk rmncl (hmkejksks y iksmvgs), pucs ul hktg ikj mltcrprctkhg
puchc fkecr vkrmkr cxecsmvkicltc cj sgstclmimcltg.
Cj _IM garcec ul smstcik hc ekrketcrmzkemõl hcj ikemzg rgegsg okstkltc ôtmj cl mlnclmcrék. Cj _im cs
ul pkrëictrg quc, cl jélcks nclcrkjcs, ekrketcrmzk jk rcsmstclemk mlfcrcltc hc ul ikemzg rgegsg y
sc puchc kpjmekr cl mlnclmcrék pkrk cstkojcecr jk ekjmhkh hc cstc
cst c iktcrmkj cl eglstrueemõl. Cl cj
trkokdg hc ekipg sc usk aëemjicltc, yk quc cj _IM vmclc hcamlmhg pgr cj vgjuicl hc jgs ojgqucs y
pgr jgs pkrëictrgs hc arketurkemõl hcj ikemzg rgegsg.
OMOJMGN_KAÉK4
_cemcltcs Hcskrrgjjgs cl jk Cstmikemõl hcj Ugstclmimcltg cl _gek Ichmkltc _IM ― Hylk-
Slmvcrsmhkh Lkemglkj hc Egjgiomk, ?225.
_im ― Krmjh Rkjistrgi, ;==3.
Kpjmekemõl hc jk iceëlmek hc rgeks cl jk tulcjcrmk ― Qéetgr Xgjcltmlg ]pkrrknumrrc -Slmvcrsmhkh

Lkemglkj hc Mlnclmcrék.
 

KLCVGU

Rkrëictrgss uskhgs cl cj smstcik [, _I_, _IM hc sgstclmimcltg cl rgek

Rkrëictrg