MA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS! Susanne C. Brenner and D. J. Kaup Department of Mathematics and Computer Science Clarkson University ‘Complex Arithmetic (Complex conjugation, magnitude of a complex number, division by complex numbers) Cartesian and Polar Forms Buler’s Formula, De Moivre’s Formula Differentiation of Complex Functions Que of the most important numbers in complex analysis is ¢. The number i is a solution of the equation 2? + 1 =0 and has the property that :? = —1, (Of course, another solution of 2 +1=0is -i) We write a complex number = as z= + iy (or 2 +yi), where z and y are real numbers. We call x the real part of z and y the émaginary part of z. We write Rez = x and Imz =v. Whereas the set of all real numbers is denoted by R, the set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. Examples Re(-1+3i)=-1, Im(-1+3i)=3 Every real number z can be considered as a complex number ¢ + #0. In other words, a real number is just a complex number with vanishing imeginary part. ‘Two complex numbers are said to be equal if they have the same real and imaginary parts. In other words, the complex numbers 2, = a1 + yy and 22 = 2 + iyz are equal if and only if 2) = 2 and yh = Yo. Example 2-31 #243! Iz =a+iy eC then x,y € Band the absolute value of 2 is |z| = (2? + y’)"? and the conjugate of zis 7 =x —iy. Addition and multiplication in C are defined by ay = (ai tin) + (2a + tun) = (a +m) + Hl + Ye) 122 = (a1 + tys)(2 + tye) ata tiny + iyea + Pye = (exta — yay) + au + 2291) Clearly then (e+ ig(e-iy) =? +y' = le FThis handout ‘as amended version of the original. Complex Numbers Handout - Clarkson UniversityMA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey ‘The Rules of Complex Arithmetic For 1,22, 25,2=2 iy €C, (a) Addition and multiplication are commutative, ataawmta, Ale = tt (b) Addition and multiplication are associative, (ata)taa=atlata) (n2)2= Al) (c) Multiplication distributes over addition, 44(22 + 25) = 2172 + 125 (d) Each z has the unique additive identity 0, 2+ iy) + (0400) =2+iy=2 (c) Each z has the unique multiplicative identity 1, z1=(c+iy)-(1+i0) =24iy (f) Each z has the unique additive inverse —2, z+ (-2)=(@+iy) + (-2 iy) = For example, (a) follows from the definition of addition in C and the commutative law for real numbers: ata = (ti tim) + (22 +i) = (a1 +2) + iy +92) = (22 +21) + ta +m) (22 + ay) + (1 +m) Hnta ‘The other properties (b)-(g) may be similarly verified. Because addition and multiplication in C satisfy (a)-(g), the set C, together with the two operations of addition end multiplication, is a field. The set R of real numbers is also a field. Note that for z # 0, (g) says that z oo pie ate Example Find the multiplicative inverse of 1 — 24 1 1 14% _ 142 1,2 Tom 7 i-w ea Tea 75 7's ‘The operation of taking complex conjugates satisfies two basic algebraic rules Ata=Ath, Wa Aw Note that if == a+ iy then 2+ 2—0+ iy+o—iy = 2c and 2—2=0+iy—a+iy = iy. From those two equalities we have Clarkson University Complex Numbers HandoutMA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey ‘We can also find the real and imaginary parts of =,/z, using complex conjugates. If 2 # 0, 1 4 _ mh _ a fh Bog. ten B-22-22 a % IP 2% 4 abi, mitig co iye _ (arin) eo ivn) “gti, tative te _ mrt inte , ; (san — ae a+ ate a+ue Example Simplify (3 — 2i)/(-1+#) 3-21 3-28 + + Example Simplify (3° - i°)/(2i—1) 3 3) PE a{-1)8- (1 a1 —142 142i ~3+i +2 ‘As mentioned above, we define the modulus or absolute value of a complex number 2 = «-+iy as the nonnegative real number v2? 32. We write kl=yety Example |~3+2i] = VOF4= VB ‘The following modulus properties hold: leazal=laillel, [Z]= jg] #0) haat tat =e lal 2| Why should we bother with complex numbers? ‘Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) Any polynomial equation ¢yz" + G12" +--+ + c121 + eo = 0, with compler coefficients Co,€1;-++ 16m nd Cy £0, has n complez roots. fe can therefore solve any polynomial equation completely by using complex numbers. We can't say the same thing for reals. Consider 2? +2 +1—0. The quadratic formula yields 1+yI-4 2 Complex Numbers Handout 3 Clarkson UniversityMA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey which leads us to complex numbers. ‘These numbers are also really not “imaginary.” You can visualize z = a + dy as the point (z,y) € R?, which is the (two dimensional) Cartesian plane. Polar Coordinates Let 2=2-+iy be a non-zero complex number. The point (sy) has polar coordinates (r, 6), x=reos8, y=rsind where r > 0. Therefore 2=0tiy = (reos6 +isin§) =r(cosd + isind) r(cos@ + isin8) is a way of expressing a complex number by using polar coordinates. The positive number r is just the modulus of z and the angle @ is called the argument of z. It is determined up to multiples of 27. Examples! ~1+ iv =2 (coo% + isin) Buler’s Formula We are all quite familiar with the Taylor series of the exponential function ¢* when the exponent a is real? @id at Caltat gt gt T ¥These relations are derived in an exaample on Page 6. SHlere, nl (n factorial) is defined by n! = n(n — 1)(v.—2)--+1 with 23-2616, 4-3.2-1 = 24, Sl 5-4-3-2-1 = 120, ce, 1. Hence, 1! = 1, 2! Complex Numbers Handout Clarkson UniversityMA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey However, we may also use the same Taylor series to define the exponential function of an imaginary exponent (and complex exponents as well). Let @ be a real number and consider the exponential seties when we replace a i @. We then have =14+0+5- Now let’s reduce this series by using the relation i? 1 and collect the real terms together and the imaginary terms together. We obtain (after adding some more terms to make the final result more obvious) ef +7 eh aet a a 26, 26° Cation AGG a ‘We now have that the real part of e and the imaginary part of e” are each a familiar Taylor series. These are cos = sing =6-— A very important property of e! is PHBE has @ modulus of unity: ‘| = yoos* 0 + sin? 6 for any real 9. In other words, every complex number of the form e® lies on the unit circle a? +g? = Lim the oy-plane. Thus we have obtained the famous ‘Examples en 1 (nm integer) citinte) = of (0. € R,n integer) Complex Numbers Handout oe Clarkson UniversityMA.282 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey ‘The last result follows from the periodicity of cos@ and sind; if n is an integer then cos(? + nn) = cos@ and sin(@ +n2m) = sind. So now the complex number 2 writter in polar coordinates r(cos@ + isin 6) can be written as re”. This latter form will be called the polar form of the complex number 2: Note that if 2 = re — r(cosé + isin@), then = r(cos0 ~ isin) = r {oos(—#) + ésin(-8)] = re“? When two complex numbers are in polar form, it is very easy to compute their product. Suppose that 2; = rie = ry(cos®; + isin®,) and 2 = rae = r2(008 92 + isin 2) are two non-zero complex munubers. We first compute their product the hard way as follows: azn = (rime = (rira)(008; + isin) (cos 8p + isin Bp) = (r1r2) [(cos 4 cos 82 — sin) sin@2) + i(c086; sin Bs + sin y cos 2)} = (rira) [os(@s + 62) + ésin(6, + 62)] = (rine) ((We used trigonometric addition formulas to simplify in the second to last step.) So now we have a very easy formula for multiplying two complex numbers in polar form. We simply ‘multiply their moduli and add their arguments. From the rule for multiplication of complex numbers in polar form follows a rule for division. ‘We can easily see that io = gfl0-6) Hence We now tum our attention to dividing two complex numbers in polar form ne 1 ag =ne® dem ‘Therefore, to divide two nonzero complex numbers, divide their moduli and subtract their arguments. Example Convert 2; — 1+é and z, = —1+7v3 into polar form and compute #72 and ENE? First compute the moduli n=[l+i]=viti=Vv2, —1+iv3| = vIF3 Complex Numbers Handout -6- Clarkson UniversityMA 232 Differential Equations Fall 1999 Kevin Dempsey Hence 14+ i= Vie = V2 (cos; + ising), —1+iv3 = 2” = 2(cosd. + isin G2) from which it is clear that = zi. ‘se 1 v3 (cost.sints) = (Fp), (costs) = (- ¥) Either by looking at these points on the unit circle, or by plotting z; and z in the complex plane, we find that 0, is =/4 (plus any integer multiple of 2x) and 6 is 2n/3 (plus any integer multiple of 21). Therefore z= 14 i= V5 (con + isin) = vBet/ 14 iB = 2 (cos 2 + isin 22) = 26 Using the rules for multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar form, we have i jung, aes etne, a V2 n/t ‘The following formula follows from the rules for multiplication and division of complex. numbers in polar form. ‘De Moivre'e Formula (ey ive, (cos +isind)" = cosn +isinn®, =0,41,42, , £1, 22,.. Note that this gives us a very easy means for calculating the multiple angle formulas in trigonometry. For example, let n — 3 in the above. Then, since (a+b)° = a'-+3a°b+3ab?+0", cos 36 + isin 30 = (cos + isin#)” = (cos 6) + 3(cos 6)?(i sin 4) + 3(cos @)(i sin 8)* + (isin 8)* = cos* 8 + 3icos? @sin 9 — 3.cos sin? 9 — isin® @ (cos? @ — Scos@ sin? @) +i (3.cos*@ sind — sin’ 4) ‘Equating real and imaginary parts gives 0830 = cos? @—3cosGsin®@, sin 39 = 3ccs* sind — sin’ @ Clearly the real part gives cos 30 in terms of cos and sin while the imaginary part gives the corresponding expression for sin39. Thus if you know De Moivre's formula, and the hhinomial expansion (a +5)", you can always calculate any of the multiple angle formulas. Complex Numbers Handout “7 Clarkson University