Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
ISBN 1-86408-851-6
Jen Tindale
Series editor: Anne Burns
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Contents
Introduction to the series 3 7 Reading fluency 46
Why build reading fluency?
Introduction 6 How can teachers help students to increase their reading fluency?
4 Vocabulary development 28
How can building vocabulary improve reading?
How can reading assist students’ vocabulary development?
Introduction
say
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s Almost all ESL teachers, regardless of the level of their students or the goals
of their program, will at some point in their teaching week focus on the
teaching of reading. What they choose to teach and how they teach it will
vary, depending on – among many other factors – their own approach to
Literacy … is not a fixed and finite state but a teaching, as well as their students’ needs and goals.
developmental process.
(Hammond et al 1992: 9) This book provides a set of ideas for the classroom, based on research, that
can be called on by teachers at various points within the cycle of teaching and
It is possible to present a single-sentence definition learning, as students ‘learn language … learn through language … [and] learn
of reading such as the following: ‘Reading is the about language’ (Halliday 1992: 19). Although this book looks at reading as a
ability to draw meaning from the printed page and discrete macroskill, it is generally aimed at ESL teachers who teach reading as
interpret this information appropriately’. However
part of a course that integrates reading, writing, speaking and listening.
… [this definition] is insufficient as a way to
understand the true nature of reading abilities …
it does not convey that … a reader has several What is reading?
possible purposes for reading and each purpose
emphasises a somewhat different combination of Reading is a complex cognitive task, seen variously (depending on the
skills and strategies … it does not emphasise the theoretical approach) as being dependent on either:
many criteria that define the nature of fluent reading > information processing/decoding skills (bottom-up skills)
abilities … it does not explain how reading is carried
out as a cognitive process that operates under
> background knowledge (top-down skills)
intense time constraints … [and] it does not > an interaction between bottom-up and top-down skills, or
highlight how the ability to draw meaning from a > a complex mix of top-down and bottom-up skills combined with social
text and interpret this meaning varies in line with experiences (new literacy approaches).
the second language proficiency of the reader.
(Grabe and Stoller 2002: 9–10)
It is beyond the scope of this book to describe each of these theories or models
We do not spend enough time talking to our of the reading process in detail (for a summary see Hood et al 1996; Burns and
students about the way language and literacy de Silva Joyce 2000a).What is of interest here is what these theories mean for
operate – how language and literacy are teachers whose students are having difficulties in reading in English.
socioculturally situated, how texts can be read
differently … [As] educators, we have the Bottom-up approaches to reading are based on the view that readers learn to
responsibility to help [students] explore read by decoding, and that reading difficulties can be remedied through the
the advantages and disadvantages of becoming development of phonic skills. Bottom-up approaches generally see reading skills
members of different literacy communities and as developing at the level of word recognition, with little connection to context
then providing for their apprenticeship in their or to the readers’ background knowledge.
chosen literacies.
(Murray 1998: 47)
Top-down approaches, based on psycholinguistic views of reading, place less
emphasis on the role of decoding, seeing reading as a process of guessing
meaning from context with the support of background knowledge.
continued p 9 >>
8 INTRODUCTION TEACHING READING 9
Reading difficulties are attributed to poor reading strategies, and are remedied
by a focus on strategies such as finding main ideas and guessing from context.
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say
Research indicates that students’ reading difficulties are more likely to stem
from a lack of language knowledge related to reading, rather than poor reading
ability as such. Cobb and Horst (2001: 317) argue that if weak L2 reading ‘is a
reading problem, then poor readers are poor readers in any language, and there
Effective teachers have always been eclectic, is little a language course can do for them other than to remediate their general
selecting strategically from the array of available reading skills’.
approaches to ensure their learners have the best
possible learning experience and outcomes … Interactive approaches see reading as a process of interaction between top-down
A text-based syllabus is one way of establishing a and bottom-up skills, advocating a combination of language development,
coherent, cohesive and comprehensive framework. decoding and strategy development. According to Grabe and Stoller (2002),
It is a global approach within which the best aspects
interactive models are flawed, as the two types of processes (lower and higher
of other syllabus models can be used.
(Feez 1998: 13) level) are incompatible. They concede that a modified interactive approach may
be used to explain general reading, but this does not account for the different
It is more productive for teachers to look at ways processes used when reading for different purposes.
of incorporating the insights derived from different
perspectives [on reading] than to look for one New literacy approaches situate reading within a broader social and cultural
superior theory to help understand the nature of context, moving away from the idea of reading as simply a neutral cognitive
reading. In this way we can develop classroom skill. Within these approaches, reading difficulties can be seen to stem from an
activities that prepare our students for the inability to access the meaning of texts, and can be addressed through activities
multifaceted phenomenon that reading is. that focus on a combination of ‘decoding skills, cognitive processes and social
(Williams 1999: 24)
experiences’ (Burns and de Silva Joyce 2000a: xi). Freebody and Luke (1990: 15),
Genres provide ways for responding to recurring for example, identify the need for language programs to address the four related
commmunicative situations.They further provide a roles of readers ‘systematically, explicitly and at all developmental points:
frame that allows individuals to orient to and > code breaker (“How do I crack this?”);
interpret particular communicative events. Making
this genre knowledge-explicit can provide language
> text participant (“What does this mean?”);
learners with the knowledge and skills they need > text user (“What do I do within this, here and now?”); and
to communicate successfully in particular discourse > text analyst (“What does all this do to me?”)’.
communities. It can also provide learners with
access to socially powerful forms of language.
(Paltridge 2001: 3)
Reading in a text-based approach to teaching
and learning
Butt et al (2000: 15) take the view that a text is a ‘whole, harmonious collection
of meanings that has unity of purpose’. In a text-based approach to teaching and
learning, whole texts in context are taken as the organising principle for syllabus
design. Reading, writing, speaking and listening are integrated in a cycle of
teaching and learning designed to ‘develop the knowledge and skills to deal
with written and spoken texts in social contexts’ (Feez 1998: 24). Within the
continued p 11 >>
10 INTRODUCTION TEACHING READING 11
teaching and learning cycle, a range of activities are structured around written
texts: the social context of the text is explored; the text is deconstructed on a
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say
number of levels (from expression to clause to text level) as models for
students’ joint and then individual construction of texts.
1
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Learner needs
What factors need to be considered when analysing
The emphasis given to reading in the curriculum will
reflect the profile of students and their needs for students’ reading needs?
learning English.
(Hood et al 1996: 28) How can information about student needs be collected
The texts and contexts teachers choose to include
and used?
in language teaching programs depend on the needs
and wants of students. Sometimes students need to
meet the demands of a pre-determined syllabus; at Findings
other times teachers and students can negotiate
their own teaching content. In both cases teachers
> It is important to recognise that many learners will already be
analyse students’ language learning needs prior to proficient readers in their first language. Their ability to read in a
and at the beginning of a course of study in order second language will be influenced more by their level of proficiency
to determine that the texts included in the course in L2 than by their L1 reading abilities.
are appropriate and relevant. Diagnostic assessment
determines the elements of language and context > When analysing students’ reading needs, consider their level of
which will be the focus of the teaching program.
competence in reading English; their goals and purposes for
(Butt et al 2000: 268)
improving reading skills; the demands for literacy in the wider world;
Both teachers and students rely on reading as an the role of reading as a resource for learning; their previous formal
important resource for language learning, and we learning experiences and linguistic resources for learning to read; and
should consider whether students have adequate
reading skills in English to cope with the reading their access to English language use.
demands of learning in the classroom.
> Involve students in analysing their own reading needs (see
The ability to read well in English will influence
Suggestions for the classroom on page 15).
learning potential in all other areas in which the
student engages, not just in learning language. > Information about student needs – collected through placement
Writing is a powerful tool in thought and learning
because it allows us to capture ideas and hold them documents, student self-assessment, and diagnostic assessment – can
still. Reading gives us access to those written ideas be used to identify the contexts in which the learners need to use
and information for further consideration, review language; the types and natures of the texts that need to be learned;
or analysis.
student strengths and weaknesses in oracy and literacy; and student
(Hood et al 1996: 33)
strengths and weaknesses in specific skills and strategies.
(Sources: Hood et al 1996; Feez 1998; Cobb and Horst 2001; Grabe and
Stoller 2002)
14 LEARNER NEEDS TEACHING READING 15
2
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Program planning
We have argued that learning a language is about
What factors need to be considered when incorporating
learning how to mean in that language; we have reading into a language program?
identified the units of meaning in language as whole
texts.This suggests that the content of a language What is the relationship between reading and writing,
program might be usefully organised around the
teaching of whole texts in context. Which texts and speaking and listening?
contexts to include in a teaching program will be
determined after analysing what students need or
want to do with the language they are learning … Findings
Language programs can be planned in terms of > There is a clear relationship between the development of reading
language ‘wholes’, or texts, and the micro-elements
skills and the other macroskills. A well-planned language program
of language, such as words and grammatical
structures, can be taught in relation to these wholes. will integrate reading and writing, speaking and listening.
(Butt et al 2000: 260, 246)
> Reading can be integrated with writing by providing the opportunity
A text-based syllabus is one way of establishing a to read and analyse the language features and structures of a range
coherent, cohesive and comprehensive framework. of texts to use as models for students’ own writing.
It is a global approach within which the best aspects
of other syllabus models can be used … > Researchers advocate the explicit teaching of grammar as part of a
The content of a text-based syllabus is specified genre- or text-based approach to reading and writing.
in terms of texts which students need to control in
order to participate effectively in social contexts … > L1 and L2 research suggests that extensive reading develops language
Each unit of work is usually designed around a text knowledge (vocabulary, fluency, syntactic knowledge, semantic
or a sequence of related texts, and students then
work through cycles of teaching and learning memory, metalinguistic awareness, general knowledge) that supports
activities towards the achievement of one or more writing ability.
course objectives which are related to the use of
these texts in context. > Reading can be integrated with the development of speaking and
(Feez 1998: 13, 22) listening skills (eg in a text-based approach, the context of a text
can be explored through a range of speaking and listening activities;
reading aloud can provide pronunciation practice; a written text can
be used to provide content and vocabulary for speaking activities such
as discussions and role plays).
(Sources: Callaghan et al 1993; Day and Bamford 1998; Feez 1998; Butt et al
2000; Grabe 2001)
18 PROGRAM PLANNING TEACHING READING 19
3
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Selection of reading
When texts share the same general purpose in the
culture, they will often share the same obligatory
texts
and optional structural elements, and so they belong
to the same genre or text type … Different social
Which text types should be used for classroom reading?
purposes will produce texts with distinct structural
elements, each of which contributes to the
Should reading texts be simplified for second language
achievement of the text’s purpose. learners?
(Butt et al 2000: 9, 10)
Simplifying texts
> Following is a list of issues to consider when simplifying texts:
Graded readers are … criticised because they
provide poor conditions for learning (Yano, Long Organisation of the text
and Ross 1994).These criticisms include the – What is the purpose of the document?
following: 1) Reading graded readers that are
pitched lower than the learners’ level can lower
– Does the organisation of information support the purpose?
the quality of their output; 2) Removing difficult – Would it be easier to read if the sequence of information was
vocabulary denies learners access to what they changed?
need to learn; 3) Reading texts with little unknown
vocabulary discourages the development of Vocabulary
generalisable coping skills, such as guessing from – Is an understanding of technical or low-frequency vocabulary
context and vocabulary use. needed by the reader?
(Nation and Deweerdt 2001: 57)
– Can low-frequency vocabulary items be replaced with higher-
We need to see simplification as one of a range frequency alternatives or known words?
of options for making text accessible. Each of the
options – simplification, elaboration, easification,
– Do technical terms or low-frequency words need to be elaborated?
negotiation – has its own particular strengths and Interpersonal meanings
values. Rather than focusing on which one is best, – What is the role relationship between the reader and the writer?
we need to look at what each has to offer and how
each can be used to best effect.Teachers need an – How negotiable is the information?
expanded range of options, not a reduced one. – How personal should the language be?
(Nation 2000: 172–73)
Register
Beck, McKeown, Sinatra and Loxterman (1991) – How appropriate is a more conversational style?
… revised [an academic] text … using select – How ‘spoken’ or ‘written’ should the language be?
discourse-organisation principles … The results
of the study showed that students understood (Adapted from Hood et al 1996: 64; Nation 2000: 93, 172)
the revised text significantly better than the original
version, recalling significantly more information and
> Follow principles of discourse organisation when simplifying
scoring significantly higher on comprehension academic texts: add explanations; make connections obvious; link
questions … [demonstrating] that texts can be events and people more directly; make sure that given information
made more comprehensible in principled ways generally precedes new information in each sentence.
following major concepts from discourse analysis
(as opposed to formulaic simplification rules). (Adapted from Beck, McKeown, Sinatra and Loxterman 1991: in Grabe
(Grabe and Stoller 2002: 112–13) and Stoller 2002: 112)
> Consider alternatives to simplification (eg elaboration – see Nation
2000: 173)
2 8 V O C A B U L A RY D E V E L O P M E N T TEACHING READING 29
4
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Vocabulary
One of the major findings [of research reported
here] was that learners identified the development
development
of more effective vocabulary learning strategies as a
key factor in learning to read in English.
How can building vocabulary improve reading?
(Burns and de Silva Joyce 2001: viii)
How can reading assist learners’ vocabulary development?
[A study by Schoonen, Hulstjin and Bossers (1998)]
demonstrates the strong connection between
reading and vocabulary in both L1 and L2 contexts Findings
… [I]n comparing the factors contributing to L1 and
L2 reading, the researchers found that vocabulary > Reading and vocabulary building are mutually beneficial in L1 and
knowledge had a greater influence on L2 reading L2 reading.
than on L1 reading, [particularly at lower > Fluent reading depends in part on having a large sight vocabulary
proficiency levels].
(Grabe and Stoller 2002: 147) and a wide general vocabulary. A reader’s sight vocabulary includes
words that are so familiar they are automatically recognised.
Word knowledge is the key ingredient in successful
reading both in L1 (Freebody and Anderson 1981) > A vocabulary threshold exists, below which readers will be unlikely
and L2 (Cooper 1984), contributing more to to comprehend a text. For adequate comprehension, research
L2 academic reading success than other kinds suggests that learners need to know 98 per cent of the words in a
of linguistic knowledge including syntax text – or one unknown word to every 50 –100 words.
(Saville-Troike 1984).
Cobb and Horst 2001: 318) > The best vocabulary gains from reading are made when reading is
supplemented by word-focused activities, including activities that
The case for reading as an aid to vocabulary
learning seems to be strong, both in terms of extend word knowledge, as well as composition writing, gap-fills
providing the repetition necessary to establish and sentence writing.
new words in the learners’ mind and in supplying > Knowledge about a word includes knowledge of its meaning; written
the different contexts necessary to elaborate
and expand the richness of knowledge about form; spoken form; grammatical behaviour; collocations; register;
those words. associations; frequency; word family; word stems and affixes.
(Schmitt and Carter 2000: 4–5)
> Extensive reading contributes more to vocabulary development
when target vocabulary is repeated throughout reading texts,
and when extensive reading is followed up with activities that
focus directly on vocabulary.
(Sources: Day and Bamford 1998; Nation 1990, 2000; Hu and Nation 2000)
3 0 V O C A B U L A RY D E V E L O P M E N T TEACHING READING 31
Practical examples
> Here is a sample page from a learner vocabulary notebook that could
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say be adapted according to learner level.
word
5
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Skills and strategies
Skills refer to information-processing techniques that
What is the difference between reading skills and reading
are automatic, whether at the level of recognising strategies?
grapheme-phoneme correspondence or
summarising a story. Skills are applied to a text How and when do readers use different reading strategies?
unconsciously for many reasons including expertise,
repeated practice, compliance with directions, luck Are different reading strategies needed to read online texts?
and naïve use. In contrast strategies are actions
selected deliberately to achieve particular goals.
An emerging skill can become a strategy when
it is used intentionally. Likewise, a strategy can
Findings
‘go underground’ … and become a skill. Indeed > Reading skills are generally defined as automatic processing abilities,
strategies are more efficient and developmentally whereas strategies are deliberate actions performed to achieve a
advanced when they become generated and applied
automatically as skills.Thus, strategies are skills under particular goal. A skill can become a strategy when it is used
consideration. intentionally.
(Paris, Wasik and Turner 1991: in Carrell 1998: 2)
> Individual readers use different reading strategies for different types
[T]here are no inherently ‘good’ or ‘bad’ reading of texts, in different contexts, and when reading for different purposes
strategies. What is a good reading strategy in one (see reading strategies listed in Practical examples within this chapter).
situation for one reader, may be a bad strategy
in a different situation for a different reader. > The use of reading strategies requires knowledge of strategies
Successful strategy use is apparently context (metacognition), and motivation to use them. Metacognitive ability
and text dependent.
includes both the knowledge of cognition (declarative, procedural
(Carrell 1998: 1)
and conditional knowledge, or ‘knowing what, how and why’), and
[Successful second language reading comprehension the regulation of cognition (the ability to plan, monitor, test, revise
is] not simply a matter of knowing what strategy and evaluate strategies).
to use, but the reader must also know how to use
it successfully and orchestrate its use with other > Knowledge of reading strategies does not make up for a lack of
strategies. It is not sufficient to know about language knowledge in L2: only where learners have sufficient
strategies, but a reader must also be able to
apply them strategically.
language knowledge does providing instruction in text structure and
(Anderson 1991: 19) reading strategies lead to more advanced reading abilities.
> Reading online texts requires similar reading strategies to reading
paper-based texts, together with critical reading skills.
(Sources: Carrell 1998; Grabe and Stoller 2002; Sutherland-Smith 2002)
3 6 S K I L L S A N D S T R AT E G I E S TEACHING READING 37
Practical examples
> Here are some examples of reading strategies that readers may use
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say when reading for different purposes:
– specify a purpose for reading
– plan what to do/what steps to take
– preview the text
Web literacy demands an incorporation of the key
reading, or navigation, skills: access to information; – predict the content of the text or section of text
analysis of information (including multi-media); – check predictions
and processing procedures to store or move text.
While these skills appear to be the same as paper-
– pose questions about the text
text, academic writers seem to agree that Web – find answers to posed questions
literacy involves an expansion of traditional critical – connect text to background knowledge
reading skills to incorporate evaluation of visual – summarise information
and non-textual features and a greater use of
associative logic.
– connect one part of the text to another
(Sutherland-Smith 2002: 58) – pay attention to text structure
– reread all or parts of the text
[I]f texts are becoming more intensely multimodal,
we need to understand that the production or
– guess the meaning of a new word from context
reading of a text will involve distinctly different – use discourse markers to see relationships
perceptual, cognitive and affective modes all at – check comprehension
the same time. It is that notion of ‘all at the same – identify comprehension difficulties
time’ that perhaps poses the greatest challenge –
a challenge with which language educators need
– take steps to repair faulty comprehension
to engage. – critique the author
(Snyder 1999: 22) – judge how well objectives were met
– reflect on what has been learned from the text.
(Adapted from Grabe and Stoller 2002: 16)
> When working with beginning readers:
– model the reading strategies that you use to read a text
(eg skimming, scanning, sounding words out, guessing the
meaning of words from context, rereading, reading in detail);
– provide strong visual and contextual support to reading texts,
selecting a variety of texts associated with a topic, and reading
tasks that are context embedded and concrete rather than abstract;
– build the context for the text through pictures, audiovisual
material, excursions, and class discussion.
40 READING FOR MEANING TEACHING READING 41
6
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Reading for meaning
If language teachers understand how whole texts
If students can use reading strategies, and understand the
make meaning in context, they are able to design vocabulary, will they fully comprehend a text?
language teaching programs aligned to the language
that students need to use in real life. How can teachers help students to increase their
(Butt et al 2000: 246)
understanding?
[I]n the majority of EFL reading lessons the emphasis
remains on comprehension of content and the
[development] of strategies to allow more rapid and Findings
accurate processing of information. A genre-based
approach to the teaching of reading can … > From a social and functional point of view, language learning is
[facilitate] a clearer appreciation of how the choices a ‘process of learning how to make meaning in social contexts’
made at the level of lexico-grammar invariably (Butt et al 2000: 258). Understanding the meaning of a text in
reflect the writer’s purpose … [and] how the
grammar is constructed to manipulate the reader
context is therefore vital to language learners.
into the desired reading position and response to > To understand the meaning of a text in context, a reader needs to
the text. Such knowledge is often vital to unpacking understand not only content (the meaning of the words and the
and understanding a text.
meaning of the overall text), but also the socio-cultural context of
(Mackay 1995: 8)
the text and the writer’s purpose.
[P]rior knowledge figures prominently in various > The socio-cultural context of texts, and the ways that meaning is
versions of ‘reading’ … The use of texts about which
learners have limited background knowledge can be
constructed within texts and shaped by the context are often not
a hindrance to comprehension.This would seem obvious to learners from different cultural backgrounds, who bring
particularly significant in the case of ESL instruction, different cultural knowledge to their understanding of texts. The
where learners bring varying bodies of cultural socio-cultural context of texts can be explored through various
knowledge and competence to bear on the text.
It also suggests the need for explicit and guided activities within a teaching and learning cycle (see Suggestions for
instructional introduction to those texts and genres the classroom on page 43).
that make meaning demands on students.
(Freebody and Luke 1990: 10)
42 READING FOR MEANING TEACHING READING 43
7
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Reading fluency
The fourth strand in a balanced course is fluency
Why build reading fluency?
development … [L]earners do not work with new
language; instead they become more fluent in using
How can teachers help students to increase their
items they already know … If a course does not reading fluency?
have a strong fluency element, then the learning
done in the [rest of the course] will not be readily
available for normal use.
(Nation 2000: 2–3)
Findings
> One of the aims of building reading fluency is to consolidate the
Extensive reading can – perhaps must – play an
language that has already been learned.
important role in developing the components upon
which fluent second language reading depends: a > For students intending to go on to further study, the ability to read
large sight vocabulary; a wide general vocabulary; and comprehend large quantities of written material quickly is a vital
and knowledge of the target language, the world skill.
and text types.
(Day and Bamford 1998: 16) > Around 25 per cent of learning time should be devoted to fluency
development. This could be achieved if learners are taught skills to
Fluency increases are typically accompanied by increase their reading fluency independently (see Suggestions for the
improvements in accuracy and complexity of
language use (Arevart and Nation 1991). As well as classroom on page 49).
improving access to language features, fluency > In building reading fluency, it is important to balance reading rate
practice … can enrich and consolidate knowledge and comprehension: sometimes rate may need to take priority over
of language features.
(Nation and Deweerdt 2001: 59) comprehension in order to develop automaticity in reading.
> Extensive reading can be used to develop reading fluency, if
99–100 per cent of the words in the text are known.
> Classroom experience has shown that readers comprehend a text
better if they read it three times at a faster speed over 5 minutes,
than if they read it once slowly over 5 minutes.
> Reading aloud (in small groups) has benefits for students’ use of
reading strategies, pronunciation, vocabulary, confidence and
motivation (see Suggestions for the classroom on page 49).
(Sources: Anderson 1999; Given 2000; MacPhail 2000; Nation 2001)
48 READING FLUENCY TEACHING READING 49
8
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Extensive and
Extensive reading … generally involves rapid reading
of large quantities of material or longer readings
narrow reading
(eg whole books) for general understanding, with the
focus on the meaning of what is being read rather
What are the differences between extensive, intensive
than the language. Extensive reading is intended to and narrow reading?
get the reader to focus on reading for the sake of
reading (for information or entertainment), and less What are the benefits of each approach?
on reading for the sake of mastery of a particular
linguistic structure, or even a particular reading
strategy or skill.Thus it can involve a wide variety
of reading skills or strategies.
Findings
(Carrell and Carson 1997: 49–50) > Rather than favouring one approach over another, a language
program should provide opportunities for extensive, intensive and
Today, in language teaching terms, extensive reading
is recognised as one of four styles or ways of narrow reading (see Suggestions for the classroom on page 53).
reading, the other three being skimming, scanning > For extensive reading for fluency development, 99 –100 per cent of
and intensive reading … these four reading styles
are recognised on the basis of observable behaviour
the words in the text should be known. For extensive reading for
(… speed of reading, degree of re-reading, ‘skipping’ language growth, 95–98 per cent of the words should be known.
of text) … For intensive reading, use texts in which less than 95 per cent
[Here] the focus is on extensive reading as an of words are known.
approach to second language reading instruction
(Day and Bamford 1998: 7)
> Extensive reading contributes to effective reading by: developing
automatic word recognition; developing sight vocabulary; building
[In successful extensive reading programs]: the student motivation; extending students’ general background
reading material is easy; a variety of reading material knowledge; increasing reading comprehension; providing the
on a wide range of topics [is] available; learners
choose what they want to read; learners read as opportunity to develop and maintain reading strategies; developing
much as possible; the purpose of reading is usually the ability to ‘read to learn’; and providing the means for students
related to pleasure, information and general to continue learning a second language on their own.
understanding; reading is its own reward; reading
speed is usually faster rather than slower; reading > Narrow reading supports vocabulary development and extends
is individual and silent; teachers orient and guide background knowledge.
their students; and the teacher is a role model
of a reader.
> Intensive reading contributes to language and vocabulary
(Day and Bamford 2002: 137– 39) development, and the development of reading strategies.
(Sources: Grabe 1995; Nation 2000; Day and Bamford 2002)
5 2 E X T E N S I V E A N D N A R R OW R E A D I N G TEACHING READING 53
Practical examples
9
Wh a t R e s e a r c h e r s
say Classroom research
Action research offers a valuable opportunity for
How can teachers research reading in their classrooms,
teachers to be involved in research which is felt to and what can this research be used for?
be relevant, as it is grounded in the social context
of the classroom and the teaching institution, and How can students research their own reading practices,
focuses directly on issues and concerns which are
significant in daily teaching practice. and what can this research be used for?
(Burns 1999: 17)
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Brown, K. (1999). Developing critical literacy. Sydney: NCELTR.
Day, R. (1993). New ways in teaching reading. Alexandria, VA:TESOL.
Hammond, J., & Derewianka, B. (2001). Genre. In D. Nunan & R. Carter (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching
English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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13(1), 60–68.
Hammond, J., & Macken-Horarik, M. (1999).Teachers’ voices, teachers’ practices: Insider perspectives on literacy
education. The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 24(2), 112–132.
Janzen, J. (1996).Teaching strategic reading. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 6–9.
Reading in a Foreign Language. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/
Reid, I., Kirkpatrick, A., & Mulligan, D. (1998). Framing reading. Sydney: NCELTR in association with Curtin
University of Technology.