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Sandström, O., 1998: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in tal thickness of about 500 m. The Silurian strata of the island are
Ludfordian (Upper Silurian) reefal sea stacks on Gotland, Sweden. currently subdivided into 13 topostratigraphical units (Fig. 1B),
GFF, Vol. 120 (Pt. 4, December), pp. 365–371. Stockholm. ISSN 1103- mainly following the stratigraphy of Hede (1921, 1925) with the
5897. oldest parts in the NW and the youngest in the S giving a gentle
Abstract: A study of the sedimentology and stromatoporoid morphol-
dip towards the SE. The strata have not been subjected to any
ogies in the Upper Silurian of southeastern Gotland reveals a strong re-
greater compaction or heating.
lationship between the depositional environment and the morphological
Laufeld & Bassett (1981) described the overall Gotland geol-
range of stromatoporoids. In high-energy environments, characterised
ogy as a carbonate platform of limestone wedges with interrup-
by packstones and grainstones, low-profile forms dominate, whereas
tions by shaly marls. Later studies (Frykman 1989; Jacobsson
in calmer settings, characterised by wackestones and packstones, high-
1997) envisage a ramp setting for the platform. Frykman (1989)
profile stromatoporoids dominate. Four rock units are recognised, rep-
based this idea on the fact that no platform margin or strict sub-
resenting two major facies: Reef-like limestones and Detrital grain-
division of shallow/deep-water facies can be recognised. Instead
stones. Reef-like limestones comprise a variety of lithologies including
there is a gradual transition from shallow to deep water facies.
wackestones, packstones, boundstones, and framestones. All units are
Jacobsson (1997) describes a prograding ramp development
shallow marine, but the occurrence of crystal silt may indicate a vadose
from the Wenlockian Slite Beds with initially clays and marls,
situation on top of the reef-like facies. In the reef-like units, hard sub-
continuing with storm deposits and increasing carbonate content
strates for stromatoporoid growth were probably provided by microbial
as progradation and shallowing continues. The reefs and reef like
cementation. Sedimentation rates were generally low although episodic
deposits developed most extensively in the most shallow parts of
high sedimentation occurred as indicated by raggedness in stromatopo-
the ramp. As progradation progressed several reef bands devel-
roid skeletons. The stromatoporoid fauna is considered a low-diversity
oped (cf. Fig. 1A) giving the present range and geographical ex-
assemblage dominated by Parallelostroma typicum.
tension of the reefal limestones. Jeppsson (1990) suggested a cy-
Keywords: Stromatoporoid morphologies, carbonate petrography, ree-
clic oceanic model which includes the distribution of marls and
fal carbonates, Silurian, Gotland, Hemse Beds Sweden
reef limestones based on climate changes affecting deep sea bot-
tom currents. He divided the Gotland strata into P- and S- states,
O. Sandström, Dept. of Geology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 13, SE- where the P-state represents humid periods with shales and marls
223 62 Lund, Sweden, e-mail olof.sandstrom@geol.lu.se. Manuscript and temperature stratified oceans, and the S-state represents dry
received 11 July 1997. Revised manuscript accepted 2 November 1998. periods with limestones and reefs and black shales in basin ar-
eas elsewhere reflecting salinity stratification. The Fol-hammarn
area was probably deposited at the later stages of an S-episode
Investigations of stromatoporoids and their shapes have shown (Etelhem Secundo episode according to Jeppsson 1998).
that several growth forms may have been induced by environ-
mental factors (Kershaw & Riding 1978; Bjerstedt & Feldmann
1985; Kano 1989, 1990; Kershaw 1990, 1997), enabling their Methods
use in facies interpretations. Some species are confined to certain Since the Folhammarn sea stack field is a nature reserve, only
growth forms by genetic controls, and are consequently confined a total of 30 samples with a maximum weight of 150 g/sample
to certain sedimentary environments (cf. Kershaw 1990, 1997). was allowed. Thirteen are of the stromatoporoids, one is a coral
Petrographic studies of the sedimentary rocks enclosing the stro- and 16 samples are of the surrounding sediments. Four sea stacks
matoporoids give general and specific clues to the depositional (R1–4; Fig. 1C), reflecting three different facies, were selected
history. Stromatoporoid shapes and growth strategies may add along the field where sampling and measuring took place. Thin
information regarding the nature of depositional patterns. sections were made from all samples for petrographic and textur-
This paper is an attempt to highlight relationships between the al analysis as well as species determination of stromatoporoids.
depositional history and stromatoporoid growth in a reefal, stro- Limestone classification follows Dunham (1962). On each sea
matoporoid-rich sea stack field called the Folhammarn nature stack a sketch of the rock surface at 1/5 reduction was drawn
reserve (Fig. 1C) in the Upper Silurian Hemse Beds unit d (cf. using a 1×1 m frame with a 5×5 cm grid. Point counting was
Fredholm 1988a, 1988b) of Gotland belonging to the Polygnath- carried out on these (1600 pts/sketch) and on thin sections of
oides siluricus conodont biozone (Jeppsson 1983). Comparisons the matrix (500 pts/sample). In this way both macro- and mi-
are made with other known mid- to upper Hemse Beds reefal cro-components were obtained. To avoid over-representation
localities. of medium-sized particles, only grains of 2 cm in diameter and
The island of Gotland, situated in the Baltic Sea east of the larger were sketched and, consequently, on thin sections only
Swedish coast, consists of Silurian rocks ranging from Upper grains smaller than 2 cm in diameter were counted. This method
Llandovery to Upper Ludlow and are dominated by limestones was introduced by Kano (1989), and the results he obtained from
and marls (mudstones with a large carbonate content), with a to- Gotland reefal deposits are summarised in Kano (1994) which
366 Sandström: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in the Ludfordian GFF 120 (1998)
Results
Based on stromatoporoid shapes and pet-
rographic characteristics, four rock units
were distinguished: large stromatoporoid
packstones (LP), anastomosing and lami-
nar stromatoporoid packstones (ALP), fa-
vositid/stromatoporoid grainstones (FG)
and detrital grainstones and rud-stones
(DG). Of the four sea stacks, two expose
LP (R2 and R4), one ALP (R1) and one
FG (R3). DG is distinguished in the up-
Facies distribution
There are two main facies types repre-
sented in the Folhammarn area; reef-like
limestones and detrital grainstones. The
reef-like limestones are commonly fol-
lowed by grainstones at the top of most
sea stacks (cf. Fig 2C). However, the lat-
eral variation is more complex and each favositids of autochthonous origin and is common. Laminae may be enveloping
unit displays lateral variations and com- some are even displayed in situ giv- and non-enveloping within the same skel-
plex interactions and may even grade into ing a rather distinct layering that dips a eton. Raggedness of the laminae as well
each other. Reef-like limestones are the few degrees to the east (Fig. 2D–E). DG as sediment inclusions indicate frequent
units LP and ALP. The LP unit shows a comprises grainstones and rudstones of episodic pulses of high sedimentation that
variety of subfacies like extremely large predominantly broken stromatoporoids may have partly buried the colonies. In a
stromatoporoid colonies, small ʻpatch and favositids together with crinoid frag- few colonies, large favositids are incorpo-
reefsʼ (boundstones; Fig. 2C), inter-reef ments. Layering may be present, but the rated with the skeleton. Fig. 5 shows an
packstones, reef cavity fillings (Fig. 2B; unit may also show diffuse characters and example of a typical giant stromatoporoid
intra-reef packstones) and crinoid mead- may in places appear massive. colony with coalescence in its most initial
ows (Fig. 2A; encrinitic packstones). The parts. The coalescent growth indicates a
ALP unit differs from LP only in that the Large stromatoporoid packstones (LP). – simultaneous budding and an initial lat-
reefs are of laminar and repeated laminar Greenish to bluish packstone consisting eral mode of growth, that later passed
stromatoporoids (framestones; Fig. 2G). of a micritic matrix, in places neomorph- into vertical growth. The uppermost parts
Matrix and inter-reef sediments are here ically altered to microspar and granular of the skeleton display non-enveloping
packstones and grainstones. LP and ALP sparite. Grains are skeletal fragments of laminae. Thus, in the lower parts, growth
are lateral equivalents and grade into each mainly stromatoporoids, crinoids, corals styles were mostly low domical and be-
other in a patch like manner (cf. Fig. 2F). and bryozoans (Fig. 3A and E). Sporadic came successively vertically extended in
ALP is, however, confined to the southern grains of pyrite occur. Algae occur but are its upper parts. As a result, the giant speci-
sea stack field (Fågelhammar 1). Fig. 2C not common. mens are generally high domical.
shows an example from R2, where small In unit A stromatoporoid morpholo- In places, dense accumulations of
stromatoporoid boundstone piles (b) are gies range from low domical to extended domical stromatoporoids and favositids
separated by inter-reef packstones (unit domical (cf. Fig 4). Very large colonies occur forming small patch reefs (Fig. 2C).
LP) which is overlain by rudaceous grain- occur at a distance of 1–20 m from each These accumulations are distanced in a
stones (DG). This succession is the most other. These colonies are between 1 and similar manner as for the large solitary,
common in the area. 4.5 m in base and up to 2.5 m high. They coalesced colonies. Within the accumu-
Detrital grainstone facies are FG and display initial coalescence and do often lations, cavity dwellers of trilobites and
DG. FG comprises stromatoporoids and have ragged margins. Coral intergrowth bivalves as well as cephalopods (Fig. 2B)
368 Sandström: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in the Ludfordian GFF 120 (1998)
Petrography
Macro- and microscopic constituents of
the four units differ mainly on a higher
scale, i.e., reef-like limestones and detri-
tal grainstones (Fig. 6). Within the reefal
limestones stromatoporoids are the main
fossil constituent of the LP unit, whereas
in the ALP unit corals are a significant
skeletal constituent. The amounts of mic-
rite and sparite in these two units are com-
parable. The detrital units are dominated
by their high sparitic content, the skeletal
content is dominated by stromatoporoids
and crinoids. In the FG unit, a significant
portion is favositid corals.
Although the amount of algae was too
small to be seen in the point counting re-
sults, it is still important when interpreting
the petrographic analysis. The algae are of
two kinds and occur mostly in the reef-
like limestones as encrusters, intra-clasts
and binders. Encrusters have Gir-vanella
Fig. 4. V/B plots of measured stromatoporoid skeletons from the three stromatoporoid bearing
structure and binding forms are probably
subunits LP, ALP and FG. rhodolithic algae (Fig. 3A, D, E). Both
types also occur as intraclasts and as pel-
loids. Girvanella is seen attached to stro-
matoporoids and is often found as a rim.
may be found. Abundant occurrences of acters forming framestones (Fig. 2G). In thin section, rhodolithic microbials are
crinoid holdfasts in the packstones (Fig. Almost all forms show ragged margins commonly seen as darker micritic molds
2A) as well as locally rich accumulations and sediment inclusions. None of the capping and binding organisms into intra-
of crinoid stem parts (encrinites) indicate studied samples (N=23) exhibited coral clastic aggregates.
occurrences of what was probably crinoid inter-growth or incorporation of tabulates. In the ALP-unit, internal sediment is
meadows situated between large stromat- Crinoid stem parts are common as well as present deposited in small cavities (Fig.
oporoids and stromatoporoid accumula- atrypid brachiopods. 3F) forming geopetal characters. The size
tions. of the internal grains varies but most are
Favositid/stromatoporoid grainstones silt-sized although larger dolomite grains
Anastomosing and laminar stromatopo- (FG) and detrital grainstones and rud- occur. The sediment is here interpreted as
roid packstones (ALP). – The ALP-unit stones (DG). – These units are grainstones crystal silt and has so far only been found
displays packstones (Fig. 3B, D, F), and (Fig. 3C), grey to white, in places rud- within this unit.
in a few samples, grainstones. The mic- aceous with large skeletal debris. Layer-
ritic matrix of the packstones is in places ing is present in FG marked by bands of in
neomorphically altered to micro-spar, situ, mostly small (base diameter <1 m), Stromatoporoid fauna
pseudospar and granular sparite. The col- stromatoporoids and colonies of tabulate Of the 13 stromatoporoid samples, 11
our of the rocks is greenish and reddish. corals (commonly favositids; Fig. 2D–E). could be classified (two were strongly di-
In thin section skeletal grains may be In thin sections from both units, particles agenetically altered). Three species were
coated with a hematite-impregnated ce- are mainly crinoid fragments although identified; Parallelostroma typicum (8
ment. Skeletal particles are mostly from fragments of stromatoporoids and cor- samples), Stromatopora bekkeri (2 sam-
crinoids, stromatoporoids, corals and, not als may be common. Algae are rare and ples), and Pycnodictyon densum (1 sam-
so commonly, algae and brachiopods. Py- fragmented. The cement is of syntaxial ple). Eight samples were from LP, 3 from
rite grains occur sporadically. sparite around the crinoid fragments as ALP and 2 from FG. The stromatoporoid
Stromatoporoid morphologies range well as prismatic calcite. Within coral and species were distributed as follows; P.
from low domical to laminar (cf. Fig. 4) stromatoporoid skeletons, drusy spar and typicum in units LP and ALP, S. bekkeri
although some large high domical forms equant spar are about equally distributed. in unit FG, and P. densum in unit ALP.
also occur (cf. LP unit). Laminar forms The stromatoporoids occurring within S. Kershaw (pers. comm. 1998) found a
may locally exhibit anastomosing char- FG are all small low profile forms (low specimen of S. bekkeri in unit LP as well.
GFF 120 (1998) Sandström: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in the Ludfordian 369
fined to certain growth forms, these are also confined to environ- toward lower V/B-values. High death rates before settlement
ments suitable for that style of growth. Either the stromatoporoid will not directly contribute to the assemblage since these are not
will have adapted to a change in the environment, or it will be measurable in the field and may not have secreted calcite. Also,
replaced by organisms more suitable for the altered situation. the assemblage will be affected in an environment where frag-
Some features of the shape of stromatoporoids are always in- mentation and/or truncation of the specimens is common since
dicative of physical processes acting on the environment (e.g. such specimens are unmeasurable. Still, it is the environment that
ragged margins, sediment inclusions; Broadhurst 1966; Kershaw will yield changes to the stromatoporoid assemblage that in turn
& Riding 1978; Stearn 1982; Kano 1990), others are more un- is shown by the frequency and distribution of morphotypes.
certain indicators due to species confinement and/or ontogenetic Coral intergrowth can be seen in, amongst other localities, the
behaviour of the individual (e.g. laminar, domical, etc.; Krebs Kuppen biostrome belonging to the middle Hemse Beds, and
1974; Bjerstedt & Feldmann 1985; Kano 1989, 1990; Kershaw the Ljugarn sea stack field of the same age as the Folhammarn
1990, 1997). sea stack field. Whether coral intergrowth is a true symbiosis
The use of stromatoporoid morphologies in facies interpreta- or not is yet to be clarified (Kershaw 1987). At Folhammarn
tion seems to work well for certain processes. The bulk morpho- coral inter-growth occurred only in the large stromatoporoid
types will yield information about sedimentation and the general specimens, and therefore it could be tempting to interpret it as
water agitation. Together with specific characters of individu- a growth enhancement mechanism for the stromatoporoids and
al skeletons and petrographical and textural data of the rocks, corals as well. However, coral intergrowth at Kuppen (Kershaw
coarse environmental reconstructions may be obtained. 1987) occurs in smaller specimens than in Folhammarn, and in
There are several factors indicating periodic sedimentation the Ljugarn sea stack field occurrences are from both small and
stress on the stromatoporoid populations occurring in reef-like large stromatoporoid skeletons (own observations). Due to this
facies. Firstly, the occurrence of ragged margins and repeated and the fact that there are no clear and direct advantages of inter-
laminar forms together with sediment inclusions, secondly, the growth for the stromatoporoids as seen in the fossil record, one
scarcity of a reef framework, thirdly many specimens grew coa- cannot conclude a true symbiosis.
lesced and developed into very large colonies. The colonies often
grew separated from each other and dense clusters are scarce.
Finally, only six stromatoporoid species have been found, Paral- Conclusions
lelostroma typicum (dominating), Pycnodictyon densum, Strom- The stromatoporoid fauna of Folhammarn is dominated by Par-
atopora venukovi, S. bekkeri, Petridiostroma convictum, and Ec- allelostroma typicum and is considered a low diversity assem-
climadictyon robustum (cf. Mori 1970; Kano 1990; S. Ker-shaw blage. Stromatoporoid morphotypes differ significantly between
pers. comm. 1998). Low diversity faunas dominated by only one units and is probably due to differences in the sedimentary pat-
or a few species may indicate stressed habitats (Copper 1994). tern as well as wave energy (stress).
The Kuppen area on Gotland shows signs of low sedimentation Very large stromatoporoids (>1 m in base) show signs of a
rates (Kershaw 1993) and yields a more diverse fauna of 16 two-stage growth, beginning with a lateral mode of growth in-
stromatoporoid species, where c. 40% of the specimens are of terrupted by episodic sedimentation followed by a second stage
one species (Kershaw 1990). This is, however, still considered with vertical growth and non-overlapping laminae.
a low-diversity assemblage because many other reefs exhibit far Coral intergrowth is common in larger specimens, but does not
greater diversity. seem to reflect a growth enhancement mechanism since inter-
Each of the sediment pulses may have partly buried the active growth has been reported from small specimens in other locali-
parts of the skeleton and the post-pulse phase is characterised ties like Kuppen and Ljugarn.
by lateral growth of the skeleton expanding over the new event Four different units, LP, ALP, FG, and DG were recognised
layer giving rise to ragged margins and/or repeated lamination. and grouped into reef-like (LP and ALP) and detrital (FG and
However, recent research has shown that some sclerosponges are DG) facies. Three of the units are stromatoporoid bearing (LP,
able to expand their skeletons into free space (Stearn & Pickett ALP, and FG). All units are considered shallow marine. Geo-
1994) and, therefore, raggedness may not always be an indica- graphically, the Folhammarn complex was marine and protected
tion of sediment stress. Whether an individual will have survived and not far from shore, although it is not to be considered la-
in a situation like this is dependent on three factors: ability to re- goonal. Occurrence of vadose silt in the ALP-unit suggests a
move sediment from active tissue, the size of the sedimentation subaerial contact at the top of the unit or above. Hard substrates
pulse, and the duration between pulses. If the stromatoporoid for stromatoporoid growth may have been provided by microbial
is unable to remove particles from the living tissue, even small cementation instead of earlier suggested karstic processes (cf.
sedimentation pulses may be fatal. Ability to remove sediments Kano 1990, 1994). Sedimentation rates were low in general, but
enhances the survival rate in habitats experiencing sedimenta- the influence of storms and hurricanes yielded episodic pulses
tion stresses. of high sedimentation indicated by the ragged margins and sedi-
At Folhammarn, sedimentation rate and water energy are the ment inclusions of the stromatoporoid skeletons.
major controlling factors for the forming of morphotype varia- Acknowledgements. – Field work was partially financed through grants from Lunds Geolo-
tions and frequencies within a unit. Other factors may include giska Fältklubb. The Allekvia field station on Gotland is acknowledged for accommodation
plasticity of the shape of the species within the investigated unit, support during field work. This work was accomplished during my time as a research student
at the Dept. of Geology, Historical Geology and Paleontology, Lund University. I wish to
demography and preservation of whole specimens. The demo- thank Dr. Stephen Kershaw at Brunel University, London, for all support and ongoing dis-
graphic pattern of the studied assemblage is important since most cussions on stromatoporoid morphologies and Gotland reefs. Thanks also to Länsstyrelsen,
species did not take their final form until they were fully grown Gotlands län for permission to collect samples at the Folhammarn nature reserve. Prof. Kent
Larsson, Lennart Jeppsson and Anita Löfgren, all at Lund University, read and commented
(cf. Stearn 1975). If the death rate is high after settlement and on early drafts of the manuscript. Drs. Akihiro Kano and Stephen Kershaw refereed the
during the growth phase this will tend to skew the assemblage manuscript and made useful suggestions to the final appearance of this article.
GFF 120 (1998) Sandström: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in the Ludfordian 371
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Hubbard, D.K., Parsons, K.M., Bythell, J.C. & Walker, N.D., 1991: The effects of 1974b). Coordinates are given in the Swedish National Grid (Rikets Nät), printed
Hurricane Hugo on the reefs and associated environments of St. Croix Islands – A on the topographical map sheets.
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Jacobsson, C.M., 1997: Storm deposition on a Silurian prograding carbonate ramp, FÅGELHAMMAR 1, 167661 636170, ca. 7550 m SW of Gammelgarn church.
Slite Beds, Gotland. GFF 119, 199–206. Topographical map sheet 56D Ljugarn. Geological map sheet Aa 170 Kattham-
Jeppsson, L., 1983: Silurian conodont faunas from Gotland. Fossils and Strata 15,
121–144.
marsvik. Reference point: the pill-box. Hemse beds, upper part.
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Silurian record. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 147, 663–674. FÅGELHAMMAR 2, 167672 636210, ca. 7170 m SW of Gammelgarn church.
Jeppsson, L., 1998: Silurian oceanic events: Summary of general characteristics. In E. Topographical map sheet 56D Ljugarn. Geological map sheet Aa 170 Kattham-
Landing & M.E. Johnson (eds.): James Hall Centennial Volume. Silurian cycles: marsvik. Hemse beds, upper part.
Linking dynamic stratigraphy with atmospheric and oceanic changes, 233–251.
New York Geological Survey, State Museum Bulletin 491. FÅGELHAMMAR 5, 167665 636203, ca. 7500 m SW of Gammelgarn church.
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