Introduction To Grinding Machine

Origin0fgrinding
In the early stages, ‘chisel’ was thought of as the most convenient tool for removing
metal. In chisel there is only one cutting edge and more material can be removed by it but
with very poor finish. For getting better finish on the materials man started using file. In
file, there are multiple cutting edges. With it the material removed is less, but better finish
can be obtained. With the advancement of technology, chisel was replaced by a single
point cutting tool in order to have controlled removal of metal and the operation of metal
removal is carried out on various machine tools like lathes, shapers, milling machines etc.
Similarly, in order to control the metal removal and obtain better finish by multi cutting
edge tool, it is called grinding. The grinding process results in an improvement in
geometric accuracy of a component (± 0.02 mm) and an improvement of surface finish.

Introduction

Grinding can also be considered as a machining process, i.e. process of removing metal,
but comparatively in smaller volume. To grind means ‘to abrade’, to wear away by
‘friction’ or ‘to sharpen’. In grinding, the material is removed by means of a rotating
abrasive wheel. The action of grinding wheel is very similar to that of milling cutter. The
wheel is made up of a large number of cutting tools constituted by projected abrasive
particles in the grinding wheel. Definite elongated metal chips varying in size from 0.4 to
0.8 mm can be seen by examining the material removed under the microscope.


Nowadays, grinding is mainly used for the following purposes:
(1) To remove a very small amount of metal from the work piece to bring its dimensions
within very close tolerances after all the rough finishing and heat treatment operations
have been carried out. it is thus basically a finishing process employed for producing
close dimensional and geometrical accuracies.
(ii) It is sometimes used to obtain better finish on the surface.
(iii) Sometimes it is used for machining those hard surfaces which arc otherwise difficult to
be machined by the high speed steel tools or carbide cutters.

(Iv)This also used for sharpening the cutting tools.

(v) It is also used for grinding threads in order to have close tolerances and better finish.
Grinding is one of the extreme important processes in production work. It possesses
certain advantages over other cutting processes.
(1) It is the only method of cutting hardened steels etc. Parts requiring hard surfaces arc
first machined to shape in annealed condition, only a small amount being left for grinding
depending upon the size, shape and tendency of material to warp during heat-treating
operation.
(ii) Extremely smooth finish desirable at contact and bearing surfaces can be produced
only by grinding operation due to large number of cutting edges on the grinding wheel.
(iii) No marks as a result of feeding are there, because the wheel has considerable width.
(iv) Very accurate dimensions and smoother surface finish can be achieved in a very
short time.
(it) Complex profiles can be produced accurately with relatively inexpensive operation

This characteristic permits the use of magnetic chucks for holding the work in many
grinding operations.
(vii) Abrasives have very high hardness; are less sensitive to heat compared to other tool
materials and can sustain high temperatures. Thus these can be worked at higher cutting
speeds. Grinding wheels have self-sharpening properties due to releasing of dulled grains
and exposing new sharp ones.
(viii) Grinding is the only method of removing material from materials after hardening.
(ix) Grinding unlike conventional machining need not cut through the hard skin of
forgings, etc.
1.2. Cutting Action in Grinding
It will be observed from Fig. 20.1 that a grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles,
bonding material and voids. As already pointed, the projecting abrasive particles act like
cutting tool tips and remove metal. A properly selected grinding wheel exhibits self-
sharpening action. As cutting proceeds, the abrasive particles, at cutting edge become
dulled, and eventually these become cracked along the cleavage planes due to
resistance offered by workpice material which resists the cutting action. Thus new cutting
points are produced which carry out further cutting action. This process continues till the
abrasive grains get worn down till the level of bond. At this point the bond allows the
remainder of the worn grains to be torn from the wheel, exposing new grains which were
previously below the surface of the wheel and the new grains do further cutting action.
Two problems often encountered either by wrong selection of grinding wheel or by
improper cutting conditions arc wheel glazing and wheel loading. Wheel glazing refers to
the condition when the grains are worn down to the level of bond and held for too long for
efficient cutting. This results due to use of a hard wheel (wheel with a strong bond
strength and too fine grains). The problem can he remedied by changing the wheel and
sometimes by changing the cutting conditions. Wheel loading occurs when work piece
chips are embedded in the cutting face of the wheel, thereby reducing the rate of cutting
because the depth of penetration is reduced. It occurs due to too small voids and can be
cured by increasing the wheel speed or using different wheel even.
Thus the selection of the grinding wheel for correct, Continuous and efficient cutting
demands the correct selection of the type of abrasive, the size of the grains, the type of
bonding agent and its strength, and the size of the voids. Further the behavior, of the
grinding wheel is affected by Jig work piece material, cutting speed, depth of cut and the
feed rate.

2. Safety rules and procedures in grinding operation

Safety in Grinding
Any unsafe practices in grinding can be hazardous for operation and deserve careful
attention. Various important aspects are on :—
(i) Mounting of grinding wheels. The wheel should be correctly mounted in the spindle
and enclosed by a guard. Wheel bore should not be a tight fit on the sleeve.
(ii) Wheel speed. The maximum wheel speed is determined by the

Ultimate bursting strength of the wheel and it depends on the abrasive used, grit size,
bond, structure, grade, shape and size of the wheel. Its value is specified by the
manufacturers which should never be exceeded.
(iii) Wheel inspection. Wheels before mounting should be checked for damage in transit,
cracks and other defects. Ringing test is good enough for vitrified bond. Sound wheels,
when tapped lightly at 45 from the vertical line with a plastic hammer sound like a clear
metallic ring but the cracked wheel will not ring.
Wheels, when not is use, should be stored in a dry place and placed on their edges in
racks.
(iv) Wheel guards. These should always be used during grinding, and periodically
adjusted to compensate for wheel wear.
(v) Dust collection and health precaution. When grinding dry, provision for extracting
grinding dust should be made. Protective covers of machine should never be removed
while machine is in use. Operator should wear safety devices to protect his eyes and
body from flying abrasive particles and dust.
(vi) Wheel operation. Adequate power is essential in grinding machines. If power is not
adequate then wheels will slow down and develop flat spots, making the wheel to run out-
of-balance.
During wet grinding, the wheel should not be partly immersed, as this would seriously
throw the wheel out of balance

3. Grinding wheel construction

3.1 Kinds of Abrasives
1. Abrasive type classifies the abrasive material in the grinding wheel.
Grinding wheels are made of abrasive particles bonded together by means of some
suitable bond. An abrasive is a hard material which can be used to cut or wear away
other materials. Ii is extremely hard and tough, and when fractured, it forms sharp cutting
edges and corners. Abrasive particles used for grinding wheels are of two type’s viz (a)
natural abrasives and (b) artificial abrasives. Generally for most of the purposes, natural
abrasives are not used due to certain advantages of artificial (manufactured) abrasives.
1. Natural abrasives: These are produced by uncontrolled forces of nature. The following
are the generally found and used natural abrasives:
(a) Sand stone or solid quartz
(b) Emery (50 - 60% crystalline MO, + Iron oxide)
(c) Corundum (75 — 90% crystalline AlO, + Iron oxide)
(d) Diamonds (e) Garnet
2. Artificial or manufactured The quality and composition of these particles can be easily
controlled and their efficiency is far better than that of natural abrasives. Most commonly
used manufactured abrasives are:
(a) Silicon Carbide (SiC): It is available in variety of colors. A special variety of bluish
green is very suitable for grinding tip tools. The trade names of it are ‘Carborandum’,
Crystolon’. ‘Electron’ etc.
(b) Aluminiwn Oxide (AlO) The trade names for fused aluminum oxide are ‘Aloxite’;
‘Alundum’ and ‘Borolon’. Its special form is white MO which when pure, looks like brilliant
white crystal. It is most suitable for tool steels where heat generation due to grinding is
low.
(c) Boron Carbide.
(d) Boron Nitride (CBiV) . CBN grinding wheels are used to grind hardened and difficult to
grind steels. These have long life and high grinding ratios. Temperature encountered in
grinding is much less and hence much better finish and quality of surface.
Efficiency of Abrasive Particles
The efficiency of abrasive particles depends upon
(1) Purity (ii) Uniformity in composition.
(iii) Hardness: Common rule about it is that hardness of abrasive should be more that of
work material.
(iv) Toughness: If wheel is not tough, then abrasive particles will fracture readily and
wheel wear will be excessive.
(v) Sharpness of fracture: The better cutting action is obtained by sharp edged abrasives.
The natural abrasives give rounded edges and are, therefore, not efficient in cutting.

3.2 Classification of grain Sizes, Grade, Structure and Bond.

2. Grain size is indicated by a number, usually from

8 (coarse) to 600 (very fine).
3. Grade is the strength of the bond holding the wheel together ranging from A (soft) to Z
(hard).
4. Structure refers to grain spacing or the manner in which the abrasive grains are
distributed throughout the wheel. It is numbered 1 to 16—the higher the number the
“more open” the structure (wider grain spacing). The use of this number is optional.
5. Bond indicates the type of material that holds the abrasive grains (wheel) together.
Eight types are used:
B = Resinoid
BF = Resinoid reinforced
E Shellac
0 = Oxychioride
R = Rubber
RF = Rubber reinforced
S Silicate
V = Vitrified
An additional number or letter(s) is sometimes used as the manufacturer’s private
marking to identify the grinding wheel.

3.6 Shape of grinding wheel

4. Wheel balancing
Precautions to be taken before Mounting a Grinding Wheel
In the interest of satisfactory operation and safety. it is important that grinding wheels are
mounted correctly on the machine and before mounting they should be examined for any
defects.
1. The wheel should be first examined for any flaw or crack which, Under the Stresses set
up due to high speed of rotation, might lead to fracture of the wheel, thus causing serious
accident.
For testing this, the wheel is supported with the fingers in the bore and

4.2 Wheel balancing

Out-of balance and out-of-round wheels result
in vibrations and poor surface finish, faster wheel breakdown and sometimes even cause
injury to the operator. For this the wheel is mounted at the centre of a perfectly straight
and round spindle, the assembly is then rested on level knife-edge ways. The test should
be carried out after turning up the wheel face and mounting iton its spindle. If there is any
unbalance, wheel will come to rest with its heavy side underneath. Error is rectified by
cutting some of the lead from heavy side of bush. Other way is to adjust the position of
the slotted weights provided in the rim of the flange. These adjustable segments can be
fixed round a circle at any position by tightening the screws. Best results are achieved by
dynamically balancing the wheel.

Fig. 4.1 Balancing of Grinding Wheel

3. The sides of the wheel and the flanges which clamp the wheel should be flat and bear
evenly all around.
4. The lead bushing should be an easy fit and no force be used.
5. The back, fixed flange should be keyed, shrunk or otherwise fixed to the spindle in
order to transmit the power from the spindle to the wheel.
6. Both flanges must be relieved so that they only bear on the wheel at their rim.
On no account must one of them or both should touch the sides or the wheel anywhere
else. Blotting paper or rubber washer should be used between
the flanges and the wheel.

Fig 4.2 Mounting of grinding Wheel

7. Both flanges should be of the same size, the diameter preferably equal to one-half the
diameter of the grinding wheel. If they are n equal in diameter, then bending stresses will
be induced.
8. The nut should be tightened only just enough to hold the wheel. The undue tightness
is unnecessary and not desirable.
9. When wheel is mounted for the first time it should be made ton idle for some time.
10. Safety guard should always be used, so that in case of accident operator is not
injured.
11. The Cut type wheel is usually inclined by a little amount so an arc of contact is
decreased and also the lay is unidirectional and does not cross each other.

12. The wheel speed chosen should be proper.

13. If possible, some proper lubricant should be used in grind operation and while
grinding cast iron job.

5. WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Much work done on a surface grinder is held in position by a magnetic chuck, Fig. 5.1.
This holds the work by exerting a magnetic force. Non- magnetic materials (aluminum,
brass, etc.) can be ground by bracing with steel blocks or parallels to prevent movement.
A magnetic chuck makes use of a permanent magnet, Fig. 5.2. This eliminates cords
needed for electromagnets and the danger of electrical connection being broken
accidentally permitting work to fly off the chuck.
An electromagnetic chuck utilizes an electric current to create the magnetic field.
Frequently, work mounted on a magnetic chuck comes magnetized and must be
demagnetized before it can be used. A demagnetizer may be employed to neutralize the
piece, Fig.5.3
Other ways to mount work on a surface grinder:
1. A universal vise, Fig. 5.4
2. An indexing head with centers
3. Clamps to hold the work directly on worktable,.
4. Double-faced masking tape can be used to hold thin sections of nonmagnetic
materials.

6. Selection of Grinding Wheels

The proper selection of grinding wheels is very important for getting good results (i.e.
obtaining better finish and at the same time having more life of the wheel). In order to
meet all these requirements, the various elements that influence the process must be
considered. Selection mainly depends upon the following factors: (a) Constant factors. (b)
Variable factors.
Constant K factors include.

(i) Work material. It should be remembered that for grinding a soft material, hard wheel
should be used and vice versa.

(ii) Amount and rate of stock removal. (iii) Area of contact between work and wheel. (iv)
Condition of grinding machine. A softer grade of wheel is used on robust and heavy
machine.

(v) Finish and accuracy required on the job.

Variable factors include:

(i) Wheel speed.

(ii) Work speed.

(iii) Condition of grinding machine (state of the wheel spindle bearing).

(iv) Skill of operator (personal factors).

From above it is obvious that several factors are to be considered for the proper selection
of the right wheel. The different wheels are constituted by different combinations of
abrasive materials, grain size, type of bond, hardness of bond, structure etc. Thus the
difficulty n choosing right wheel for any particular job can be gauged from the fact that
more than 10,000 different combinations are obtainable in one wheel.
We will discuss here as to how the various factors influence the choice of right abrasive,
grain size, type of bond etc. and thus [he proper wheel.
Work Material.

It will influence the following elements:

(a) Abrasive material,

(b) Grain size or grit number (mesh number),

(c) Grade (strength of bond),

(d) Structure.
which will decide whether abrasive is Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Aluminum Oxide (AlO) as
these are most commonly used abrasives in different varieties. SiC is the best suited
abrasive for brittle and hard materials like grey cast iron castings, chilled iron, tungsten
carbide, hard steels, stone, porcelain and other ceramic substances. SiC is also
recommended for low tensile strength materials such as non-ferrous metals, bronze,
brass, copper, aluminum and plastic materials. AlO, is better for tough materials having
high tensile strength like, mild steel, alloy steel, high speed annealed malleable iron,
tough bronze, wrought iron, etc.
Grain size. For softer materials, it is a general practice to use coarse grain size and for
harder materials, fine grains. Coarser grain is used for high rate of stock removal. Fine
grain is used if the work size or the work surface finish is important. Grain size is
determined by the mesh number by which ft is reined when passed through a series of
meshes in a vibrating sieve.
Grade. The hard materials and materials having high strength offer more resistance to
wheel while grinding operation is performed. Thus if hard grade of wheel is used then
wheel will get blunt soon and the grinding will not be good. Therefore, for better results on
such materials, the abrasive particles should break and fall quickly so that the new sharp
faces of the particles do the work and they never get blunt. For softer materials, high or
harder grade, i.e. good bond is used. The grading is done by capital alphabets, the first
alphabets being used for softer grade and last ones for harder grade.
Structure. This represents the void between the abrasives and is influenced by the work
material. In the case of harder materials the chips are of small size and also the rate of
metal removal is low. Thus a small reservoir is needed to remove the chips from the hard
material, and the dense structure is desirable for it. For softer materials, the open
structure is prescribed as the rate of metal removal is high and size of chips is also big.
The structure is denoted by numbers from 1 to 15.
Amount and Rate of Stock Removal, It does not influence the abrasive material but the
(a) Grain size, (b) Grade, (c) Structure.
For fast removal of metal, coarse gain Size is required and vice versa. As regards grade,
soft grade is used for fast removal of metal, of course at the cost of wheel life. With softer
grade, the abrasive particles fall off quickly and wheel keeps on sharpening, thus
removing more quantity of material. Also in order that metal may be removed at faster
rate, more space is required for chip removal and hence open structure is desirable for
fast removal of metal and vice versa.
Bond.
Area of Contact. It mainly influences grade and to some extent grain size also. When the
area of contact in grinding operation is large, total grinding pressure is distributed over a
larger area and the pressure per unit area is less and hence a softer wheel is needed for
it. Thus for internal grinding where arc of contact is more, softer wheel is used and for
external grinding, harder wheel.
Condition of Grinding Machine. Heavy rigid machines demand the softer grade of wheel
than the light machines If condition of grinding machine is such as to cause vibrations,
harder grade is used compared to one where complete freedom from vibrations is there.
Finish and Accuracy Required For high degree of accuracy and fine finish requirement,
small Sized grain wheels should be used.

Variable Factors. Wheel Speed and Work Speed. These are the most predominant
factors and about 70% of the complaints can be improved by proper selection of work and
wheel speed e.g. if one gets burnt surface then speed of the wheel may be reduced. If
there is excess wheel wear, it indicates that either wheel is running too slow or the work
too fast.
Wheel speed affects the grade to a considerable extent and for higher wheel speed, soft
wheel (soft grade) should be used. Wheel speed depends upon type of grinding operation
e.g. external or internal grinding or parting off operation. Work speed depends upon type
of work, type of grinding and finish required. IL also affects the grade, and for higher work
speed ii is desirable to use harder wheel and vice versa.
Conditions of Grinding. (By condition of grinding we mean whether the grinding is done in
wet conditions or dry conditions.) In dry conditions with hard wheel the heat generation is
more and thus soft wheel is required and vice versa.
Skill of Operator. An unskilled worker can’t handle soft wheels and he is likely to break
them. Thus unskilled worker should be allowed to work only in those conditions which
require a hard wheel.
6.1 Selection of Grinding Wheels for Thread Grinding and Tool
Sharpening
The factors influencing the type of abrasive for thread grinding wheels are the material of
work piece, its hardness, pitch and profile of the threads. AlO, wheel is preferred for most
of the applications. For grinding titanium, SiC wheel is used and for grinding carbide and
ceramic materials, diamond wheel is used. Finer grit size is used for finer pitch. If fine grit
is used then harder wheel is employed. For high precision thread grinding, and where
lead errors ITI pre-cut threads are to be corrected, vitrified bond wheels are used which
are more rigid also. Resinoid bond wheels are very flexible and can remove stock rapidly.
However, these can’t correct the lead errors in pre-cut threads because of their flexibility.
For tool sharpening, AlO, wheels are used for H.S.S; silicon carbide wheels are used for
carbide-Lipped tools. The operation of lapping and fine finish is done by diamond wheels.
CBN wheel is well suited for grinding a variety of difficult to machine tool steels. Other
considerations are same as for general grinding applications.
6.1.1. Selection of Grinding Wheel According to I.S.Speciflcations various elements are
put in systematic manner as follows:
Compulsory Elements. Following have to be mentioned in all the wheels:
(I) Abrasive,

(2) Grain size

(3) Grade,

(4) Type of Bond.

Optional Elements arc:
(1) Prefix, (2) Structure, (3) Suffix.
Abrasive. These are denoted by:
A — for MO,, C — for SiC
WA — for white MO, GC — for green grit SIC.
The last two arc sometimes put under prefix also.
Grain Size. It is denoted by grit number. The various numbers for different types of grain
size are given below:
Coarse grain : 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20,24
Medium grain : 30,36,46,54, 60
Fine grain : 80, 100, 120, 150, 180
Very fine grain : 220,240,280,320,400500,600.
For all types of grinding higher limit is up to 180. The grit number above 200 is
recommended for lapping operation etc.

Grade. The following classification is employed for grade:

A—E:Very soft, G—K:Soft
L —0: Medium, P — S: Hard
T—Z: Very hard.
Type of bond. The following notations are followed:
V — Vitrified, B — Resinoid, BF — Resinoid reinforced
R — Rubber, RF — Rubber reinforced
E — Shellac, S — Silicate., Mg — Magnesia
Prefix. It denotes manufacturer symbol for exact nature of abrasive e.g. GC. Here G is
prefix and C stands for silicon carbide.
This varies from manufacturer to manufacturer and they have their own code numbers.
Sometimes mixture of two varieties may also be used in abrasives.
Structure. It is denoted by numbers from I to 15.
1 —8: Dense structure
9—15: Openstructurc.
Suffix. Its structure’s own identification mark (trade secret) and depends upon the process
and type of manufacturer.

7. Coolant selection for grinding operation

Use of Cutting Fluids during Grinding

A lot of heat is generated at the contact of grinding wheel and the workpiece during
grinding operation, majority of which is transferred to the workpiece. Grinding fluids help
in preventing excessive heating of workpiece and flush the wheel. Grinding fluids
containing sulfur or chlorine additives help in reducing the cutting force and improving the
surface finish and increasing the life of the grinding wheel. Usually water based emulsions
and grinding oils in ample quantity (15-20 liters/mm for normal medium sized grinding
machine) are used for this purpose. The fluid is directed to the interface between wheel
and workpiece so that it can create a film of low shear strength between the wheel and
the work. The fluid is supplied under pressure using special nozzles, so that air film
around the wheel surface due to high speed, is penetrated. In order to prevent clogging in
the wheel due to fine particles, the grinding fluid is finely filtered.
8. Types of grinding machines
Grinding Machines
Grinding machines are designed principally to finish parts having cylindrical, flat or
internal surfaces. The kind of surface machined largely
, determines the type of grinding machine and thus a machine grinding flat surfaces is
called a surface grinder and a machine grinding cylindrical surfaces is called the
cylindrical grinder and so on. In case of special purpose machines, they are designated
according to the type of operation they perform.
Here is a broad classification of grinding machines based on the type of surface
generated or work done.
1. Cylindrical grinder
(a) Work between centers, (b) Chucking type cylindrical grinders,
(c) Centre less, (d) Tool-post,
(e) Crank-shaft and other special applications.
2. Internal grinder
(a) Work rotated in chuck, (b) Work rotated and held by rolls.
(c) Work stationary.
3. Surface grinder
(a) Planer type (Reciprocating table)
(1) Horizontal spindle, (it) Vertical spindle
(b) Rotating table
(i) Horizontal spindle, (ii) Vertical spindle

4. Tool-grinder
(a) Universal.
(b) Special.
(i) Drill, (ii) Tool-bit, (iii) Cutter (iv) Pedestal etc.
5. Special grinding machines
(a) Swinging frame — snagging, (b) Cut-off-sawing
(c) Portable — off-hand grinding (d) Honing and lapping—accurate finishing
(e) Super finishing, (f) Flexible shaft — general purpose.
6. Surface finishing
(a) Disk, (b) Flexible band (c) Buffing machine.
8.1. Cylindrical Grinder As is evident from the name itself, this machine is used
primarily for grinding cylindrical surfaces which may be parallel: tapered or fillets, grooves,
shoulders and other formed surfaces of revolution. The main sub-classification of
cylindrical grinders depends upon the method of supporting the work (between the
centers, or centereless). In case of work between the centres, work is rotated
independently and moved traversal as well. The speed of work can be varied to suit the
conditions. Working principle is shown in Fig. 20.14 (a) and (b). In case of centerless
type, the work is supported by the arrangement of the work rest, a regulating wheel and
the grinding wheel itself. Both types use plain grinding wheels with the grinding face as
the outside diameter.
Fig. 2O14
The depth of cut is controlled by feeding wheel into the work. The depth of Cut for
roughing cut is normally O05 mm, but for finishing cuts, the feed is reduced to 0005 mm.
In selecting the amount of infeed, consideration must be given to the size, rigidity of work,
the finish desired and whether coolant is used or noL
Various types of cylindrical grinding machines arc described below.
8.2. Centre Type Cylindrical Grinding Machine. In this machine, the
workpiece is supported between centers. The headstock wheel head, and tailstock (both
of which (nay be swiveling or non-swiveling type) are mounted on a swivel table which
itself is mounted on a sliding table that can move to and for in the bed guide ways. A
special feature of these is to grind

Multi-diameter shafts and control then concentricity. These are classified as:
(1) Plain cylindrical grinding machines There are basically designed for heavy repetitive
simple work. These are not very versatile.
(ü) Universal cylindrical grinding machines: These are best suited for tool room
applications as these arc very versatile. Both work head and wheel head can be swiveled.
it is possible to grind tapered surfaces and use this machine for internal, face and surface
grinding by using some attachments, ft is also possible to carry out plunge cylindrical
grinding, taper plunge grinding
The various operations possible on a universal cylindrical grinding
machine arc shown in Fig 20.15. --

straight plunge type or angular-wheel slide plunge cut type. These are basically high
volume production machines. The wheel is plunged into the work at a predetermined feed
rate and is withdrawn after correct size is produced. Angular wheel slide plunge type
machine is used to finish shoulder surfaces at right angles correctly in a single operation
by an angular wheel . Refer Fig.
2O 16.
8.3. Chucking Type Cylindrical Grinders. These are used for grinding
external surfaces of short work-pieces having no centre holes and no convenient surface
for driving.
Grinding Parameters in Cylindrical Grinding. In the case of cylindrical grinding, cutting
speed V. i.e. relative motion between grinding wheel and workpiece = ,tDgNg it_DwNw..
1000 10(X) where Dg and Dw arc diameters of grinding wheel arid workpiece and Ng and
Nw are RPMs of grinding wheel and workpiece. In view of irregular shape of abrasive
particles, it is difficult to estimate value of uncut chip thickness and width of cutt Metal
removal rate is nearly equal to it Dw F F1 (in case of transverse grinding) (F, = radial in—
feed/stroke of grinding wheel F1 rate of transverse feed)
In case of plunge cut grinding, metal removal rate it I),, b3 F(b1= width of grinding wheel,
F = rate of radial feed) Machining time m hdl + , 2F, F1 (in case of transverse grinding)
where h = thickness of layer to te removed, length of stroke. t = spark-out time, i.e. when
litLic spark is floticed and metal removal is negligible.
For plunge-cut grinding, machining time = h +

7.3 Centreless Grinding. Under modem requirements of accuracy and the cost at
which articles must be produced, it would be undesirable to fix every ground component
between centers. Fortunately centreless grinding has gained much popularity and this
process plays an important role in the sphere of grinding. As the name implies, 1e work is
not supported between centers but is held against the face of grind i ig wheel by the
combination of supporting rest and a regulating wheel. Thus centereless grinding does
not require centre holes, drivers and other fixtures or holding the workpiece. During the
process, the workpiece is supported on a work rest blade and the regulating wheel holds
the workpiece against the horizontal force of action controlling its size and imparting the
necessary rotational and longitudinal feed. The blade on the work rest gives the
necessary support to the workpiece against the cutting forces. The thickness of the blade
is usually slightly less than the diameter of the workpiece for smaller diameters and
maximum thickness is around 20 mm. The slope (“2 ° to 8°) of its edge with the regulating
wheel provides the V formation into which the work seats. Work guides are also used to
keep the work parallel with the space between the wheels. The speed of regulating wheel
varies from 15 to 60 meters/mm. (while the speed of grinding wheel is maintained at 1800
meters/minutes). The workpicce is usually ground with its centre above the line of centers
of the wheels by about half the diameter of workpiece, the maximum value being 12 mm.
(Fig. 2O18 shows the principle of centreless grinding).
In the side view it is shown that the regulating wheel is inclined at angle a to the grinding
wheel. The velocity component can be resolved into two parts, the one in horizontal
direction is V sin cx which gives the necessary Iced, while the other one V cos a in the
vertical direction gives rotational motion to the wheel.
The material of blade for various workpieces is Workpiece Blade Stainless steel Sintered
carbide or hard bronze Non-ferrous and small HSS diameter jobs Soft steel work Machine

The rotation of wheel is such that the worpiece rotates in downward direction as this
position can be balanced by the work-rest.

Basically there are three different methods by which centreless grinding can be done on
different types of jobs.
(t) Through-feed. This is simplest method and is applied only to plain parallel parts such
as roller pins and straight long bars which arc difficult to grind by ordinary cylindrical
grinding method. In this case, controlling wheel is first positioned for the proper diameter,
i.e. the gap between the regulating wheel and grinding wheel is adjusted equal to the
desired diameter of the workpiecc and then the job is fed and passed through the wheels.
The machine can remove up to 0.38 mm of stock on the diameter in one pass. The rate of
longitudinal feed = it x diameter of regulating wheel x r.p.m. of regulating wheel x sin
(angle of inclination of regulating wheel, usually 10 to 6). This relationship does not
consider effect of slip. For finish grinding, high speed of regulating wheel combined with
less inclination are used and vice versa.
Advantages (a) The operation becomes automatic by employing continuous magazine
feed for longer bars and hopper for small jobs.
(b) No holding of the workpiece is required except the work support and hence the long
bars can be ground easily without any deflection being produced.
Disadvantages (a) This process is only used in case of straight cylindrical parts. If there is
a head on the workpiece or it is tapered one, then this process cannot be used.
(b) Form grinding operation cannot be carried out by this process.
(ii) In-feed (Plung-c ut-grinding). This method of grinding is used when the workpiece is of
headed, stepped or taper form. In this case there is no axial movement of the workpiece
as the length of grinding has to be controlled.
The only movement occurring during the process is the rotating movement. During the
process the workpiece is placed on the work-rest against an end stop and then the
control wheel is advanced towards grinding wheel by some lever arrangement, and
grinding continued till the workpiece is reduced to the required diameter.
The regulating wheel is given a slight inclination of the order of ‘2 in order that the
workpiece may remain tight against the end stop. If this inclination is not given to the
controlling wheel, then there are chances that workpiece may fall down during the
process. The length of the workpiece that can be ground is limited to 30 cm. By this
process form grinding can also lx done. Fig. 20.20 In-feed grinding
(iii) End-feed. This process of centreless grind. is used for headed components which are
too long to be ground by the infeed method. Fig. 2021. End-feed grinding
i.e. when the length of workpiece is greater than the width of the grinding wheel. The work
is fed as in case of in-feed method and after a certain portion of length of workpiece has
been ground, the axial movement takes place until the whole of length has been ground.
It is also used for tapered work. Usually both grinding wheel and regulating wheel arc
trued to obtain the required taper.
Advanlage3 of centreless grinding over cylindrical grinding:
(1) The rate of production is much more in centre less grinding than cylindrical grinding.
(2) The work is supported rigidly along the whole length ensuring better stability.
(3) This process is very suitable for long jobs as the work is supported along the whole
length and thus deflection does not occur.
(4) Due to floating conditions, the centering can be eliminated and hence no time is
wasted in job 3c Using.
(5) As the centering is eliminated, less stock is needed.
(6) Cost of production is very less.
(7) The wear and Lear of the machine is less and hence economical to maintain.

Scope of the centreless grinding. Due to various advantages listed at wc, cencreless
grinding is playing an important role in the field of production technology. The process
can be applied to the workpieces upto 15 cm in diameter and from washer to bars of 6-7
meters in length. With the in-feed and end-feed methods, tapered, headed, stepped and
formed work can also be

ground. The accuracy that can be obtained from centreless grinding is of the order of 0-
00025 mm and with suitably selected wheels, the finish satisfies the most exacting
requirements. The figures given below are of valve and socket which are the examples of
centreless grinding.

7.4. Internal Grinders. These grinders are used for grinding internal bores and
tubes which are generally tapered and those having more than one diameter. Fig. 20.23
shows the various operations possible on anniemal grinding machine. Internal grinding is
frequently used on production arts that have not been heat treated to save the reaming
cost. According to the construction, there are several types of internal grinders.
(b) The wheel is rotated and at the same time reciprocated back and forth through the
length of hole. The work is rotated slowly. This type of grinder is also called chucking
grinder.
(c) The work remains stationary and the rotating wheel spindle is given an eccentric
motion, according to the diameter of hole to be ground. Such a type of operation is used
where the work is difficult to be rotated. Since in this operation, the motion of the grinding
wheel is in the form of planet and hence it is frequently called planetary grinding (Fig. 20-
24 and 20.25).
(d) The work is rotated on the outside diameter by driven rolls, thus making it possible to
grind the bores absolutely concentric with the outside diameter. This arrangement lends
itself to production work since loading may be simplified and magazine feed may be used.
This type of grinding operation is called internal centreless grinding. This is described in
details below.
7.4.1 Internal cenireless grinding. This process is of recent development and
is used for grinding internal surfaces of the relatively long workpieces. The arrangement is
shown by a simple sketch in Fig. 2O.26. The workpiece is supported by a set of rollers A
and fl and a regulating wheel R. One of the rollers simply serves the purpose of
supporting and hence is called the supporting roller; the other is used for pressing the
workpiece against the regulating wheel and hence is cal led the pressure roller. The
grinding wheel G and the workpiece rotate in the same direction while the regulating
wheel in the opposite direction. Another point of difference in the internal surface grinding
is that grinding wheel is smaller in diameter than the regulating wheel.

This process may work either on the ‘on-centre’ principle as shown in Fig. 20•26 or on the
‘above centre’ principle in which line joining centers of workpiece and regulating wheel
makes an angle with horizontal line in the second quadrant. On-centre method is used for
thin walled components.
However, ‘on-centre’ method is prone to duplicate the errors of the outside diameter and
errors of waviness and other form errors are also introduced which to some extent can be
corrected by the ‘above centre’ principle.
Limitations. (a) Since the roundness of internal surface depends upon the external
surface, the external surface must be ground first and internal grinding afterwards and (b)
Concentricity cannot be maintained.
Lobing. The most commonly occurring defect in external centreless grinding is lobing. In
case of hot and cold rolled steel bars it is not possible to get a perfect round shape. The
surface has some high spots and some low spots. During the process of centreless
grinding, these high and low spots cannot be ground.
7.5. Surface Grinders.
The grinding of flat or plain surfaces is known as surface grinding. Angular or formed
surfaces can also be ground by using special fixtures and form dressing devices. Two
general types of machines have been developed for this purpose.
1. Rotary-type is one in which the table is circular in shape and rotates under the wheel.
2. Planer-type is one in which the table is rectangular and traverses under the wheel.
Each type of machine ha the possible variations of having .he grinding wheel spindle in
either a horizontal or a vertical position.
Horizontal spindle. In this machine, the face of the wheel is used for grinding. The work is
traversed under the wheel face gradually. Work is also fed laterally at each end of the
stroke so that a required area may be ground. The principle is shown in Fig. 2O27.

Rotary table type surface grinders with horizontal spindles are generally used for
precision grinding. The work is mounted on a revolving horizontal axis table and the
grinding wheel spindle is carried on a wheel slide which can be traversed across the
work. Concave or convex surfaces can be ground on individual parts by swiveling the
table.
Vertical-spindle. In this case, flat surfaces are produced with the side of wheel mounted
on the vertical spindle. It is also called cup-grinding. The wheel head remains fixed and is
fed down or up, until the work is finished. The principle is shown in Fig. 22•28.
7.5.1 Grinding Parameters in Surface Grinding In case of surface grinding,
cutting speed 7 D8Ng rn/mm
1000
(D = grinding wheel diameter
N = speed (RPM) of grinding wheel)
metal removal rate = fdF1
(f = cross-feed/stroke
d = depth of cut, i.e., radial in-feed of grinding wheel per pass
& F1 = table traverse rate)
No. of passes required = ii d
No. of strokes per pass = f
(B = width of the surface to be ground in direction of 1)
Time per stroke= (1= length of stroke)
Machining time = No. of passes x No. of strokes/pass x (time/stroke + spark-out time) (in
case of transverse grinding)
= + ts (in case of plunge-cut grinding)
F
where F = plunge feed rate along the radius of the grinding wheel.