1.1 Background, Overview (Computer Generations)

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Contents
1.1 Background, Overview (Computer
Generations)
1.2 Levels of Machines
1.3 The Von Neumann Model
1.4 The System Bus Model
1.5 Upward Compatibility
1.6 A Typical Computer System
1.7 The Motherboard
1.8 Supercomputers
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Background, Overview
A summary of Computer Generations and
Historical Information on the
Developments are given below. (detail is on
‘computer_generation’ file)
Gener Example Hardware Software Perfor

ation Machines mance
1 ENIAC, Vacuum tubes, Machine code, 2 Kb
UNIVAC-I, Magnetic drums Stored programs, Punch memory,
IBM 650,700 card 10 KIPS
2 IBM-1401 & 7094, Transistors, High level Languages: 32 Kb

Honey well 200, Core memory (core Cobol, Fortran Magnetic memory,
CDC 1604 means ring, self destructive) tape, 200KIPS
Batch oriented,
Application updating,
Inventory, Pay-roll
3 IBM-360 & 370, ICs, Semiconductor Timesharing, 2 Mb
Burrough-B6500 Memory, Real-time applications memory,
PDP-11, NCR-395 Microprocessors, with remote processing, 5 MIPS
Emergence of Mini- Market forecasting,
computer Credit card billing,
Graphics, Structured
Programming
4 IBM-3090, VLSI, Packaged Programs, 8 Mb
Cray-XMP, Networks, Modularity of Special memory,
IBM PC Optical disks programs, 30 MIPS
Object-oriented
languages,
Expert systems
5 IBM-3081, ULSI, GaAs, Parallel Languages, 64 Mb
Burrough- B7900, Parallel systems Simulating & modeling, memory,
DEC-2010, AI 10
IBM-PC & XT. GFLOPS
Sun Sparc,
Intel Paragon

• Computer architecture: deals with the

functional behavior of a computer system.
It refers to the operational units and their
interconnections. Here the system is
visible to a programmer like: the Data type,
size of a data type: 32 bits to an integer. It
comprises of:
- The instruction set,
- I/O mechanism,
- Techniques for addressing memory
• Computer organization deals with

structural relationships that are not visible
to the programmer (like clock frequency or
the size of the physical memory, it
comprises of:
- Control signals,
- Interfaces between the computer &

peripherals
- Memory technology, ie how computer

executes various instructions.
Different computer models may have same

architecture but with differences in
organization so different model have
different performances.
Structure: The way in which the computer

components are inter related.
Function: The operation of each individual

component in the structure.
Basic functions of a computer system are:
• Data processing (type of data, how to

process)
• Data storage (different type of)
• Data movement (different type of)
• Control (signals)

Levels of Machines:
There is a concept of levels in computer
architecture. The basic idea is that there are
many levels at which a computer can be
considered, from the highest level, where the
user is running programs, to the lowest level,
consisting of transistors and wires.
Progressing from the top level downward,

more of the internal structure of the
computer becomes visible. The level of
machines can be broken up into following
hierarchical components:
Hierarchy of levels of machine

In terms of the Computer applications level

like:
Weather forecasting, Oceanography,
Seismic/petroleum exploration, Medical
research and diagnosis, Aerodynamics and
structure analysis, Nuclear physics, Artificial
intelligence, Military/defense etc
Which drive the computer performance

levels, are classified in 4 levels, that can be
shown in ascending order as:
The trends in computer usage

The von Neumann Model

The von Neumann model consists of five
major components:
(1) input unit; (2) output unit; (3) arithmetic
logic unit; (4) memory unit; (5) control unit.
Structure of Von Neumann Machines

The System Bus Model

In von Neumann model, the Communication
among the system components (CPU,
memory & I/O) are handled by a shared
pathway called the system bus.
The system bus is made up of the data bus,

the address bus, and the control bus. There
is also a power bus.
System BUS model
Compatibility: (compatible computers)

A compatible model means, a program

written for one model should be capable of
being executed by another model in the
series, with only a difference in the time it
takes to execute.
Upward Compatible:
Programs written for the older machines can

be executed on the new machines, that is,
new machines upward compatible with the
older machines.

A Typical Computer System

The Motherboard
The five von Neumann components are
visible in this example motherboard, in the
context of the system bus model.

Super Computers:
Fastest and most expensive modern
computers designed for high precision
based applications. Used in research and
intensive mathematical calculations.
CPU STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
A computer consists of CPU, Memory and I/O components. The designs of

computer are based on the Von Neumann concepts at the Institute of
Advanced Studies (IAS). The basic function of the processor is executing
instructions. The instruction execution (also known as instruction cycle)
consists of two steps. Fetch instructions from memory one at a time (fetch
cycle) and executes each instruction (execute cycle).
The basic components and their interface are shown below.
Basic computer components with their interfaces.

CPU: Basic Structure
The CPU with the system bus indicating its connection to the rest of system
is shown as:
The CPU with the System BUS Internal Structure of the CPU
CPU consists of:
•CU (Control unit)

•ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• Registers (a minimal CPU-internal memory consisting of a set
of storage locations.
• Internal CPU Bus: This element is needed to transfer data
between the various registers and the ALU, because the ALU
operates only on data in the internal CPU memory.
Memory are of two types:

• Main or primary memory
• Secondary or backup memory
I/O Devices: The processor reads or sends data from an I/O device.
Function of CPU in terms of CU, ALU & Registers.

• CU
• Controls the data & instruction movement to and from CPU,
also sequence the operation of the computer.
• Controls the ALU operation
• Instruction fetches from main memory & interprets the
instruction and generates control & timing signals to operate other
units.
• ALU
• Performs the actual computation or processing of data by
arithmetic & logic operations.
• Only operates on data in the internal CPU memory.
• Flag settings
• Arithmetic operation like Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
Division.
• Logic function like AND, OR, etc.
• Registers
• It is an internal CPU memory, fast & most expensive.
• Used for temporary storage of results & control information. It
also contains a level of memory above main memory i.e. cache
memory.
The registers in CPU perform two roles: user visible registers,

Control & Status Registers

(1) User Visible Register

These registers enable the assembly or machine language
programmer to minimise main memory references by optimising
use of registers. It contains operand for any op-code and also used
for intermediate result storage. User visible registers are
categorized as:
• General purpose register: May be used for floating point stack

operations
• Data register : To hold data
• Address register : To be used for a particular addressing
mode
• Condition codes register: For conditional branch instruction.
These are special registers, where each bit
represents a condition, which is set by
certain operations and used in conditional
branch instructions. These conditions are
set by arithmetic and compare operations.
(2) Control & Status Registers

These registers are used by the CU to control the operation of
CPU. Some of these registers, on most machines, are not visible to
the user i.e. may not be accessible by user S/W and some may be
visible to machine instruction execution level.
In an instruction execution there are four essential registers are

used: PC (program counter), IR (instruction register), MAR
(memory address register) and MBR (memory buffer register).
These registers are used for the movement of data between the
CPU and memory. The functions of control and status register are:
PC: Contains next instruction address, which is going to be
fetched
IR: Holds current executing instruction
MAR: Contains the address of a location in memory.
MBR: It contains the data most recently read or written.
Program Status Word (PSW): It is a set of registers that contain status

information’s like: Sign, Zero, Carry, Equal, Interrupt
enable/disable, Supervisor mode.

Function of Memory
It is used for data/program storage. Each location has address.
Communication between CPU & main memory is via MAR, MBR and R/W
control lines. Consider a simple memory, the operation of a Memory
Read/Write cell and the memory interface with the processor.
The four basic function of memory are:

• Data storage : provided by memory cell
• Data processing : provided by gates
• Data movement : by system bus
• Control : to control R/W signals (one bit)

Memory Read: Causes data from the addressed location to be placed on the
bus. Its steps are: Get address in MAR, Read Control line activated, which
places the content of desired location in MBR
Memory Write: Causes data on the bus to be written into the addressed
location. Its steps are: Place the word in MBR, Place the address in MAR
(where to be written), Activate write control line, this causes the contents of
MBR is to transferred into the memory location specified by MAR
I/O Devices:
Input Device : Which accepts outside information
Output Device : Communicate to outside device.
Touch screen I/O device is:
A user selecting an object on touch screen

Instruction Cycle (Fetch and Execute): (refer to separate notes also)

CPU executes an instruction in the Instruction Cycle, consists of Fetch &
execute cycle.
Fetch Cycle includes: Execute Cycle includes:

1. PC → MAR 1. IR → Decode circuitry
2. MAR → Address Bus 2. Determine location
3. Read (Control line ) 3. Fetch data (if any)
Activated 4. Execute instruction
4. Mem → Date bus → MBR 5. Store result (if any)
5. MBR → IR
6. PC+1 → PC

What is an Opera
 Operating System is a Sys

performs executive functio
 It acts as an intermediary
and the computer hardwar

Four Components
It manages resources ando
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs
problems easier.
 Make the computer sys
 Use the computer hard

Computer Startup
 Bootstrap program is loa

 Typically stored in RO
known as firmware
 Initializates all aspect
Computer System
 Loads operating syste
 Computer-system operatio
 Program Developmen
 One or more CPUs, devi
 Compiling
common bus
 Linking
providing
 Concurrent execution o
 Loading
for memory cycles
Executing / Debugging
Computer-System
 I/O devices and the CPU

 Each device controller is
device type.
 Each device controller h
 CPU moves data from/to
buffers
 I/O is from the device to
 Device controller informs
operation by causing an

Storage Structure
 Main memory – only larg

can access directly.
 Secondary storage – ext
provides large nonvolati
Operating System
 Magnetic disks – rigid m
with magnetic recording
 Single user System
 Disk surface is logica
It cannot keep CPU and I/O
are subdivided into se
 Multiprogramming
 The disk controller de
 Multiprogramming orga
interaction between th
number of users so that
execute

1.1 Background, Overview (Computer Generations)

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Information Technology (MBA-1) Any Quiry..

1.2 Levels of Machines

1.3 The Von Neumann Model

1.4 The System Bus Model

1.5 Upward Compatibility

1.6 A Typical Computer System

1.7 The Motherboard

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

Gener Example Hardware Software Perfor

2 IBM-1401 & 7094, Transistors, High level Languages: 32 Kb

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

• Computer architecture: deals with the

- The instruction set,

- Techniques for addressing memory

• Computer organization deals with

- Interfaces between the computer &

- Memory technology, ie how computer

Different computer models may have same

Structure: The way in which the computer

Function: The operation of each individual

Basic functions of a computer system are:

• Data processing (type of data, how to

• Data storage (different type of)

• Data movement (different type of)

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

Progressing from the top level downward,

Hierarchy of levels of machine

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

In terms of the Computer applications level

Which drive the computer performance

The trends in computer usage

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

The von Neumann Model

Structure of Von Neumann Machines

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

The System Bus Model

The system bus is made up of the data bus,

System BUS model

Compatibility: (compatible computers)

A compatible model means, a program

Programs written for the older machines can

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

A Typical Computer System

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

CPU STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

A computer consists of CPU, Memory and I/O components. The designs of

The basic components and their interface are shown below.

Basic computer components with their interfaces.

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

CPU: Basic Structure

•CU (Control unit)

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

•ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory are of two types:

Function of CPU in terms of CU, ALU & Registers.

The registers in CPU perform two roles: user visible registers,

Umer Khan u.k_007@yahoo.com

(1) User Visible Register

• General purpose register: May be used for floating point stack

(2) Control & Status Registers

In an instruction execution there are four essential registers are