Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
OF RANDOM WAVES
Sea waves are the most important phenomenon to be considered in the design of coastal
and offshore structures.
Every sailor has noticed that, when wind is blowing, there are a lot of large and small
waves propagating in many directions. Such waves are called short-crested waves because
they do not have a long crest. Contrast to short-crested waves, we have long-crested
waves, i.e. large and small waves moving in one direction. Even though there are some
research efforts on short-crested waves and their effects on structures, long-crested waves
dominate today’s structure design. The book deals with long-crested waves. The contents
of the book is illustrated in the figure.
i
There are two analysis methods for time series of irregular waves, namely time-domain
and frequency-domain analysis, which will be dealt with in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2
respectively.
It should be stressed that, even though all contents in the book are related to sea waves,
they have broader applications in practice. For example, the extreme theory has also been
applied to hydrology, wind mechanics, ice mechanics etc., not to mention the fact that
spectral analysis comes originally from optics and electronics.
The book intents to be a textbook for senior and graduate students who have interest in
coastal and offshore structures. The only pre-requirement for the book is the knowledge
of linear wave theory.
Michael Brorsen, Associate Professor at the Hydraulic and Coastal Engineering Labora-
tory, Aalborg University is gratefully acknowledged for the valuable comments.
ii
CONTENTS
Contents
1 Time series analysis I : Time-domain 1
1.1 Definition of individual wave : Zero-downcrossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Characteristic wave heights and periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Distribution of individual wave heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Maximum wave height Hmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Distribution of wave period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Wind-generated waves 26
3.1 Wave development and decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 SPM-method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Standard variance spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Introduction to short-crested waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
iii
CONTENTS
iv
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
H (m) 5.5 4.8 4.2 3.9 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.1 0.23
T (s) 12.5 13.0 12.0 11.2 15.2 8.5 11.9 11.0 9.3 10.1 7.2 5.6 6.3 4.0 0.9
wave no.
in Fig.2 7 12 15 3 5 4 2 11 6 1 10 8 13 14 9
1
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
Maximum wave is chosen as the design wave for structures which are very important and
very sensitive to wave load, e.g. vertical breakwaters. Note Hmax is a random variable
with the distribution depending on the number of individual waves.
Highest one-tenth wave: H1/10 , TH1/10
H1/10 is the average of the wave heights of the one-tenth highest waves. TH1/10 is the
average of the wave periods associated with the one-tenth highest wave.
Significant wave: Hs , Ts or H1/3 , TH1/3
Significant wave height is the average of the wave heights of the one-third highest waves.
Significant wave period is the average of the wave periods associated with the one-third
highest wave. In Table 1,
1 5
1 5
Hs = Hi = 4.44 m Ts = Ti = 12.8 s i is the rank no.
5 i=1 5 i=1
Significant wave is most often used as the design wave. The reason might be that in old
days structures were designed based on visual observation of waves. Experiences show
that the wave height and period reported by visual observation correspond approximately
to significant wave. Therefore the choice of significant wave as design wave can make use
of the existing engineering experience.
Mean wave: H, T
H and T are the means of the heights and periods of all individual waves. In Table 1,
1 15
1 15
H = Hi = 2.9 m T = Ti = 9.25 s
15 i=1 15 i=1
1
N 1
15
In Table 1, Hrms = Hi2 = Hi2 = 3.20 m
N i=1 15 i=1
Wave height with exceedence probability of α%: For example H0.1% , H1% , H2% etc.
2
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
Non-dimensionalized histogram
In order to compare the distributions of wave height in different locations, the histogram
of wave height is non-dimensionalized, cf. Fig.4.
When ∆(H/H) approaches zero, the probability density becomes a continuous curve. Ex-
perience and theory have shown that this curve is very close to the Rayleigh distribution.
Roughly speaking, we say that individual wave height follows the Rayleigh distribution.
3
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
Rayleigh distribution
The Rayleigh probability density function is
π π H
f (x) = x exp − x2 x= (1-1)
2 4 H
H1/10 = 2.03 H
H1/3 = 1.60 H
H2% = 2.23 H
4
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
where h is the water depth, H1% means the 1% exceedence value of the wave height
determined by zero downcrossing analysis, whereas the significant wave height Hm0 is
determined from the spectrum. The correction formulae are very useful for checking the
wave height distribution in small scale physical model tests, cf. Fig.6.
Fig.6. Comparison of the expression by Stive, 1986, for shallow water wave
height distribution with model test results. Aalborg University Hy-
draulics Laboratory 1990 (from Burcharth 1993).
Klopmann et al. (1989) proposed a semi-empirical expression for the individual wave
height distribution. Researches have also been done by Thornton and Guza (1983). Chap-
ter 2 gives a more detailed discussion on the validity of the Rayleigh distribution, based
on energy spectrum width parameter.
5
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
N
π
= 1 − exp − x2 (1-7)
4
Note that FXmax (x) can be interpreted as the probability of the non-occurrence of the
event ( X > x ) in any of N independent trials. The probability density function of Xmax
is
dFXmax
fXmax (x) =
dx
N −1
π π π
= N x exp − x2 1 − exp − x2 (1-8)
2 4 4
The density function of X and the density function of Xmax are sketched in Fig.7.
6
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
+∞
Mean xmean = E[X] = xfX (x)dx
−∞
Median xmedian = x
FX (x)=0.5
Mode xmode =
fX (x)=max
ln N
(Hmax )mode ≈ Hs (1-10)
2
Furthermore, (Hmax )µ , defined as the maximum wave height with exceedence probability
of µ, cf. Fig. 9, is
1 N
(Hmax )µ ≈ ln Hs (1-11)
2 ln 1
1−µ
7
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
4) Repeat steps 2) and 3), say, 10,000 times. Thus we get 10,000
values of Hmax .
8
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
• In practice the joint distribution of wave height and wave period is of great impor-
tance. Unfortunately, Until now there is no generally accepted expression for the
joint distribution, even though there are some so-called scatter diagrams based on
wave recording. Such a diagram is valid only for the measurement location. An ex-
ample of scatter diagrams is given in Chapter 4, section 12. The relation between Hs
and Ts is often simplified as Ts = αHsβ , e.g. in Canadian Atlantic waters α = 4.43
and β = 0.5 (Neu 1982).
1.6 References
Burcharth H.F. , 1993. The design of breakwater. Department of Civil Engineering, Aal-
borg University, 1993.
Dean, R.G. and Dalrymple, R.A. , 1991. Water wave mechanics for Engineers and sci-
entists. Second printing with correction, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.,
Singapore, 1991.
Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures. University of Tokyo
Press, Japan, 1985
IAHR. , 1986. List of sea state parameters. Supplement to Bulletin No. 52, 1986
Klopmann, G. and Stive, M.J.F. , 1989. Extreme waves and wave loading in shallow wa-
ter. E & P Forum, Report No. 3.12/156, 1989.
Neu, H.J.A. , 1982. 11-year deep water wave climate of Canadian Atlantic waters. Cana-
dian Tech. Rept. of Hydrography and Ocean Sciences, 13.
Stive, M.J.F. , 1986. Extreme shallow water conditions. Delft Hydraulics, Intern Report
H533, 1986.
9
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
1.7 Exercise
1) The application of the down-crossing method gives the following 21 indi-
vidual waves.
10
1 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS I : TIME-DOMAIN
6) You have generated a linear wave in a laboratory flume. The wave period is
1 second. You would like to measure the surface elevation in order to check
whether it is the same as desired.
(1) What is the consequence if sampling frequency is too high, e.g. 100 Hz ?
(2) What is the consequence if sampling frequency is too low, e.g. 1 Hz ?
(3) What is an appropriate sampling frequency ?
11
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
The relation between wave period and wave length (dispersion relationship) is
g T2 2πh
L = tanh (2-3)
2π L
12
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
Wave energy
The average wave energy per unit area is
1 1
E = ρ g H 2 = ρ g a2 (Joule/m2 in SI unit) (2-4)
8 2
= E [ η 2 (t) ]
1 T
= T 0 η 2 (t) dt (T: wave period)
1
= 2
a2
13
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
4
4
η(t) = ηi (t) = ai cos(ωi t + δi ) (2-5)
i=1 i=1
14
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
Variance diagram
In stead of Fig.1, we can use a variance diagram, shown in Fig.2, to describe the irregular
wave.
In comparison with Fig.1, the variance diagram keeps the information on amplitude (ai )
and frequency (fi , hence Ti and Li ) of each component, while the information on initial
phase (δi ) is lost. This information loss does not matter because the surface elevation of
irregular wave is a random process. We can simply assign a random initial phase to each
component.
In reality an irregular wave is composed of infinite number of linear waves with different
2
we will see later that ∆f depends on signal recording duration. In the figure it is assumed that
∆f = 0.01Hz
15
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
Variance spectrum is also called energy spectrum. But strictly speaking, the energy
spectral density should be defined as
1
2
ρg a2
S(f ) = (m2 s) (2-7)
∆f
N
N
η(t) = ηi (t) = ai cos(ωi t + δi ) (2-8)
i=1 i=1
2π
ωi = = 2πfi i = 1, 2, · · · , N (2-11)
Ti
The initial phase δi is assigned a random number between 0 and 2π. Hence by use of eq
(2-8) we can draw the time-series of the surface elevation of the irregular wave which has
the variance spectrum as shown in Fig.4.
16
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
∞
2πi 2πi
x(t) = a0 + 2 ai cos t + bi sin t
i=1 T0 T0
∞
= 2 (ai cos ωi t + bi sin ωi t) (2-12)
i=0
1 T0
ai = T0 0 x(t) cos ωi t dt
T0
i = 0, 1, 2, · · · , ∞ (2-13)
1
bi = T0 0 x(t) sin ωi t dt
1 T0
Note a0 = T0 0 x(t)dt and b0 = 0.
3
Not all mathematicians agree that an arbitrary function can be represented by a Fourier series.
However, all agree that if x(t) is a periodic function of time t, with period T0 then x(t) can be expressed
as a Fourier series. In our case x(t) is the surface elevation of irregular wave, which is a random process.
if T0 is large enough, we can assume that x(t) is a periodic function with period T0 .
17
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
Physical interpretation
Now we say that the continuous function x(t) is the surface elevation of irregular wave
η(t), which can be expanded as a Fourier series.
∞
η(t) = 2 (ai cos ωi t + bi sin ωi t)
i=0
∞
= 2 (ci cos δi cos ωi t + ci sin δi sin ωi t)
i=0
∞
= 2ci (cos δi cos ωi t + sin δi sin ωi t)
i=0
∞
= 2ci cos(ωi t − δi ) (2-14)
i=0
That is to say, any irregular wave surface elevation, expressed as a continues function, is
composed of infinite number of linear waves with
amplitude 2ci = 2 a2i + b2i
i = 0, 1, · · · , ∞ (2-15)
period Ti = 2π
= T0
ωi i
18
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
If the sampling frequency is fs , then the time interval between two succeeding points is
∆ = 1/fs . Corresponding to the total number of sample points N , the sample duration
T0 = (N − 1)∆. Thus we obtain a discrete time series of surface elevation
η0 , η1 , ···, ηN −1
can be obtained by Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT)4 . That is to say, the irregular wave
surface elevation, expressed by digital time series, is composed of N linear waves
N −1
N −1
η(t) = ηi (t) = 2 a2i + b2i cos(ωi t + δi ) (2-16)
i=0 i=0
amplitude 2 a2i + b2i
2πi
angular frequency ωi = T0
i = 0, 1, · · · , N − 1 (2-17)
period Ti = 2π
= Ti0
ωi
1
frequency fi = Ti
= Ti0
4
FFT is a computer algorithm for calculating DFT. It offers an enormous reduction in computer
processing time. For details of DFT and FFT, please refer to Newland (1975)
19
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
1
frequency band width ∆f = fi+1 − fi =
T0
1
2
(amplitude)2 2(a2i + b2i )
spectral density Sη (fi ) = = (2-18)
∆f ∆f
i
fi = i = 0, 1, · · · , N − 1 (2-19)
T0
20
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
true components while the second half part (i = N/2, N/2 + 1, · · · , N − 1) is the folding
components (aliasing).
Fig.8 gives an example on aliasing after the Fourier analysis of discrete time series of a
linear wave.
The solution to aliasing is simple: double Sη (fi ), i = 0, 1, 2, · · · , N/2−1 and let Sη (fi ), i =
N/2, N/2 + 1, · · · , N − 1, equal to zero, cf. Fig.9. That is the reason why fnyquist is also
called cut-off frequency. In doing so we are actually assuming that irregular wave contains
no linear components whose frequency is higher than fnyquist . This assumption can be
assured by choosing sufficiently high sample frequency fs , cf. eq (2-20).
21
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
22
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
n order moment mn
mn is defined as
∞
mn = f n Sη (f ) df (2-22)
0
23
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
In reality ε lies in the range of 0.4-0.5. It has been found that Rayleigh distribution is a
very good approximation and furthermore conservative, as the Rayleigh distribution gives
slightly larger wave height for any given probability level.
Significant wave height Hm0 and peak wave period Tp
When wave height follows the Rayleigh distribution, i.e. ε = 0 , the significant wave
height Hm0 5 can theoretically be expressed as
√
Hm0 = 4 m0 (2-25)
In reality where ε = 0.4 − 0.5, a good estimate of significant wave height from variance
spectrum is
√
Hs = 3.7 m0 (2-26)
fp = f
(2-27)
Sη (f )=max
Wave peak period (Tp = 1/fp ) is approximately equal to significant wave period defined
in time-domain analysis.
2.6 References
Burcharth, H.F. and Brorsen, M. , 1978. On the design of gravity structures using wave
spectra. Lecture on Offshore Engineering, Edited by W.J.Graff and P. Thoft-
Christensen, Institute of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg
University, Denmark.
Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures. University of Tokyo
Press, Japan, 1985
Newland, D.E. , 1975. In introduction to random vibrations and spectral analysis. Long-
man, London, 1975.
5
Hm0 denotes significant wave height determined from spectrum while Hs or H1/3 is significant wave
height determined from time-domain analysis. They are equal to each other when wave height follows
the Rayleigh distribution.
24
2 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS II: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
2.7 Exercise
1) An irregular wave is composed of 8 linear components with
wave no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
wave height H (m) 5.0 4.3 3.8 3.6 3.3 2.8 2.2 0.3
wave period T (s) 10.3 12 9.4 14 7 6.2 5 3.3
The recording length is 20 seconds. Draw the variance diagram and variance
spectrum of the irregular wave.
25
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
3 Wind-generated waves
If a structure is to be built at the location where there is no direct wave measurement,
wave characteristics may be estimated by wind data.
Two simplified methods have been used to determine wave characteristics from a known
wind field. The one is called SPM-method (Shore Protection Manual, 1984), which is
the modification of Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider method (SMB-method). SPM-method
gives significant wave height (Hm0 ) and peak period (Tp ) in terms of wind field 6 . The
other is called spectrum-method, which gives variance spectrum in terms of wind field.
When required, a significant wave height and peak period can be estimated from the
spectrum and the results will be the same as SPM-method.
Besides these two simplified method, there are also numerical methods solving a differen-
tial equation governing the growth of wave energy. This approach will not be discussed
in detail because the application of such models require specialized expertise.
6
Notice that Hm0 is the significant wave height determined from variance spectrum. In Shore Protec-
tion Manual (1984) the peak period is denoted Tm .
26
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
3.2 SPM-method
This method is presented in Shore Protection Manual (1984), edited by the US Army
Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC).
Involved parameters
1 Fetch (F in (m)): Fetch is the distance between the point of interest and
shoreline in the up-wind direction. Because the fetches surrounding the wind
direction will influence the wind generated waves, SPM (1984) recommends
to construct 9 radials from the point of interest at 3-degree intervals and to
extend these radials until they first intersect shorelines. The fetch is equal to
the average of the length of these 9 radials, i.e.
9
Fi
i=1
F = (3-1)
9
2 Wind stress factor (UA in (m/s)): Wind stress is most directly related to wave
growth. The accurate estimation of vertical profile of wind speed, and hence
wind stress, involves the air-sea temperature difference, sea surface roughness
and friction velocity. In SPM (1984), all these factors are accounted for by
using UA
a. Elevation. If the given wind speed is not measured at the 10 meter elevation,
the wind speed must be adjusted accordingly by
1/7
10
U10 = Uz for z < 20 m (3-2)
z
where U10 and Uz are wind speed at the elevation of 10 m and z m respectively.
27
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
where Us is the ship-reported wind speed in knots and U is the corrected wind
speed in knots.
If wind data over water is not available, but data from nearby land site are,
Fig.1 can be used to convert overland winds to overwater winds if they are
the result of the same pressure gradient and the only major difference is the
surface roughness
d. Duration-averaged wind speed. The wind speed is often observed and re-
ported as the maximum short-duration-averaged-speed. This should be con-
verted to the wind speed averaged in an appropriate duration by
Ut 45
= 1.277 + 0.296 tanh 0.9 log10 for 1s < t < 3600s (3-4)
Ut=3600s t
Ut
= 1.5334 − 0.15 log10 (t) for 3600s < t < 36000s (3-5)
Ut=3600s
where Ut is the average wind speed in t seconds.
where U10 is the wind speed at the height of 10 m over mean water level,
modified according to location and air-sea temperature, and averaged over an
appropriate duration. It should be noted that the unit of U10 and UA is m/s
because eq (3-6) has no unit-homogenity.
28
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
Fig.1. Ratio of wind speed over water (Uw ) to wind speed over land (UL )
(scanned from SPM 1984).
Fig.2. Amplification factor accounting for the effect of air-sea temperature difference
(scanned from SPM 1984).
29
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
We may expresses the significant wave height and peak period in functional forms
Hm0 , Tp = f ( UA , F, t, h ) (3-7)
Fetch-limited case
It is the situation where the wind has blown constantly long enough for wave heights at
the end of the fetch to reach equilibrium.
1 Deep water ( Lh > 12 ): The condition for deep water waves to be fetch-limited
is that the wind duration is longer than the minimum necessary duration tmin ,
given by
2/3
g tmin gF
= 68.8 (3-9)
UA UA2
Significant wave height and peak period under fetch-limited condition are
1/2
g Hm0
= 0.0016 g F
UA2 UA2
1/3 (3-10)
g T
U p = 0.2857 g F
2
A UA
Eq (3-10) shows, a larger fetch gives a larger wave height and longer wave
period. But there is a limit, the so-called fully arisen sea. This wave condition
refers to the case where the waves have reached an equilibrium state in which
energy input from the wind is exactly balanced by energy loss. The fully arisen
sea occurs when
gF
≥ 23123 (3-11)
UA2
(3-12)
g Tp = 0.2857 ( 23123 ) 1/3
= 8.134
UA
30
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
2 Transitional or shallow water ( Lh < 12 ): Waves feel the effect of sea bottom.
Some part of wave energy dissipates due to bottom friction and percolation.
For the same wind speed and fetch, wave height will be smaller and wave
period shorter in comparison with deep water situation. SPM (1984) suggests
the following formulae
1/2
3/4
0.00565 g F
g Hm0 gh UA2
= 0.283 tanh 0.53 tanh 3/4
UA2 UA2 g h
tanh 0.53 2
UA
1/3
3/8
0.0379 g F
g Tp gh UA2
= 7.54 tanh 0.833 tanh 3/8
UA UA2 g h
tanh 0.833 2
UA
7/3
g tmin g Tp
= 537
UA UA
SPM (1984) calls the above formulae ’interim formulae’ because the modifi-
cation is ongoing in order to make the above formulae consistent with deep
water.
Duration-limited
It is the situation where the wind duration is shorter than the minimum necessary dura-
tion.
There is no generally accepted formula. SPM (1984) suggests to make use of the formulae
for the fetch-limited situation. It proceeds as
31
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
2. Location adjustment
From Fig.1 it is found RL = 0.9, the wind speed is adjusted to
0.9 × 21.5 = 19.4 m/s.
3. Temperature adjustment
From Fig.2 it is found RT = 1.14, the wind speed is adjusted to
1.14 × 19.4 = 22.1 m/s.
4. Duration adjustment
The duration over which the fastest mile wind speed is averaged is actu-
ally the time needed for the fastest mile wind speed to travel one mile.
1609
t = = 72.8 s
22.1
i.e. the wind velocity of 22.1 m/s is the average velocity in 72.8 s, denoted
as Ut=72.8 . It should be converted to the average wind velocity in one
hour, because in this example the fastest mile wind speed is given on
hourly basis.
Ut=72.8
# # 45 $$
Ut=3600 = 1.277 + 0.296 tanh 0.9 log10 72.8 = 1.22
32
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
Because
gF
= 1568 < 23123
UA2
1/3
gF UA
Tp = 0.2857 = 8.47 s
UA2 g
33
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
PM spectrum
In 1964, W.J.Pierson and L.Moskowitz put forward, on the basis of a similarity theory
by S.A.Kitaigorodskii, some suggestions for deep water wave spectra for the sea state
referred to as fully arisen sea. This wave condition refers to the case where the waves
have reached an equilibrium state in which energy input from the wind is exactly balanced
by energy loss. The only variable is thus the wind velocity. It is important to emphasize,
that spectra of this type are only valid when the fetches are large enough to reach this
equilibrium.
Out of the three analytical expressions suggested by Pierson and Moskowitz, the one
below was found to give the best agreement with empirical wave data. This spectrum is
called PM spectrum.
4
αg 2 −5 f0
Sη (f ) = 4
f exp −0.74 (3-13)
(2π) f
α = 0.0081
f0 = g (2πU19.5 )−1
g : Gravitational acceleration
√
PM spectrum has been transformed to parameterized spectrum by Hs = 4 m0 and
Tp = 1.4 T = 1.4 m0
m1
4
5 2 4 −5 5 fp
Sη (f ) = Hs fp f exp − (3-14)
16 4 f
34
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
JONSWAP spectrum
The Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) was started in 1967 as a collaboration
among institutes in Germany, Holland, UK and USA. The objectives of the project was
originally partly to investigate the growth of waves under fetch-limited condition, and
partly to investigate wave transformation from sea to shallow water area. Simultaneous
measurements of waves and winds were taken at stations along a line extending 160 km
in a westerly direction from the island of Sylt in the Germany Bright.
During the processing of a large number of spectra corresponding to steady easterly wind,
the so-called JONSWAP spectrum was obtained
−4
αg 2 −5 5 f exp − 12 ( ff −1)
2
Sη (f ) = 4
f exp − γ 2σ m
(3-15)
(2π) 4 fm
0.0624
α ≈
0.230 + 0.0336 γ − 0.185
1.9 + γ
(f − fp )2
β = exp −
2 σ 2 fp2
σ ≈ 0.07 f ≤ fp
σ ≈ 0.09 f ≥ fp
35
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
36
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
where f is the wave frequency, θ the angle of wave propagation. D(f, θ) must satisfy
π
D(f, θ) dθ = 1 (3-18)
−π
to assure identical wave energy in Sη (f, θ) and Sη (f ), i.e. the same zero moment
∞ π ∞ π
m0 = Sη (f, θ) dθ df = Sη (f ) D(f, θ) dθ df
0 −π 0 −π
∞
= Sη (f ) df (3-19)
0
For simplicity, the spreading function D(f, θ) is treated as a function of only θ. There are
mainly two types of spreading functions, one using s as a spreading parameter and the
other using σ as a spreading parameter.
37
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
where s is a spreading parameter, Γ the Gamma function and θm the mean wave incident
angle. The equation was found to provide a reasonable fit to measured ocean wave spectra
by Lonquet-Higgins, Cartwright and Smith (1961).
In Fig. 6 the spreading function D(θ) is plotted as a function of (θ − θm ) for various
values of the spreading parameter s.
With the spreading parameter σ the spreading function is assumed to follow the Gaussian
distribution
1 (θ − θm )2
D(θ) = √ exp − , −π ≤ (θ − θm ) ≤ π (3-21)
2π σ 2σ 2
It can be seen that σ is the standard deviation of the spreading function, which, in this
case, is angle in degree. Therefore σ is also called spreading angle.
38
3 WIND-GENERATED WAVES
3.5 References
Burcharth, H.F. and Brorsen, M. , 1978. On the design of gravity structures using wave
spectra. Lecture on Offshore Engineering, Edited by W.J.Graff and P. Thoft-
Christensen, Institute of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg
University, Denmark.
Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures. University of Tokyo
Press, Japan, 1985
Sarpkaya, T. and Isaacson, M. , 1981. Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, ISBN 0-442-25402-2, 1981.
SPM , 1984. Shore Protection Manual. Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterway
Experiment Station, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984.
3.6 Exercise
1) The wind speed measured at the elevation of 5 m is U5 = 20 m/s. Calculate
U19.5 to be used in the PM-spectrum.
39
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
40
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
= (4-2)
k=1 λ ( 1 − F (x) )
i.e. on average x will be exceeded once in every T years. x is also called T -year event.
Encounter probability p
Based on the fact that on average x will be exceeded once in every T years, the exceedence
probability of x in 1 year is 1/T . Therefore
and the encounter probability, i.e. the exceedence probability of x within a structure
lifetime of L years is
L
1
p = 1 − 1 − (4-3)
T
Design level
Traditionally the design level for design wave height was the wave height corresponding
to a certain return period T . For example, if the design wave height corresponding to
a return period of 100 years is 10 m, the physical meaning is that on average this 10 m
design wave height will be exceeded once in every 100 years.
In the reliability based design of coastal structures it is better to use encounter probability,
i.e. the exceedence probability of the design wave height within the structure lifetime.
For example If the structure lifetime L is 25 years, the encounter probability of the design
wave height (10 meter) is
L
1
p = 1 − 1 − = 22%
T
This means that this 10 m design wave height will be exceeded with 22% probability
within a structure lifetime of 25 years.
41
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
1) Choice of the extreme data set based on a long-term wave height mea-
surement/hindcast
2) Choice of several theoretical distributions as the candidates for the ex-
treme wave height distribution
3) Fitting of the extreme wave heights to the candidates by a fitting method.
If the least square fitting method is employed, a plotting position formula
must be used
4) Choice of the distribution based on the comparison of the fitting goodness
among the candidates
5) Calculation of the design wave height corresponding to a certain return
period
6) Determination of the confidence interval of the design wave height in
order to account for sample variability, measurement/hindcast error and
other uncertainties
If structure lifetime and encounter probability are given in stead of return period, we can
calculate the return period by eq (4-3) and proceed as above.
If the followings will be discussed the procedures one by one.
Complete data set containing all the direct measurements of wave height
usually equally spaced in time.
Annual series data set consisting of the largest wave height in each year of
measurements/hindcasts, cf. Fig.2.
Partial series data sets composed of the largest wave height in each individ-
ual storm exceeding a certain level (threshold). The
threshold is determined based on the structure loca-
tion and engineering experience, cf. Fig.2. It is also
called POT data set (Peak Over Threshold).
42
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
Fig.2. Illustration of the establishment of annual series data set and partial series
data set.
The extreme data sets, established based on the original wave data, should fulfill the
following 3 conditions:
The complete data set cannot fulfill the required independence between data. Goda
(1979) found correlation coefficients of 0.3 − 0.5 for significant wave heights (measurement
duration is 20 minutes and time interval between two succeeding measurements is 24
hours). Moreover, what is interesting in the case of design waves is the wave height
corresponding to a very high non-exceedence probability, i.e. the very upper tail of the
distribution. If the chosen distribution is not the true one, the very upper tail value will
be distorted severely because in the fitting process the chosen distribution will be adjusted
to the vast population of the data. For these reasons the complete data set is seldom used.
Most engineers prefer the partial series data set over the annual series data set simply
because the former usually gives larger design wave height and hence, more conservatively
designed structures.
43
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
x−B k
Weibull F = FX (x) = P (X < x) = 1 − e−( A ) (4-6)
− x−B
( )
−e A
Gumbel F = FX (x) = P (X < x) = e (4-7)
k
Frechet F = FX (x) = P (X < x) = e−( A )
x
(4-8)
ln(x) − B
Log-normal F = FX (x) = P (X < x) = Φ (4-9)
A
x Realization of X.
F Non-exceedence probability of x (cumulative fre-
quency).
A, B, k Distribution parameters to9 be fitted. In the log-
normal distribution A and B are the standard devia-
tion and the mean of X respectively.
Φ Standard normal distribution function.
44
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
X = AY +B (4-10)
Cov(Y, X)
A= B = X − AY
V ar(Y )
n 2
1
V ar(Y ) = yi − Y
n i=1
1 n
Cov(Y, X) = (yi − Y )(xi − X)
n i=1
1 n
1 n
Y = yi X= xi
n i=1 n i=1
In the case of the Weibull distribution various k values are predefined and A and B are
fitted accordingly. The final values of the three parameters are chosen based on the fitting
45
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
goodness.
Maximum likelihood method
The 2-parameter Weibull distribution is
k
x−x
−
Weibull F (x) = 1 − e A
(4-13)
where x is the threshold wave height, which should be smaller than the minimum wave
height in the extreme data set. For unexperienced engineers several threshold values can
be tried, and the one which produces best fit is finally chosen.
the maximum likelihood estimate k is obtained by solving the following equation by an
iterative procedure:
N N
N −1
# $
k k
N +k ln (xi − x ) = N k (xi − x ) ln (xi − x ) (xi − x ) (4-14)
i=1 i=1 i=1
For the Gumbel distribution, the maximum likelihood estimate of A is obtained by solving
the following equation by an iterative procedure:
% &
N
xi 1 N N
xi
xi exp − = xi − A exp − (4-16)
i=1 A N i=1 i=1 A
46
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
− x−B
( ) dFX (x)
FX (x) = P (X < x) = e−e
A
fX (x) = (4-18)
dx
The definition and value of the mean, the median and the mode are
+∞
Mean xmean = E[X] = xfX (x)dx ≈ B + 0.577A (4-19)
−∞
Median xmedian = x
= B + 0.367A (4-20)
FX (x)=0.5
Mode xmode = x
= B (4-21)
fX (x)=max
47
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
Order statistics
Assume that a random variable X has a cumulative distribution function FX , and prob-
ability density function fX , i.e.
Furthermore, assume n data sampled from X and arranged in the descending order, x1
being the largest value in n data.
Here x1 is one realization of the ordered random variable X1 , defined as the largest value
in each sample. The distribution function of X1 is
FX1 (x) may also be interpreted as the probability of the non-occurrence of the event
( X > x ) in any of n independent trials.
The density function of X, fX , and the density function of X1 , fX1 , are sketched in Fig.4.
48
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
i
Fi = 1 − i = 1, 2, · · · , n (4-24)
n
The disadvantage of this plotting position formula is that the smallest extreme data xn
cannot be used because Fn = 0.
Plotting position based on distribution of frequencies
Assume that the random variable X has a cumulative distribution function FX . The
i’th highest value in n samples, Xi , is a random variable, too. Consequently, FXi (xi ), the
cumulative frequency of xi , is a random variable, too. The philosophy of this method is to
determine the plotting position of xi via either the mean, the median or the mode of the
random variable FXi (xi ). The plotting position formula by this method is independent of
the parent distribution (distribution-free).
Weibull (1939) used the mean of FXi (xi ) to determine the cumulative frequency Fi to be
assigned to xi
i
Weibull Fi = = 1 − (4-25)
n+1
There is no explicit formula for the median of FXi (xi ). However, Benard (1943) developed
a good approximation
i − 0.3
Benard Fi ≈ 1 − (4-26)
n + 0.4
The plotting position formula based on the mode of FXi (xi ) has not drawn much attention,
because the chance of the occurrence of mode is still infinitesimal even though mode is
more likely to occur than the mean and median,
49
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
Plotting positions based on the mean value are distribution-dependent and not explicitly
available. The best known approximations are
Blom Fi = 1 − i−3/8
n+1/4
Normal distribution (4-27)
Gringorten Fi = 1 − i−0.44
n+0.12
Gumbel distribution (4-28)
Petrauskas Fi = 1 − i−0.3−0.18/k
n+0.21+0.32/k
Weibull distribution (4-29)
√
Goda Fi = 1 − i−0.2−0.27/ √k
n+0.20+0.23/ k
Weibull distribution (4-30)
The plotting position based on the median value of the ordered random variable is the
same as that based on the median value of distribution of frequency.
Summary on plotting position formulae
The choice of the plotting position formula depends on engineer’s personnel taste.
From the statistical point of view the plotting position formula based on the mean (un-
biased) is preferred because the expected squared error is minimized. Rosbjerg (1988)
advocates the choice of the median plotting position formula (Benard formula) because
it is distribution-free and is based both on the distribution of frequency and the order
statistics. In practice the Weibull plotting position formula is most widely used.
50
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
Cov(X, Y )
ρ = (4-31)
V ar(X) V ar(Y )
is widely used as the criterion for the comparison of the fitting goodness. However, ρ is
defined in the linear plotting domain (y, x), where the reduced variate y is dependent on
the distribution function. Therefore, the interpretation of this criterion is less clear.
With the fitted distribution functions, the wave heights corresponding to the non-exceedence
probability of the observed wave heights can be calculated, cf. eqs (4-33) and (4-34). The
average relative error E, defined as
1 n
| xi,estimated − xi,observed |
E = (4-32)
n i=1 xi,observed
1
x = A (−ln(1 − F )) k + B Weibull distribution (4-33)
51
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
1 1
T = or F = 1 − (4-36)
λ(1 − F ) λT
Inserting eq (4-36) into eqs (4-33) and (4-34), we get (now x means the wave height
corresponding to return period T , and therefore is replaced by xT )
1
xT = A −ln( λT
1
) k
+B Weibull distribution (4-37)
xT = A −ln(−ln(1 − 1
λT
)) +B Gumbel distribution (4-38)
Remark
Some students have a confusion between the short-term distribution of individual wave
heights and the long-term distribution of extreme wave heights. The confusion can be
cleared by the following figure.
52
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
4.9 Example
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory performed a hindcast study for the Tripoli deep water wave
climate and identified the 17 most severe storms in a period of 20 years. The ranked
significant wave heights are listed in Table 2.
You are required to find the design wave height which has 22% exceedence probability
within a structure lifetime of 25 years.
The steps in the analysis are as follows:
17
1) Calculate the sample intensity by eq (4-35) λ = 20
2) Calculate the return period by eq (4-3) T = 100 years
3) Assign a non-exceedence probability Fi to each observed wave height xi
according to the Weibull plotting position formula. Results are shown in
Table 2.
4) Choose the Weibull and the Gumbel distributions as the candidate distri-
butions. Calculate the values of the reduced variate {yi } according to eqs
(4-11) and (4-12) respectively. For the Weibull distribution {yi } involves
the iterative calculation. {yi } of the two distributions are also shown in
Table 2.
53
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
5) Fit data (yi , xi ) to eq (4-10) by the least square method and obtain the
distribution parameters:
Weibull, k = 2.35, A = 5.17, B = 0.89
Gumbel, A = 1.73, B = 4.53
The fitting of the data to the Gumbel and the Weibull distributions is shown
in Fig. 6.
6) Compare the goodness of fitting according to the value of the average rela-
tive error E, eq (4-32)
E = 4.72 % for the Weibull distribution fitting
E = 6.06 % for the Gumbel distribution fitting
Because of a clearly smaller E-value the Weibull distribution is taken as the
representative of the extreme wave height distribution
7) Calculate the wave height corresponding to a return period of 100 years
X 100 by eq (4-37) x100 = 10.64 m
Fig. 6. Fitting to the Gumbel and the Weibull distributions and comparison.
54
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
55
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
If the design level for design wave height is a return period of 100 years, i.e. T = 100, the
design wave height is x100 = 12.2 m.
If other uncertainties, e.g. sample variability, is included, the design wave height x100
becomes a random variable. The distribution of the design wave height x100 , which is
usually assumed to follow the normal distribution, can be obtained by numerical simula-
tion to be described in the next section, cf. Fig.7. In order to account sample variability,
a confidence band is often applied. For example, the design wave height is 14.8 m which
corresponds to the 90% one-sided confidence interval, cf. Fig.7.
Numerical simulation
To exemplify the discussion, it is assumed that the extreme wave height follows the Gum-
bel distribution
x−B
F = FX (x) = P (X < x) = exp −exp −( ) (4-39)
A
Due to the sample variability and measurement/hindcast error, the distribution parameter
A and B become random variables,
In order to account the sample variability and measurement/hindcast error, a numerical
simulation is performed as explained in the followings.
A sample with size N is fitted to the Gumbel distribution. The obtained distribution
parameters Atrue and Btrue are assumed to be the true values.
56
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
In order to include the measurement/hindcast error the following step can be added after
step 1). This step is to modify each extreme data x generated by step 1), based on the
assumption that the hindcast error follows the normal distribution, cf. Fig.8
57
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
Example
Again the Tripoli deep water wave data is used as an example to demonstrate the deter-
mination of the design wave height and the influence of sample variability.
By fitting the extreme data to Gumbel distribution we obtain the distribution parameters
A = 1.73 and B = 4.53, cf. Fig.9. The design wave height corresponding to a return
period of 100 years is 12.2 m.
If sample variability is included, the design wave height x100 becomes a random variable.
The distribution of the design wave height x100 can be obtained by numerical simulation,
cf. Fig.9. In order to account sample variability, an 80% confidence band is often applied.
In the case of wave height estimate, one-sided confidence interval is preferred over two-
sided confidence interval because the lower bound of the confidence band is of less interest.
Therefore, the design wave height is 14.8 m which corresponds to 90% one-sided confidence
interval.
58
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
59
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
60
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
61
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
(Hs,i , Tm,i , αi , zi ) , i = 1, 2, . . . n
For each data set the response in question is either calculated from formulae or determined
by model tests. If for example run-up, Ru , is in question a single variable data set is
obtained
(Ru,i ) , i = 1, 2, . . . n
62
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
4.15 References
Benard, L.R. , 1943. Statistical analysis in hydrology. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 108,
pp 1110-1160
Burcharth, H.F. , 1986. On the uncertainties related to the estimation of extreme environ-
mental conditions. Proceeding of Seminar on Uncertainties Related to the Design
and Construction of Offshore Jacket Structures, Copenhagen, 1986, Published by
Danish Society of Hydraulic Engineering
Burcharth, H.F. , 1993. The design of breakwaters. Department of Civil Engineering,
Aalborg University, Denmark, 1993
Burcharth, H.F. and Zhou Liu , 1994. On the extreme wave height analysis. Proceedings
of HYDRO-PORT’94, Yokosuka, Japan, 19-21 October, 1994
Cunnane, C. , 1978. Unbiased plotting positions – a review. J. Hydrology, 37, pp 205-22.
Goda, Y. , 1979. A review on statistical interpretation of wave data. Port and Harbour
Research Institute, 18(1), 1979
Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures . University of Tokyo
Press, Japan, 1985
Goda, Y. , 1988. On the methodology of selecting design wave height. Proc. 21st Int.
Conf. on Coastal Engr., Spain.
Goda, Y., Kobune, K. , 1990. Distribution function fitting for storm wave data. Proc.
22nd Int. Conf. on Coastal Engr., The Netherlands.
Le Mehaute, B. and Shen Wang , 1984. Effects of measurement error on long-term wave
statistics. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Coastal Engineering,
Houston, USA, 1984.
Liu, Z. and Burcharth, H.F , 1996. Design wave height related to structure lifetime. Pro-
ceedings of the 25th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Orlando,
USA, 1996.
Rosbjerg, D. , 1985. Estimation in partial duration series with independent and depen-
dent peak values. Journ. of Hydrology, 76, pp 183-195.
Rosbjerg, D. , 1988. A defence of the median plotting position. Progress Report 66,
ISVA, Technical University of Denmark
Ross, S.M., , 1987. Introduction to probability and statistics for engineers and scientists.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1987, PP 245-305. ISBN 0-471-60815-7.
Thoft-Christensen, P. and Michael J. Baker , 1982. Structural reliability theory and its
application. ISBN 3-540-11731-8, Springer-Verlag, 1982.
Weibull, W. , 1939. A statistical theory of strength of material. Ing. Vet. Ak. Handl.
(Stockholm), 151.
63
4 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS
4.16 Exercise
1) The design wave height for Sines breakwater in Portugal is the significant
wave height corresponding to 100 years return period.
The hindcast study of Sines breakwater wave climate gave the following 17
severest storms in the period of 1970-1985:
Hs in meter
Fit the data to Gumbel distribution by the least square method and the
maximum likelihood method and calculate the design wave height.
64
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
65
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
1. All water particles at the free surface remain at the free surface (kinematic boundary
condition). Free surface is at constant pressure (dynamic boundary condition).
2. The water accompanies the wave paddle. The horizontal velocity of water particle
is the same as the paddle. The time series of paddle movement is
S(z)
e(z, t) = x(z, t)
= sin(ωt) (5-1)
paddle 2
66
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
where c, cn and kn are coefficients depending on the paddle type, paddle cycling frequency
and water depth.
The first term in eq (5-2) expresses the surface elevation at infinity, by Biésel called the
far-field solution, while the second term is the near-field solution. In general only the far-
field solution is interesting because the amplitude of a linear wave should not change with
location. Fortunately, the “disturbance” from the near-field solution will in a distance of
1-2 water depth from the wave paddle be less than 1% of the far-field solution, cf. Fig.3.
Fig.3. Wave amplitude and phase of the generated wave field relative to the far-field
solution. Water depth = 0.7 m and wave period = 0.7 sec
Fig.3 shows that the far-field surface elevation is phase-shifted π2 relative to the displace-
ment of the wave paddle. However, because the initial phase of the surface elevation will
not change wave properties, the paddle movement is often written as in phase with the
surface elevation.
The Biésel transfer function, i.e. the amplitude relation between wave and paddle, is
obtained by the far-field solution
H
c · sinh(kh) = (5-3)
2
The Biésel transfer functions for the two most popular wave paddles are given in the
followings.
67
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
S(z) = S0
H 2 sinh2 (kh)
= (5-4)
S0 sinh(kh) cosh(kh) + kh
S0
S(z) = · (h + z), S0 = S(z = 0)
h
68
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
5.3 Examples
Calibration of wave paddle
Before generating waves the wave paddle should be calibrated in order to obtain the
calibration coefficient of the paddle. The calibration of wave paddle is performed by
sending a signal which increases gradually from 0 to 1 voltage in one minute, and then
measuring the wave paddle displacement, cf. Fig.6.
Modification of signal
In order to avoid a sudden movement of wave paddle, the signal should be modified by a
data taper window. Fig. 7 illustrates the principle of the linear data taper window.
69
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
General procedure
The most important aspect of wave generation is the preparation of the input signal
corresponding to the variance spectrum of design wave. Fig.8. illustrates one of simple
methods.
Of course the recording of the generated wave is necessary so that it can be checked
whether the variance spectrum of the generated wave is close to that of design wave,
according to Murphy’s law7 .
7
Murphy’s law: Anything, which might go wrong, will go wrong.
70
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
H 2 sinh2 (kh)
B = = = 0.80
S0 sinh(kh) cosh(kh) + kh
3) Convert the time series of piston movement into the time series of voltage
to be feeded to the piston-type wave paddle.
volt(t) = C e(t)
71
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
72
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
JONSWAP spectrum
4
f
S(f ) = α Hs2 fp4 f −5 γ β exp − 54 fp
0.0624
α ≈ 0.230 + 0.0336 γ − ( 1.90.185
+ γ)
(f − f p )2
β = exp − 2 σ 2 fp2
σ ≈ 0.07 f ≤ fp
σ ≈ 0.09 f ≥ fp
γ : peak enhancement coefficient
7
7
η(t) = ηi (t) = ai cos(ωi t + δi )
i=1 i=1
73
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
Hi 2 sinh2 (ki h)
Bi = = i = 1, 2, · · · , 7
S0,i sinh(ki h) cosh(ki h) + ki h
7
S0,i
7
Hi
e(t) = cos(ωi t + δi ) = cos(ωi t + δi )
i=1 2 i=1 2Bi
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5) Convert the time series of piston movement into the time series of voltage
to be feeded to the piston-type wave paddle.
volt(t) = C e(t)
74
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
7) Sample the data from the modified time series of the voltage at fsample = 50
Hz and send the signal to the wave paddle.
75
5 WAVE GENERATION IN LABORATORY
Remarks
For more complicated wave generation method, including active wave absorption and 3-
D wave generation, reference is made to Frigaard et al. (1993). All these aspects have
been implemented in a user-friendly software package named PROFWACO (Frigaard et
al. 1993). With respect to wave generation techniques we are proud of the fact that the
Hydraulic & Coastal Engineering Laboratory of Aalborg University is one of the leading
institutes in the world.
5.4 References
Dean, R.G. and Dalrymple, R.A. , 1991. Water wave mechanics for Engineers and sci-
entists. Second printing with correction, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.,
Singapore, 1991.
Frigaard, P., Hgedal, M. and Christensen, M. , 1993. Wave generation theory. Hydraulic
& Coastal Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg Uni-
versity, Denmark, 1993.
Frigaard, P., Hgedal, M. and Christensen, M. , 1993. PROFWACO, Users Guide. Hy-
draulic & Coastal Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Aal-
borg University, Denmark, 1996.
Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures. University of Tokyo
Press, Japan, 1985
5.5 Exercise
1) Estimate the minimum power of motor needed for generating a linear wave
with Wave height H = 0.20 m, wave period T = 1.5 s, water depth h = 0.4 m,
wave flume width B = 1.5 m.
2) What is the minimum distance between the wave gauge and wave paddle ?
3) Explain the importance that the wave paddle can produce sufficiently large
wave height. List the factors which limit the maximum wave height obtain-
able in a wave flume.
4) Make a computer program for examples given in lecture.
76