Utility Services Layout

Utility Services :
The utility services consist of many things. Any service or facility provided by an
organization comes under it. Any activity which supports the main activity or process is an
utility.
For example when you buy a house your main objective is shelter (i.e. you want to live
there). Facilities like electricity, television, Internet, potable water supply or air-conditioning
assist the main purpose. So all these are the utility services.
Consider an oil refinery the things that assist in operation but not take part in the main
process are steam (for heating ), compressed air ( for pneumatic devices) along with basic
things like electricity ,water supply ,waste disposal etc.
Types :
1. Public Utilities :
This includes:
a) Water supply
b) Drainage
c) Storm water
d) Gas (cooking)
e) Electricity /Communication
2. Industry Specific
This includes:
a) Steam
b) Compressed air
c) Nitrogen / Ammonia or other gases
d) Hot/Cold water
Codes and Standards used :
• ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31
 B31.1 Power Piping
 B31.3 Process Piping
 B31.9 Building Services Piping
• Other Standards
 American Petroleum Institute
 American Welding Society
 American Water Works Association
Identifying utility lines:

a) In a Process and flow diagram :
-Utility lines can be assigned letter U and then depending on various lines the
number follows the corresponding letter.
e.g. U123 indicates utility line with no.123.
Or
- Depending on the type of fluid the lines can be further numbered.
For example lines for process fluids can have numbering in one range, say, 1
to 100, utility lines can have numbering falling in another range, say, 101 to
200 and so on.
-Also fluid to be handled can be mentioned.

e.g. CHS may indicate chilled water supply, CHR may indicate chilled water return,
DMS may indicate DM water supply ,STM to indicate steam.
Example: U154/STM/PRO-SEC/350
This nomenclature indicates Utility Line with Steam flowing through it. The
line is located in the Process Section of the plant, of size 350 NB.
b) In Practice :
It is marked by a utility marking tape with various colour codes
Certain guidelines :
a) Utility marking tape shall be acid and alkali-resistant polyethylene film 6 inches wide with
minimum thickness of 0.004 inch.
b) Tape shall have a minimum strength of 1750 psi lengthwise and 1500 psi crosswise.
c) The tape shall be manufactured with integral wires, foil backing, or other means to enable
detection by a metal detector when the tape is buried up to 3 feet deep.
d) The tape shall be of a type specifically manufactured for marking and locating underground
utilities.
e) Tape color shall be as specified in TABLES and shall bear a continuous printed inscription
(black lettering) describing the specific utility.
For Public Utilities :
For Industry :
Public Utilities :
a) Water supply:
b) Drainage (Sewage):
c) Storm water piping:
d) Electricity / Communication / Gas :
4.a.) Water supply :
-To our homes and to the industries is mostly controlled and managed by a municipal body
(BMC).
-General Terminology:
(1) Water works. All construction (structures, pipe, equipment) required for the
collection, transportation, pumping, treatment, storage and distribution of water.
(2) Supply works. Dams, impounding reservoirs, intake structures, pumping stations,
wells and all other construction required for the development of a water supply source.
(3) Supply line. The pipeline from the supply source to the treatment works or
distribution system.
(4) Distribution system. A system of pipes and appurtenances by which water is

provided for domestic and industrial use and fire fighting.
(5) Distribution mains. The pipelines that constitute the distribution system.
(6) Service line. The pipeline extending from the distribution main to building served.
-Water Supply Network :
> Lake/Pond/River
> Water purification
> Storage
> Pumping
> Pipe Network (we are concerned with this only in piping)
> Connection to sewers.
Pipe network in water supply :

 Design considerations
 Pipe materials
Design :
 Size water lines by using the Darcy - Weisbach formula by extracting data from Moody
diagrams for friction losses in pipe. ( Water piping systems use pressure (conveying
water at a pressure above atmospheric) to allow the fluid to flow for long runs and
uphill. Pressure systems use pumps to create that pressure. For example, a public water
supply system may have a pump at elevation 100.00 that pumps to an 80 psi pressure.
Assume the piping system will lose 1 psi pressure for every 3000 feet of pipe. A house
that is 6000 feet from the pump and at elevation 90.00 will lose 2 psi from gravity losses
and gain 5 psi from elevation change (pressure changes about 1/2 psi for every one foot
of elevation change), so the water pressure at that house is 83 psi. Another house
18,000 feet from the pump at an elevation of 140.00 will lose 6 psi from friction losses
and 20 psi from elevation change. The water pressure at that house will be 54 psi. This
example illustrate the effect of friction losses and elevation changes on pressure piping)
 Design water mains to maintain a normal operating pressure range of 40 to 100 psi in
distribution mains and building service lines.
 Loop- grid type of system providing two-way flow with sectional valves arranged to
provide alternate flow paths to any point in the system. (any Section fails it can be
isolated and connection to other system is not affected)
 Where service lines enter the building provide suitable flexibility to protect against
differential settlement or seismic activity.
 Locate portable lines in a separate trench from sewer lines. Where feasible, portable
lines shall not be routed within 10 feet of sewer lines.
 Where portable mains must cross sewers, it shall pass 2 feet above the sewer lines.
 Accessories required:
a) Provide accessible shut-off valves at branches serving floors or multiple fixture
arrangement
b) The meter stop is a ground-joint valve, which controls and shuts off the flow of
water into the building. Place the meter stop as close to the service pipe entry as
possible.
c) The water meter, installed near the meter stop, measures the amount of water
used in the building.
d) Install reduced pressure type backflow preventer at branch lines supplying process
water. Locate it within 5 feet of floor level.
e) Pressure relief and surge relief valves to take care of water hammer effect.
f) Install air release and vacuum valves at high points in long supply lines.
Example of underground plan :
Pipe materials :
1. Galvanized steel( 3/8’’ to 2’’) :

-Durable but when galvanized zinc coating has degraded there is rusting
-Life is about 30-50 years
-It is not used for new connections.
2. Copper :
Common wall-thicknesses of copper tubing are "Type K", "Type L" and "Type M": [2]
 Type K has the thickest wall section of the three types of pressure rated tubing and is
commonly used for deep underground burial such as under sidewalks and streets, with a
suitable corrosion protection coating or continuous polyethylene sleeve as required by
code.
 Type L has a thinner pipe wall section, and is used in residential and commercial water
supply and pressure applications.
 Type M has the thinnest wall section, and is generally suitable for condensate and other
drains,.
Outside diameter Inside diameter (ID)

Nominal (OD) [in (mm)]
size
[in (mm)] Type K Type L Type M
3
⁄8 1
⁄ (12.7)
2
0.402 (10.211) 0.430 (10.922) 0.450 (11.430)
1
⁄2 5
⁄ (15.875)
8
0.528 (13.411) 0.545 (13.843) 0.569 (14.453)
5
⁄8 3
⁄ (19.05)
4
0.652 (16.561) 0.668 (16.967) 0.690 (17.526)
3
⁄4 7
⁄ (22.225)
8
0.745 (18.923) 0.785 (19.939) 0.811 (20.599)
1 ⁄
11 8 (28.575) 0.995 (25.273) 1.025 (26.035) 1.055 (26.797)
11⁄4 ⁄
13 8 (34.925) 1.245 (31.623) 1.265 (32.131) 1.291 (32.791)
1
1 ⁄2 ⁄
15 8 (41.275) 1.481 (37.617) 1.505 (38.227) 1.527 (38.786)
2 ⁄
21 8 (53.975) 1.959 (49.759) 1.985 (50.419) 2.009 (51.029)
21⁄2 ⁄
25 8 (66.675) 2.435 (61.849) 2.465 (62.611) 2.495 (63.373)
3 ⁄
31 8 (79.375) 2.907 (73.838) 2.945 (74.803) 2.981 (75.717)
Disadvantages :
-Susceptible to cold water pitting. (contamination)
-Erosion corrosion (high speed /turbulence)
-Pin holes due to stray current. Pin-hole leaks can occur anytime copper piping is
improperly grounded and/or bonded; nonmetal piping, such as Pex or PVC, does not
suffer from this problem. The phenomenon is known technically as stray current
corrosion or electrolytic pitting.
3. Plastics :
Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drainage, waste, and vent
(DWV) pipe. For example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride(CPVC), polypropylene (PP), polybutylene (PB), and polyethylene (PE) may be
allowed by code for certain uses. Some examples of plastics in water supply systems are:
 PVC/CPVC - rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls to deal
with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC should be used for cold water
only, or venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are
made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.
 PP - The material is used primarily in housewares, food packaging, and clinical
equipment,[5] but since the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide for both
domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, preventing the use of glues, solvents,
or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in green building projects.[6][7]
 PBT - flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and
secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and
fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures of this system.
However, PB and PBT tubing has returned to the market and codes, typically first for
'exposed locations' such as risers.
 PEX - cross linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs
and crimped steel or copper fittings.
4.b) Drainage (sewage):

Sanitary sewers require minimum exfiltration (sewage leaking out of the system and into the
ground) and infiltration (groundwater leaking into the system). The main elements are pipe,
manholes and clean-outs. The purpose of sanitary manholes is to allow inspection and cleaning
of sewers and to remove obstruction. The minimum manhole diameter is typically four feet
with 21" frame opening for access.
>Types of system:
A) Gravity System:
Most commonly used where topography is suitable for its installation.
B) Alternative System:
-There may be areas in which the topography is not well suited for construction of a gravity
sewer system. In such areas, the installation of a gravity system would require deep and
expensive trench excavation, jacking, boring, tunneling, or construction of long sewer lines to
avoid unfavorable terrain
-Also depths of gravity sewers greater than 15 to 20 feet are usually uneconomical.
a) Wastewater pumping.
-The operation and maintenance costs of a pumping station with a Forcemain, when
capitalized, may offset or exceed the construction costs of a deep gravity sewer system.
-Generally, a gravity sewer system will be justified until its cost exceeds the cost of a pumped
system by 10 percent.
b)Low Pressure Systems.

-Some areas under consideration may be further limited by high groundwater, unstable soil,
shallow rock, or extremely adverse topography, and neither gravity sewers nor pump or ejector
stations will be suitable.
-To overcome these difficulties, low pressure systems using grinder pumps with small diameter
(less than 100 mm (4-inch)) pressure sewers may be utilized. Low pressure systems are also
used with flat topography where low flows are anticipated.
-In a typical installation, wastewater from individual buildings will be discharged to a holding
tank, and then periodically transferred by a grinder pump station through small diameter pipe,
into either a central pressure main, conventional gravity sewer, pumping station, or wastewater
treatment facility.
GRAVITY SEWER DESIGN:
-The Manning formula will be used for design of gravity flow

sewers as follows:
where:
C = 1 for SI units (1.486 for IP units)
V = velocity in meters per second (feet per second)
n = coefficient of pipe roughness
R = hydraulic radius in meters (feet), and
S = slope of energy line in meters per meter (feet per foot)
(1) Roughness coefficient. Values of n to be used in the formula range from 0.013
to 0.015.
(2) Velocity. Sewers will be designed to provide a minimum velocity of 0.60 meters per
second (2.0 feet per second) at the average daily flow, or average hourly flowrate, and a
minimum velocity of 0.75 to 1.05 m/s (2.5 to 3.5 fps) at the peak diurnal flowrate
(When velocities drop below 0.30 m/s (1.0 fps) during periods of low flow,
organic solids suspended in the wastewater can be expected to settle out in the sewer.
Sufficient velocity (0.75 to 1.05 m/s (2.5 to 3.5 fps)) must be developed regularly, once or twice
daily as a minimum, to resuspend and flush out solids which may have been deposited during
low flows. A velocity of 0.75 m/s (2.5 fps) minimum is required to keep grit and sand
suspended.
However, new sewers which are properly designed and constructed should contain only minor
quantities of grit or sand. Maximum velocity is set at 3.00 m/s (10.0 fps) in the event that grit
becomes a problem.)
(3) Slope. Assuming uniform flow, the value of S in the Manning formula is equivalent to
the sewer invert slope. Pipe slopes must be sufficient to provide the required minimum
velocities
and depths of cover on the pipe. Although it is desirable to install large trunk and interceptor
sewers on flat slopes to reduce excavation and construction costs, the resulting low velocities
may deposit objectionable solids in the pipe creating a buildup of hydrogen sulfide, and thus
will
be avoided.
General considerations in design:
- Generally, it is not desirable to design sewers for full flow, even at

peak rates. Flows above 90 to 95 percent of full depth are considered unstable, and may result
in a sudden loss of carrying capacity with surcharging at manholes.
-In addition, large trunk and

interceptor sewers laid on flat slopes are less subject to wide fluctuations in flow, and if
designed to flow full may lack sufficient air space above the liquid to assure proper ventilation.
-Adequate sewer ventilation is a desirable method of preventing the accumulation of explosive,

corrosive or odorous gases, and of reducing the generation of hydrogen sulfide.
-Therefore, trunk and interceptor sewers will be designed to flow at depths not exceeding 90
percent of full depth;laterals and main sewers, 80 percent; and building connections, 70
percent.
-However, regardless of flow and depth the minimum sizes to be used are 150 millimeter (6-
inch) for building connections and 200 millimeter (8-inch) for all other sewers.
-BUILDING CONNECTIONS:
Building connections will be planned to eliminate as many bends as practical.
Bends greater than 45 degrees made with one fitting should be avoided; combinations of
elbows such as 45-45 or 30-60 degrees should be used .
-In most situations where small to medium sized gravity sewers are installed in long runs, it will
be safe to assume uniform flow throughout the entire length of conduit.
However, in cases where larger sewers, 600-millimeter (24-inch) diameter and above,
are constructed in runs of less than 30 meters (100 feet) ( it may contain number of control
sections where nonuniform flow may occur)
Pipe Materials :
1.Ductile iron.
-Ductile iron (D.I.) pipe is suitable for sewers and force mains used at
pumping stations and wastewater treatment facilities.
-D.I. pipe is susceptible to corrosion from acid wastes and aggressive soils. Cement,
polyurethane,bituminous, or polyethylene linings are usually provided for interior protection.
-However cement is not adequate for highly aggressive acid atmospheres; in such
environments, pure fused calcium aluminate with pure fused calcium aluminate aggregates is
recommended
2. Steel.
-Galvanized steel pipe will only be used for small diameter mains and pressure sewers from 32
mm (1-1/4-inch) to 100 mm (4-inch) in size.
3. Cast iron.
-Cast iron soil (C.I.S.) pipe will normally be allowed only as an option for building
connections. C.I.S. pipe is used primarily for building interior drainage, waste, and vent piping,
-C.I.S. pipe is resistant to internal and external corrosion when provided with a bituminous
coating, and is not subject to abrasion from grit, sand, or gravel.
-C.I.S. pipe is available in 50 mm (2-inch) through 380 mm (15-inch) diameters, in 1.5 m
(5-foot) and 3 m (10 foot) laying lengths, and is manufactured in service (SV) and extra heavy
(XH) classifications.
4. Concrete
-Concrete pressure pipe and sewer pipe is appropriate for applications requiring
large diameter or high strengths.
-A disadvantage is the lack of corrosion resistance to acids,
especially critical where hydrogen sulfide is generated in substantial quantities. However,
special PVC or clay liner plates, coatings of coal-tar, coal-tar epoxy, vinyl, or epoxy mortar can
be applied to the pipe for corrosion protection.
-Non-reinforced concrete sewer pipe is generally available in diameters 100 mm
(4-inch) through 750 mm (30-inch), and in minimum laying lengths of 1 m (3 feet).
-Reinforced concrete (R.C.) pressure pipe in diameters 600 mm (24-inch) through
3,600 mm (144-inch).
-Reinforced concrete pipe will be used where high external loadings are anticipated, and large
diameters or tight joints are required.
-The advantages of R.C. sewer pipe include a wide range of diameters,(300 mm (12-inch)
through 2,700 mm (108-inch), and laying lengths, 1.2 meters (4 feet) to 7.3 meters (24 feet),
which are available)
5. PVC
- PVC pipe is suitable for gravity sewers.
-It is chemically inert to most acidic and alkaline wastes, and is totally resistant to biological
attack. Since it is a nonconductor,PVC pipe is immune to nearly all types of underground
corrosion caused by galvanic or electrochemical reactions, in addition to aggressive soils.
-Durability, light weight, a high strength-to-weight ratio, long laying lengths, watertight joints
and smooth interior surfaces are characteristics which make PVC pipe an attractive alternative
for use in sewer systems.
- PVC sewer pipe is available in diameters 100 mm (4-inch) through 1,200 mm

(48-inch), and in laying lengths of 3 to 6 meters (10 to 20 feet).
-Disadvantages include possible chemical instability due to long-term exposure to sunlight,

excessive pipe deflection under trench loadings when installed improperly or subjected to high
temperature wastes, and brittleness when exposed to very cold temperatures .
3. Stormwater system :
Most storm sewer piping flows by gravity, no pumps create pressure. The storm water
drops into the system by inlets or roof drains then flows downhill. Obviously, the grade
of the pipe matters. A low spot, or belly, in the pipe makes a trap, while a high spot, or
hump, creates a dam. So the pipe crew needs to keep the pipe inverts (the lowest spot
in the pipe where the water flows) installed in a straight line, at the slope required on
the drawings.
Some of the common issues that occur with storm sewer piping are:
1. Unexpected rock excavation
2. Existing pipes in the way, discovered only during the installation
3. Design errors that only become apparent during the installation
Most project I see these days use High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipe.
The Sometimes concrete pipe still comes through as the best choice, due to it's strength and
durability.
Corrugated metal pipe (CMP) also gets used often
The degree to which storm sewer pipe must be water-tight is normally made clear in the
project specifications. Sometimes, a bit of water leakage from storm sewer piping is
acceptable (often a trade off for lower cost and easier installation) and other times the
storm sewer piping must be water-tight under a low pressure.
Industry specific utility :
1. Compressed air
2. Steam
3. Nitrogen
4. Ammonia
1.Compressed Air :
-Compressed air uses falls under the 3 categories
a) Power : In this application compressed air moves something or exerts a force. E.g.
Pneumatic tool operations, Air lifts or cylinders.
b) Process: Compressed air used in this application becomes a

part of the process itself. An example is the use of compressed air
in a combustion process.
c) Control Purpose. Extensive use is made of compressed air to govern

and/or regulate various equipment by monitoring pressure or flow
rates of some substance. A pneumatically controlled combustion
system is an example of such an application.
TYPES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.

-Compressed air is delivered by either aboveground or underground piping systems.
-In many instances, however, life cycle economics have found that small air compressors
at the source are more feasible than a compressed air distribution system.
SELECTION OF ABOVEGROUND OR UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS. :
-The decision whether to use aboveground or underground piping shall be based on the life
cycle economics. The advantages of each system are as follows:
-Other Factors. The following considerations may have an important
influence on the final decision of which system to employ:
Permanent versus temporary use
Degree of hazard (for example, the potential danger that overhead
piping may cause to aircraft operations)
Annual ownership, operation, and maintenance costs.
Design Considerations :
1.)Above-ground system :
(a) Spans. The maximum spans between pipe supports for straight pipe
runs depend on pipe size. Maximum spans for steel pipe and rigid copper
tubing are shown
(b) Elevation Clearance.

For distribution outside buildings, aboveground overhead lines may be located as little as 12
inches or as much as 22 feet above grade. The clearance above roadways is from 14 to 16 feet
for automobile and truck traffic. For railroad crossings, the clearance is
22 feet above grade. The minimum height for installations at low elevations
should be sufficient to clear surface water.
(c) Pitch of Aboveground Lines. Air lines are pitched down a minimum of
3 inches per 100 feet of length, in the direction of airflow, to low points
where the condensate is collected.
(d) Drip Legs.

The low line points are provided with drip legs equipped
with scale pockets and automatic drain traps. When accessible, scale pockets
may have a manual drain valve instead of an automatic drain trap. Drip legs
are located at:
Low points
Bottom of all risers
Every 200 to 300 feet for horizontally pitched pipe
(e) Counter flow of Condensate.

Where pipes must be sloped upward, causing condensate to run in a direction opposite to
airflow, the pitch of the pipe is increased to a minimum of 6 inches per 100 feet.
2.)Underground distribution system:
(a) Pitch of Underground Systems.

Air lines are generally pitched down a minimum of 3 inches per 100 feet of length, in the
direction of airflow, to provide easy drainage of condensate.
(b) Drip Legs.

In horizontally pitched buried pipes where traps are inaccessible, drip legs are located at
intervals of not over 500 feet.
(c) Counter flow of Condensate.

Where pipes must be sloped upward, causing condensate to run in a direction opposite to
airflow, the pitch of the pipe is increased to a minimum of 6 inches per 100 feet.
General Considerations for both systems:
>When practical, pipelines distributing compressed air to

numerous branches or service outlets in a large area should form a closed
loop. This maintains maximum pressure at branches and outlets and provides
two-way distribution to consumers.
>The use of a closed loop equipped with conveniently located segregating valves permits a
partial shutdown of the system for inspection or repairs.
>Generally, provisions are made for bleeding each part of a loop between segregating valves.
>The loop pipe should be of sufficient size to prevent an excessive pressure drop at any outlet
regardless of the direction of airflow around the loop.
>Branches shall be at the top of the main to prevent carryover of condensate and foreign
matter.
Piping Material:
>Low-Pressure and Medium-Pressure Systems. (less than 250 psi ):
o Black steel pipe in appropriate thicknesses conforming to pipe Schedule 40, ASTM A 53
or A 120 is used in these systems and is joined preferably by welding.
o For special conditions, stainless steel pipe and copper tubing with appropriate fittings
are also used.
> High-Pressure Systems:
o Seamless steel pipe conforming to ASTM A 53 or A 120, with Schedule determined in

accordance with ANSI/API 510-1983, is commonly used for high-pressure air systems.
o When economic considerations dictate its use, small systems may employ stainless steel
pipe with special fittings to assure a continuous supply of high quality air.
2.Steam :
• Not only is steam an excellent carrier of heat, it is also sterile, and thus popular for
process use in the food, pharmaceutical and health industries. It is also widely used in
hospitals for sterilisation purposes.
• The industries within which steam is used range from huge oil and petrochemical plants
to small local laundries. Further uses include the production of paper, textiles, brewing,
food production, curing rubber, and heating and humidification of buildings.
• Many users find it convenient to use steam as the same working fluid for both space
heating and for process applications. For example, in the brewing industry, steam is
used in a variety of ways during different stages of the process, from direct injection to
coil heating.
Definitions and Terminology:
Trunk line distribution system. Distribution system with a large-diameter line leaving
the boiler plant; as lateral branches are installed off it for service, the trunk
line gradually diminishes in diameter.
Main and feeder network distribution system. Distribution system that receives its
supply of steam through a high-pressure feeder main leading from the plant through
the network; the size of the feeder main required in this case is not as large as in
a trunk-line system with the same boiler-plant steam pressure.
Steam distribution systems:
(1)a trunk-line distribution network system :

In this, the diameter of the trunk line leaving the boiler plant is large, and
as lateral branches are installed off it for service, the diameter of the trunk line is
gradually reduced as the needs for carrying capacity are diminished.
(2) amain and feeder distribution network system.:

In this, the main and feeder network distribution system receives its supply
of steam through a high-pressure feeder main leading from the plant through the
network. Advantage is taken of the pressure drop available for the transportation of large
volumes of steam to the low-pressure network.
Design
The factors which determine the size of a steam pipe for a specific
installation are as follows:
(1) the initial steam pressure, and other conditions
(temperature),
(2) the minimum permissible discharge pressure,
(3) the allowable velocity,
(4) the quantity of steam, and
(5) the length of line, including equivalent lengths for fittings.
The Unwin formula has been widely used in the district-heating industry for
many years. At elevated velocities, Unwin’s formula gives pressure drops known
to be higher than actual. This formula, in English units, is as follows:
where ,
P _ pressure drop (psi)
W _ steam flow rate (lb/min)
L _ length of pipe (ft)
d _ pipe inside diameter (in)
Y _ steam density (lb/ft3){ 0.3318 lb/ft3}
Velocity Table :
Design Considerations
-To prevent a water slug type of water hammer and a

possible rupture of the steam main, condensed steam or condensate within the
steam main must be removed.
-The points to be drained are the low points in the line, moisture
separators, drip pockets, and valves, especially in vertical lines.
-Horizontal portions of the steam lines should be pitched downward approximately 1⁄₈ in/ft (10
mm/m)
in the direction of flow or 1⁄₄ in/ft (20 mm/m) for lines that contain a steam/water
mixture or require draining periodically.
-Condensate flow against the steam should be avoided if possible.
-In any event, recommended lengths of steam main for draining
off condensate should not exceed 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m).
-To provide for condensate drainage from a steam main, a drain pocket is
welded to the bottom of the pipe to be drained. The diameter of the pocket
should be about one-third the diameter of the line, up to a maximum of NPS 6
(DN150) forNPS18 (DN450) and larger mains. The pocket not only provides for
condensate removal but also allows for sediment removal.
Fig :Drain pocket for steam-trap connection to
low-velocity steam main.
Pipe Materials :
-Up to 775_F (413_C)—Carbon steel.
-Up to 950_F (510_C)—Use 11⁄₄ Cr. steel

From more than 950 to 1050_F (510 to 566_C)—Use 21⁄₄ Cr. steel
From 1000 to 1200_F (540 to 650_C)—Consider using 9–12 Cr steel
-From 1050 to 1200_F (566 to 650_C)—Consider using austenitic stainless steel.
-Beyond 1200_F (650_C)—Use austenitic stainless steel.

Utility Layout:
Utility Stations:
• Provide and locate utility stations with water, steam, or air as indicated below:
All areas should be reachable with a single 50 foot (20m) length of hose from the
station.
Provide water outlets at grade level only, in pump areas, and near equipment that
should be water washed during maintenance.
•
Provide steam outlets at grade level only in areas subject to product spills, and near
equipment that requires steaming out during maintenance.
•
Provide air outlets in areas where air-driven tools are used such as at exchangers, both
ends of heaters, compressor area, top platform of reactors, and on columns at each
manway.
• Utility stations shall be provided as required for air, water, steam/hot water and
nitrogen. Eachstation shall be numbered and located in the general working areas at
deck level.
• Freshwater,seawater and plant air systems shall be equipped with hosereels.
• Nitrogen stations shall not be located inside enclosed areas. Nitrogen hoses shall be
installed if required. (Different types of couplings shall be used for air and nitrogen.
Utility Layout :
• The utility area should be near the process area.
• The utility area should be arranged for easy access and adequate working area provided
around all equipment, for maintenance.
• The cooling tower should be located to provide the least possible restriction to the free
flow of air, and away from areas where drift or fogging might create a problem.
• The circulating fuel oil system that supplies oil for process heaters and boilers is usually
located in one corner of the utility area including tanks and circulating pumps.
• All boilers are grouped together with space provided for at least one future boiler. All
boiler auxiliaries including de-aerator, feed pumps, flash drums and chemical feed
systems are located in close proximity to the boiler. Consideration must be given to
single stacks for each boiler or one common stack.
• Plant and instrument air compressors including dryers should be located in the utility
area.
• Switchgear for the electrical system is placed in an enclosed building and located within
the utility area. Substation serving process Units and offsite facilities are usually located
in OGP process areas dependent upon the areas served.
• Utility control house shall be provided to house all board mounted instruments used for
operation and control of utility equipment.
• Raw water storage and fire pumps shall be located adjacent to either the boilers or the
cooling towers whichever provides the more economic arrangement.
• Critical steam and power facilities feeding major portions of the plant shall be protected
from possible fire or explosion in equipment handling hydrocarbons.
• WASTE TREATMENT FACILITIES

1 The preferred location of the waste treatment area should be at a refinery/plant low point
to insure gravity flow from all areas. Where this is not possible lift stations must be provided as
required.
2 The waste treatment area should be remote from the process and utility area and arranged
to permit future expansion of the system.
3 Layout of the area must include vehicle accessibility for maintenance purposes.
References :
• Pipingguide.net
• Piping Handbook (7th edition)
• Process Plant Layout (Roger Hunt)
• Engineering Handbook For Layout
• Maintenance of compressed air and steam system.( Navy handbook)
• Utility System for c41 (USA)
• Wikipedia
• Urban Design Standards Manual
• Waste Water Collection (USA)
• Certificate course on piping engineering (T.N. Gopinath)

Public utilities:
1. Stormwater
Most storm sewer piping flows by gravity, no pumps create pressure. The storm water drops into the system by inlets or roof drains then flows downhill.
Obviously, the grade of the pipe matters. A low spot, or belly, in the pipe makes a trap, while a high spot, or hump, creates a dam. So the pipe crew needs
to keep the pipe inverts (the lowest spot in the pipe where the water flows) installed in a straight line, at the slope required on the drawings.
Some of the common issues that occur with storm sewer piping are:
4. Unexpected rock excavation

5. Existing pipes in the way, discovered only during the installation
6. Design errors that only become apparent during the installation
Most project I see these days use High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipe. The are lots of variations of HDPE available, which are shown on the following
site:http://www.hancor.com/product/pipe.html
Sometimes concrete pipe still comes through as the best choice, due to it's strength and durability. Some concrete pipe options are shown on the following
site: http://www.shermandixie.com/products/pipe/index.php
Corrugated metal pipe (CMP) also gets used often and some CMP options are shown on the following site: http://www.contech-
cpi.com/drainage/products_materials/metal/corrugated_metal_pipe/144
The degree to which storm sewer pipe must be water-tight is normally made clear in the project specifications. Sometimes, a bit of water leakage from storm sewer
piping is acceptable (often a trade off for lower cost and easier installation) and other times the storm sewer piping must be water-tight under a low pressure.
2. Sewage
Sanitary sewers require minimum exfiltration (sewage leaking out of the system and into the ground) and infiltration (groundwater leaking into the system). The
main elements are pipe, manholes and clean-outs. The purpose of sanitary manholes is to allow inspection and cleaning of sewers and to remove obstruction.
The minimum manhole diameter is typically four feet with 21" frame opening for access. Manholes are constructed of brick, block, poured-in-place concrete or
precast concrete. Special care must be taken to limit sub-grade settlement to avoid cracking the adjacent pipes. Solid, rather than grated, covers are used on
sanitary manholes to control odors. Ladder rungs must be securely anchored into the manhole walls and care taken that the steps will not pull out (fail) in
several years. Failure of a manhole ladder rung is a serious, and all too common, liability and it's avoidable. Clean-outs are used on smaller pipe and allow a
location to insert cleaning tools to flush the pipe.
The most common pipe used in sanitary sewer systems is PVC sewer pipe SDR-35, a typical manufacturer's website
is: http://www.dpcpipe.com/pdfs/SewerPipeSpecSheet.pdf
Sometimes concrete pipe still comes through as the best choice, due to it's strength and durability. Some concrete pipe options are shown on the following
site: http://www.shermandixie.com/products/pipe/index.php
Most sanitary sewer lines flow by gravity, which probably is the origin of the saying that shit flows downhill. The following US Dept of Defense guide for
designing gravity sewer piping helps you understand how to size pipes for different flows and slope conditions. I apologize for the lack of clarity for the
Manning Formula Nomograph Chart (the detail needs print quality not web monitor quality), but you can go to the Wastewater Collection Manual
Entire pdf available –so ur good
For industry ,chemical sewers and their design (plant layout and undergroung chem. Sewers pdf)
Industry specific:
Utility headers
Utility headers for water, steam, air, etc. shall be arranged on the top of multi-tiered pipe racks.
Utilities Piping
- Condensate
- Instrument Air
- Nitrogen
- Plant Water
- Plant Air
- Potable Water
- Steam
- Glycol
- Ammonia
- Cooling Water
- Chilled Water
- Tracing Fluids (Low Temp. or High Temp.)
4.9.1 Air piping

Air piping shall have self draining provision at all low points for the collection of condensate.
Air
traps shall be provided with isolation valves, balance lines and drains to local collection points.
Instrument air headers and manifolds shall not be dead ended but supplied with blind flanges for
cleaning and maintenance.
All branches and take-offs shall be from the top of the headers.
COMPRESSED AIR USES. Compressed air is a form of power which is very
useful in both mi
advantage in appl
from its source,
work intervals.
service, process
Power
litary and industrial applications. “It is
ications that require intermittent power a
as the air pressure can be maintained near
Compressed air uses fall into one of three
service, or control purposes.
of particular
some distance
y constant during
categories: power
Service. In this application compressed a
something or exerts a force. Examples of power service uses are
r either moves
pneumatic tool operation, air lifts, clamps, and cylinders.
Process Service. Compressed air used in this application becomes a
part of the process itself. An example is the use of compressed air
in a combustion process. Compressed air provides oxygen for the
combustion process, and in turn it becomes a part of the combustion
products and is no longer identifiable as air.
Control Purpose. Extensive use is made of compressed air to govern
and/or regulate various equipment by monitoring pressure or flow
rates of some substance. A pneumatically controlled combustion
system is an example of such an application.
2 COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. Compressed air
consist of the following equipment:
Piping required to transport the compressed
compressor plant to the consumers
Equipment, instrumentation, and related fat’
accomplish the above described purpose safely
distribution systems
air from a central
lit es required to
and efficiently
3 SUPPLY PRESSURE. Compressed air is distributed at low,
pressures. It must be dry and free of oil, dust. or other
medium, or high
contaminants.
Refer to NAVFAC MO-206, Operation and Maintenance of Air Compressor Plants,
for methods of producing compressed air and removing moisture, oil, dust, and
other contaminants.
3.1 Low-Pressure Compressed Air Systems. These systems provide compressed
air at pressures up to 125 psig. When several air pressures are required
within that range, the plant is usually designed for the highest pressure,
pressure reducing stations supplying the lower pressures as required. Typical
low-pressure applications follow.
5-1
Application Pressure (psig)
Air motors, crane drives, and 70- 125
starting motors for, internal
combustion engines
Shops 80- 100
Laundries and dry cleaning 75 - 100
plants
Starting aircraft jet engines 1 85
Instrumentation and control 15- 50
General service (tools, cleaning, 40 - 90
painting)
Sootblowing for HTW generators 100- 120
and steam boilers
1Medium-pressure compressed air may also be used for this purpose.
3.2 Medium-Pressure Compressed Air Systems. These systems provide compressed

air within the range of 126 to 399 psig. Such systems are not extensive and
are generally provided with individual compressors located near the load.
Typical applications for medium-pressure applications follow.
Application Pressure (psiq)
Starting diesel engines 100 - 399
Hydraulic lifts 145 - 175
Retread tire molds 175 - 200
3.3 High-Pressure Compressed Air Systems. These systems provide compressed
air within the range of 400 to 6,000 psig. To minimize the hazards that exist
with higher pressures and capacities, separate compressors are used for each
required pressure. However, for systems at 3,000 psig that also require
relatively small amounts of air at a lower pressure, but above 400 psig, air
may be supplied in the higher value for the main system and reduced to the
lower pressure for small branches provided that safety relief valves are
used. Examples of high-pressure applications follow.
Application
Torpedo workshop
Pressure (psiq)
600 and 3,000
Ammunition depot 100, 750, 1,500 and 4,500
Catapults 1,500
Mind tunnel 3,000
Testing laboratories 6,000
4 AIR RECEIVERS. Air receivers are tanks installed in the compressor plant
that serve as reservoirs for the storage of compressed air. Air receivers
permit meeting peak demands in excess of compressor capacity and act as
pulsation dampeners on reciprocating compressor installations. They also
separate, collect, and drain moisture, oil, and dirt from the system air.
Figure 5-1 shows a typical air receiver.
4.1 Secondary Air Receivers. Long distribution lines that are marginally
sized may occasionally require secondary receivers located near a point of
heavy demand. Where peak demands are of relatively short duration, this
additional storage capacity located near the consumer avoids excessive
pressure drops in the line.
5-2
FIGURE 5-1. Air Receiver
5-3
4.2 Inspection and Certification of Air Receivers. Technical and
administrative procedures for inspection and certification of air receivers
are contained in NAVFAC MO-324, Inspection and Certification of Boilers and
Unfired Pressure Vessels. This manual also provides test and inspection
schedules and damage reporting procedures.
(a) Standard Vessels. An Unfired pressure vessel is a closed vessel
in which internal pressure is above atmospheric pressure, and the pressure is
obtained from an external source. Safe operation of these vessels requires
adherence to the inspection frequencies and guidelines of MO–324, Inspection
and Certification of Boilers and Unfired Pressure Vessels.
(b) Non-Standard Vessels. Vessels not designed and constructed
according to the rules of the American Society of Engineer’s Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (ASME B&PV Code) are considered non-standard vessels.
Because most contract inspectors are licensed to inspect according to the ASME
B&PV Code they will not certify non-standard vessels as safe for operation.
Therefore, the procurement of non-ASME B&PV Code is discouraged. When
certification of non-standard vessels must be accomplished, NAVFACENGCOM
certified Inspectors should be employed. Repair of non-standard vessels is
prohibited. The inspection of non-standard vessels shall proceed in the same
manner as outlined in MO-324.
5-4
Section 2. COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION METHODS
1 TYPES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Compressed air is delivered to
consumers by either aboveground or underground piping systems. In many
instances, however, life cycle economics have found that small air compressors
at the source are more feasible than a compressed air distribution system.
2 DISTRIBUTION ROUTE. The minimum distance between the central compressor
plant and the consumers is the preferred routing for a compressed air
distribution system; however, as with heat distribution systems, other factors
affect the final selection of a route. These factors include the following
i terns:
Characteristics of the location
Future expansion
Basements or crawl spaces available for piping
Aboveground obstructions such as rivers or roads
Underground obstructions such as piping or rock
Soil Corrosivity
2.1 Secondary Systems. Generally, a separate system supplies each air
service; however, economic considerations may justify installing additional
compressors to supply air to minor branch systems.
3 SELECTION OF ABOVEGROUND OR UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. The
decision
whether to use aboveground or underground piping shall be based on the life
cycle economics. The advantages of each system are as follows:
Above-ground Underground
Lower first cost Less vulnerable target
Less maintenance Less obstruction to
Easy detection of failure aboveground traffic
Higher continuous operating Less unsightly
efficiency Freeze protected when buried
Longer life
3.1 Other Factors. The following considerations may have an important
influence on the final decision of which system to employ.
Permanent versus temporary use
Existence of a high water table
Degree of hazard (for example, the potential danger that overhead
piping may cause to aircraft operations)
Annual ownership, operation, and maintenance costs
4 ABOVEGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. An economic analysis will, in most
instances, demonstrate the advantages of an aboveground system. Other
requirements, such as temporary use or certain operating and local
restrictions, may dictate their use. Aboveground systems are less costly to
5-5
operate and maintain. The following considerations apply in the design of
aboveground distribution systems.
(a) Spans. The maximum spans between pipe supports for straight pipe
runs depend on pipe size. Maximum spans for steel pipe and rigid copper
tubing are shown “in tab’
(b) Pipe Supports
similar type clips firmly
structures may be walls
or treated wood frames.
sufficient clearance is
e 5-1.
Pipes are usually held in place by U-shaped or
secured to support structures. The support
columns, brackets, concrete pedestals, steel frames,
Clips fit closely around the pipe; however,
permitted to allow for longitudinal movement during.
normal expansion and contraction. At anchor points, the pipe is firmly
clamped to the structure. The hangers are rigid or braced, if necessary,
where piping hangs from ceiling beams. This reinforcement prevents “whipping”
of the pipe should a break occur while the line is under pressure.
(c) Elevation Clearance. For distribution outside buildings,
aboveground overhead lines may be located as little as 12 inches or as much as
22 feet above grade. The clearance above roadways is from 14 to 16 feet for
automobile and truck traffic. For railroad crossings, the clearance is
22 feet above grade. The minimum height for installations at low elevations
should be sufficient to clear surface water.
(d) Pitch of Aboveground Lines. Air lines are pitched down a minimum of
3 inches per 100 feet of length, in the direction of airflow, to low points
where the condensate is collected.
TABLE 5-1. Maximum Span for Pipe
Diameter
(inches)
Std. #t. Copper
S t e e l P i p e Tube Type
40 s K
(feet & inches) (feet & inches)
1/2
3/4
1
1 -1/2
2-1/2
3
3-1 /2
4
568
10
12
5’-0"
5’-9”
6’-6”
7’-6”
8’-6"
9’-3”
10’-3"
11’-0"
11’-6"
12’-9"
13’-9”
15’-6"
17’-0"
18'-3"
3’-9"
4’-3"
5’-0”
5’-9"
6’-6"
7’-3"
7’-9"
8’-3"
9’-0”
10’-0"
10’-9”
(1inch=0.3048m)
5-6
(e) Drip Legs. The low line points are provided with drip legs equipped
with scale pockets and automatic drain traps. When accessible, scale pockets
may have a manual drain valve instead of an automatic drain trap. Drip legs
are located at:
Low points
Bottom of all risers
Every 200 to 300 feet for horizontally pitched pipe
(f) Counterflow of Condensate. Where pipes must be sloped upward,
causing condensate to run in a direction opposite to airflow, the pitch of the
pipe is increased to a minimum of 6 inches per 100 feet.
5 UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. Selection of the route for an underground
distribution system involves consideration and evaluation of the following
equipment.
(a) Walking Tunnel. A concrete tunnel containing piping for
miscellaneous services may also be used to house compressed air pipes.
(b) Trenches. A concrete trench used for miscellaneous service pipes
may be designed to include air lines.
(c) Manholes. Access to underground conduit for inspection, repair, and
ventilation of service piping is provided by manholes.
(d) Direct Burial. Direct burial is the method most commonly used for
compressed air distribution lines. Because this type of construction
generally lowers the air temperature causing additional condensation, it is
important that the piping be properly pitched to collect condensation at drip
legs. Drip legs can be located in building basements; however, manholes may
be required at low points of long distribution systems to house moisture
traps. Corrosion control by cathodic protection may be required depending on
soil corrosivity.
(e) Pipe Covering. Buried compressed air lines generally require no
insulation. However, they should be shop coated, wrapped: tested, and handled
in accordance with NAVFAC Specification 34Y (Latest Revision), Bituminous
Coating for Steel Surfaces.
(f) Pitch of Underground Systems. Air lines are generally pitched down
a minimum of 3 inches per 100 feet of length, in the direction of airflow, to
provide easy drainage of condensate.
(g) Drip Legs. Refer to section 2, paragraph 4(e). In horizontally
pitched buried pipes where traps are inaccessible, drip legs are located at
intervals of not over 500 feet.
(h) Counterflow of Condensate. Refer to section 2, paragraph 4(f).
6 PIPING.
6.1 Piping Design. When practical, pipelines distributing compressed air to
numerous branches or service outlets in a large area should form a closed
5-7
loop. This maintains maximum pressure at branches and outlets and provides
two-way distribution to consumers. The use of a closed loop equipped with
conveniently located segregating valves permits a partial shutdown of the
system for inspection or repairs. Generally, provisions are made for bleeding
each part of a loop between segregating valves. The loop pipe should be of
sufficient size to prevent an excessive pressure drop at any outlet regardless
of the direction of airflow around the loop. Branches shall be at the top of
the main to prevent carryover of condensate and foreign matter.
6.2 Piping Materials.
6.2.1 Low-Pressure and Medium-Pressure Systems. Black steel pipe in
appropriate thicknesses conforming to pipe Schedule 40, ASTM A 53 or A 120 is
used in these systems and is joined preferably by welding. For special
conditions, stainless steel pipe and copper tubing with appropriate fittings
are also used. Connections to removable equipment are always flanged, except
when using small threaded pipe. In all cases, pipes, fittings, and valves
shall be in accordance with NAVFAC Specification 21Y (Latest Revision), Steam
Power Plant, Heating, and Ventilating Equipment and Piping; and
ANSI/API 510-1983, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code - Maintenance, Inspection,
Rating, Repair, and Alteration.
6.2.2 High-Pressure Systems. Seamless steel pipe conforming to ASTM A 53 or
A 120, with Schedule determined in accordance with ANSI/API 510-1983, is
commonly used for high-pressure air systems. Except in very small sizes, butt
welded fittings are employed. Screw fittings, when used, have their ends
sealed by fillet welds and exposed pipe threads covered with weld. Unions are
of the forged steel ground joint type. When economic considerations dictate
its use, small systems may employ stainless steel pipe with special fittings
to assure a continuous supply of high quality air. Shore activities,
particularly torpedo workshops, frequently require copper tubing,
Silver-brazed, bronze fittings and valves, and bronze unions with steel ring
nut, plastic ring gasket, and silver-brazed ends are used with copper tubing.
Pipes and fittings shall comply with NAVFAC Specification 21Y (Latest
Revision), Steam Power Plant, Heating, and Ventilating Equipment and Piping;
and ANSI/API 510-1983, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code - Maintenance.
Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration.
6.3 Valves. Refer to chapter 6 for description and application of the
different types of valves used in air distribution systems. Globe valves used
in high-pressure horizontal air lines should be installed so that the stem
projects horizontally. This prevents restrictions to line drainage which
could be caused by the elevated valve seat. If the valve must be installed
with the stem in the vertical position, or when the valve interferes with line
drainage, a drain connection for the pocketed space should be provided.
6.4 Expansion and Contraction. Expansion and contraction of pipes carrying
compressed air is normally not a serious problem. However, consideration must
be given to failure of an aftercooler which would allow air at elevated
temperatures to enter the system and cause thermal expansion. Piping in the
immediate vicinity of the air compressors can also be hot enough to warrant
careful checking of flexibility. Wherever possible, expansion is controlled
by a change in direction of pipe runs or by the use of expansion bends and
5-8
loops. In low-pressure systems, various types of corrugated pack-less type
expansion joints or slip-packed joints can be used.
Compressed Air
The compressed-air systems provide service air and instrument air throughout the plant. The following guidelines apply to the
design and layout of these systems:
● Refer to the compressor manufacturer’s instruction manual for the recommended relative lengths of intake and discharge piping
versus compressor revolutions per minute (rpm).
● The compressed-air system equipment arrangement and piping design should be such that the air receiver is the lowest point in
the system and any condensate in the system will drain to the air receiver, particularly during periods of shutdown when large
amounts of condensate can form. The point here is to preclude any possibility of condensates draining back to the air compressor,
where it could cause extensive damage. The compressor discharge piping should be as short and direct as possible through the
aftercooler and into the air receiver. The compressed-air system distribution lines and risers should originate from a separate outlet
connection on the air receiver and should be sloped back to the air receiver.
● Compressed-air line header branches should have vertical risers and be drained at their terminations.
● Individual service branches should be taken off the top of the headers.
4.9.2 Steam piping

Steam piping shall be run to prevent pockets. Condensate shall be collected at low points by
using a
standard steam trapping system.
Drain points shall be from the bottom of the header and steam take-offs from the top.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. Consumers may be located in several buildings

or a group of buildings where steam is required for space heating and/or
process work. For purposes of this manual, a steam distribution system
consists of the following equipment:
Steam piping required to transport steam from a central steam
generating plant to consumers
Piping required to return condensate to the generating plant
Equipment, instrumentation, and related facilities required to
serve the above described purposes
3 SUPPLY PRESSURE. Steam supply systems are categorized as either lowpressure
systems or high-pressure systems.
3.1 Low-Pressure Steam. Low-pressure steam, O to 15 psig, is used for space
heating (unit heaters, radiators, connectors, heating coils, or other steam
heating devices), snow melting, cooking, and domestic hot water heating. It
is distributed from a central plant or mechanical room to a multiple building
i n s t a l l a t i o n . The advantages of low-pressure vice high pressure steam are:
Small distribution losses, due to the relatively low temperature of
the steam
Smaller losses and trouble from leakage, traps, and venting
3-1
Simplified pressure reduction at buildings
Substitution of standard cast iron fittings
Less maintenance
3.2 High-Pressure Steam. High-pressure steam, above 15 psig, is used for
industrial purposes, process work, hospital uses, laundry machinery, and dry
cleaning. For extensive outside distribution, high-pressure steam at or above
100 psig is commonly employed. Figure 3-1 illustrates a schematic flow
diagram of a steam distribution system. In this system, steam is generated at
100 psig in a central steam generating station and then distributed to
consumers. The diagram shows conversion of high-pressure 100-psig steam to
40-psig low-pressure steam for hospital uses. Reduction to 5-psig steam for
space heating purposes is also shown. Steam for laundry machinery, however,
is used at 100-psig pressure. System components such as valves, traps,
pressure reducing valves, pumps, and other required equipment are considered
in following chapters. The main advantages of high-pressure steam vice low
pressure steam distribution are:
Smaller pipe sizes
Availability for purposes other than heating
More flexibility in design for velocity and pressure drops
4 DISTRIBUTION ROUTE. The piping route for steam distribution systems is
selected to obtain the minimum possible distance from the central generating
station to the demand centers. The following factors affect selection of the
route (for additional factors refer to NAVFAC DM-3, Design Manual, Mechanical
Engineering):
Characteristic of the location
Future growth
Basements or crawl spaces available for piping
Existing tunnels or trenches available for the system
Aboveground obstructions, such as rivers or roads
Underground obstructions, such as piping or rock
Soil Corrosivity
FIGURE 3-1. Schematic Flow Diagram of a Typical Steam Distribution System

3-3
Section 2. STEAM DISTRIBUTION METHODS
1 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Two main systems are used for distribution
of steam: aboveground distribution systems and underground distribution
systems. The decision to select an aboveground system or an underground
system depends on the following factors:
Permanent against temporary use
High water table ground conditions
Degree of hazard (as when the overhead piping may cause a potential
danger to aircraft or other operations)
2 ABOVEGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Aboveground distribution systems shall
be selected whenever practical. Due to their ease in detecting when and where
maintenance is required, NAVFAC prefers this type of installation. With
proper maintenance, this type of system is the most energy efficient and cost
effective.
2.1 Advantages of Aboveground Systems. The main advantages of using
aboveground vice underground distribution systems are:
Lower initial cost
Less maintenance
Easy detection of failure
Higher continuous operating efficiency
Longer life
Reduced external corrosion
2.2 Distribution Lines. Distribution lines usually consist of aboveground
conduits supported as follows:
Low Elevations. For aboveground systems installed at low
elevations, the conduits are supported on concrete pedestals, steel
frames, or treated wood frames. Supports are spaced 10 to 15 feet on
centers depending on pipe size.
High Elevations. At higher elevations aboveground, conduits may be
supported on wood, steel pipe, H-section steel poles with crossarms,
or steel frameworks fitted with rollers and insulation protection
saddles.
Long Spans. When long spans are required, conduits are supported
by cable suspension with supports up to 50 feet on center.
3-4
2.3 Pipe Covering.
Never stand or sit on aluminum jackets. Severe damage to the
insulation will result.
Aboveground piping is covered with insulation (refer to chapter 7) and then
furnished with a protective covering of one layer of impregnated roofing felt
and an aluminum jacket. This covering provides protection against weather and
mechanical damage. The felt is applied with longitudinal and circumferential
seams lapped not less than 4 inches and secured with stainless steel staples.
The aluminum jackets, longitudinally corrugated for strength, are not less
than 0.017-inch thick. The longitudinal and circumferential seams are lapped
not less than 2 inches. Jackets are secured with aluminum strips or with
stainless steel sheet metal screws set on not more than 5-inch centers on the
longitudinal and circumferential seams.
2.4 Road Crossings. Road crossings are often made by transition to an underground system
which usually serves as an expansion loop.
2.5 Elevation Clearance. Conduits may be located as little as 12 inches or
as much as 22 feet above grade. The clearance above roadways is from 14 to 16
feet for automobile and truck traffic. For railroad crossings the clearance
is 22 feet above grade.
2.6 Pitch of Aboveground Steam Lines. Steam lines are pitched down at a
minimum of 3 inches per 100 feet of length in the direction of steam flow.
Often counterflow of condensate within the steam pipe will occur in a portion
of a pipeline because of steam flow reversal in a loop system. In these
cases, that portion of the pipe is pitched a minimum of 6 inches per 100 feet
and pipe diameters are increased by one standard pipe size. Increasing the
flow area reduces the steam velocity in the pipe and prevents retention of
condensate and water hammer.
3 UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Underground distribution systems shall
only be used where local conditions prohibits the use of above-ground systems;
for example, when an above-ground system would create a hazard to aircraft or
other operations. Underground systems are more costly to install and more
difficult to maintain than the above-ground systems. Justification, stating
the conditions which prohibits the use of above-ground systems is required on
all MCON and special projects involving steam distribution systems. This
includes repair by replacement type projects where the existing distribution
systems are underground.
3.1 Advantages of Underground Systems. The main advantages of using
underground distribution systems follow.
They are a less vulnerable target.
3-5
They do not interfere with aboveground traffic.
They are less unsightly.
The piping is protected from freezing when buried below the frost
line.
---pitch and conduit system details (steam 1 pdf)
CONDENSATE RETURN. In steam distribution systems that use ferrous

condensate return lines, it is customary to provide a separate conduit for the
insulated condensate return piping. This is done because the return piping is
often subject to corrosion which makes its life considerably shorter than the
life of the steam pipes. When nonferrous condensate return lines are used,
they are enclosed with the steam lines in the same conduit. In such cases,
the condensate return lines are insulated when required by economic
considerations.
5 PIPING. Steam distribution systems generally use black steel pipe. The
condensate return lines can be extra strong wrought iron, extra strong steel,
or copper. Joints for steel piping are usually welded, except those in
manholes, which may be flanged. Copper piping is provided with brazed
j o i n t s . For information on valves, fittings, and associated equipment refer
to chapter 7.
The power industry, through its many years of experience, has found that piping arrangements and layout can influence the
functionality of a piping system. This section will present specific system guidelines and considerations that will enable the piping
designer to minimize that influence.
Main Steam and Hot and Cold Reheat

In any power plant, be it a base-loaded electric power generation station or an industrial facility power plant, the main steam
system is the backbone of the installation since it ties together the two most important and most costly pieces of equipment, the
steam generator and the turbine, and is also usually the first system designed, giving it the preference in space allocation and
routing. The recommendations of the following references should be incorporated in the design of the main steam and reheat steam
piping systems.
1. ANSI/ASME TDP-1-1985, Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water Damage to Steam Turbines Used for Electric Power
Generation (Fossil), American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.
2. ANSI/ASME TDP-2-1985, Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water Damage to Steam Turbines Used for Electric Power
Generation (Nuclear), American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.
Adherence to the following guidelines will ensure that the system performs its intended function:
● All piping in this service should be sloped down a minimum of ¹⁄₈ in/ft (10 mm/m), in the direction of flow. Extensive evaluation
and design are required for lines that do not slope in the direction of flow to ensure that condensate is collected and drained
adequately.
● The final design of the main steam and hot reheat lines should be reviewed, with consideration for thermal growth, to determine
the location of any necessary lowpoint drains and to ensure that the system can be completely drained in both the hot and cold
conditions. When these lines are split into more than one branch into the turbine, each branch should be reviewed for low points.
Provide a drain connection in each branch as close as possible to the turbine stop valve. All drain lines and large valve drain ports
should have an inside diameter of not less than 1 in (25 mm), to prevent plugging. Main steam piping drains should not be piped
together with any other drains from the boiler. In addition, this review should ensure that no condensate can collect in any
undrained portion of the system during shutdown.
● Provide a drain pot at the low point of each cold reheat line, which should be fabricated from NPS 6 (DN 150) or larger pipe and
be no longer than required to install the level-sensing devices. Each pot should be provided with a minimum NPS 2 (DN 50) drain
line and a full-sized, full-ported automatic power-operated drain valve. Each drain pot should be provided with a minimum of two
level sensing devices.
● Steam lines that are fitted with restricting devices such as orifices or flow nozzles should be adequately drained upstream of the
device.
● Valves in all steam services should be installed with the valve stem in the vertical upright position to prevent the entrapment of
fluid in the bonnet. Where this is not practical, the stem may be positioned between the vertical and horizontal positions, but in no
case below horizontal.
● Main steam safety relief valves should be fitting-bound to the main steam headers.
● Sufficient space should be provided around any steam line to allow for insulation, pipe supports and anchors, thermal growth,
machine welding, and maintenance repairs and replacements.
Turbine Extraction Steam
Most steam turbines are provided with one or more low- to intermediate-pressure steam extraction points either for boiler
feedwater heating or for industrial process service and heating. These systems are extremely critical, particularly from the
standpoint of water damage, and must be designed in accordance with the following standards and guidelines:
ANSI/ASME TDP-1-1985, Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water Damage to Steam Turbines Used for Electric Power
Generation (Fossil), American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (Ref. 1).
Generation (Nuclear), American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (Ref. 2).
● The routing should be as short and as direct as possible with consideration for thermal growth and piping flexibility.
● Extraction steam piping should be sloped down a minimum of ¹⁄₈ in/ft (10 mm/m), in the direction of flow. Extensive evaluation
and design are required for lines that do not slope in the direction of flow to ensure that condensate is collected and drained
adequately.
● Bleeder trip valves must be located as close to the turbine extraction point as possible, while at the same time keeping the total
volume of the system within the turbine manufacturer’s recommendations.
● When extraction steam piping is routed through the condenser neck, an expansion joint must be provided in each line and located
at the turbine nozzle. The bleeder trip valves in these lines must be located just outside the condenser neck.
● A drain should be located at the low point in the extraction pipe between the turbine and block valve and routed separately to the
condenser.Apower-operated drain valve should be installed in this line that opens automatically upon the closure of the block valve
in the extraction pipe.
● There should be no bypasses around the extraction line shutoff or non return valves.
● Unavoidable vertical loops which create low points in the piping downstream of the bleeder trip valves must be provided with
continuously drained drip pots.
● Provide a minimum of five diameters of straight pipe downstream of all bleeder trip valves.
● Provide maintenance access to all bleeder trip valves including any miscellaneous platforms, if needed.
Condensate
The condensate collection system from the condenser hotwell presents a unique set of parameters since we are dealing with water
at slightly elevated temperatures and at a vacuum pressure. These conditions make the condensate pump suction piping
susceptible to flashing and cavitation. The following guidelines apply to the design of condensate pump suction and discharge
piping:
● Where two or more condensate pumps are used, the individual runs to each pump must be similar, and if a suction manifold or
header is used, the individual pump suction lines from that manifold or header must be similar.
● When the manifold or header is larger than the pump suction size, the manifold or header should be made up of full-sized tees
and eccentric reducers, flat side up.
● Each individual pump suction run should be sloped down a minimum of ¹⁄₈ in/ft (10 mm/m) toward the pump and be self-venting
back to the condenser.
● Provide a minimum of three to four diameters of straight pipe in the pump suction line; in addition, these lines must be fitted with
expansion joints and startup strainers.
● The condensate pump discharge check valve must be located below the hotwell water level and be continuously flooded.
● The discharge header outlet should not be located between the pump discharge connections to the header, to avoid a counter
flow condition.
● The condensate pump recirculation control valve should be located at the condenser nozzle.
Feedwater
The boiler feedwater pumps normally take suction from the deaerator storage tank, discharge to the feedwater heaters, and then
supply the boiler. Here, too, the designer has to deal with the possibility of flashing fluid and must ensure that the deaerator
storage tank is located at an elevation that will provide sufficient net positive suction head (NPSH) at the pump. The following
guidelines apply to the design of this piping:
● The pump suction piping from the deaerator storage tank should drop vertically, avoiding any long horizontal runs of pipe. If short
horizontal runs are unavoidable, they should be angled vertically down.
● A minimum of 3 diameters of straight pipe is required at the pump suction. The pump suction strainer may be located in this run
of pipe.
● If a reducer is required at the pump suction, it must be eccentric and installed with the flat side up.
● The feed pump discharge swing check valves should be located in horizontal runs of pipe only.
● The feed pump recirculation line control valve should preferably be located at the deaerator storage tank. Horizontal runs are to
be avoided in this line at the tank. If the control valve is located in a branch from the pump discharge, the line downstream of the
valve must be continuously flooded.
Turbine Drains
This system consists of the turbine casing drains from the turbine to the condenser, a drain collection manifold at the condenser, or
other drain vessel as indicated on the system P&ID. The designer should comply with the following standards and consider the
guidelines listed below for the physical design of these drains:
● Turbine drain lines and valve ports should be sized for the maximum amount of water to be handled under any operating
condition, but in no case may they be less than NPS ³⁄₄ (DN 20).
● Drain lines should be designed for both hot and cold conditions and should slope continuously downward in the direction of flow.
Flexibility loops, when required, should be in the plane of the slope or in vertical downward runs.
● Continuous drain orifices, when used, should be located and designed so that they may be cleaned frequently and will not be
susceptible to plugging by debris.
● Steam traps are not satisfactory as the only means of draining critical lines; however, they may be used in parallel with
automatically operated drain valves.
● No part of any drain line may be below its terminal point at the condenser, drain collection header, or other drain vessel.
● Only drain lines from piping systems of similar pressure may be routed to a common manifold.
● All drain and manifold connections to the condenser must be above the maximum hotwell water level.
● Drainage from other vessels, such as feedwater heaters, steam jet ejectors, and gland steam condensers, that drain water
continuously must not be routed to turbine cycle drain manifolds.
● Drain lines should be connected at a 45 angle to the manifold axial centerline with the drain line discharge pointing toward the
condenser. Drain line connections at the manifold should be arranged in descending order of pressure, with the highest pressure
source farthest from the manifold opening at the condenser.
● Drain connections to flash tanks must be above the maximum water level in the tank.
● Drains from the upstream and downstream sides of shutoff valves must not be interconnected.
● Drain lines in exposed areas should be protected from freezing.
● All turbine drain drawings must be reviewed and approved by the turbine supplier.
Heater Drains
The heater drains system consists of the feedwater heater drains from one heater to another at a lower pressure, to a drain tank,
or to the dump line to the condenser. The designer should comply with the following standards and consider the guidelines listed
below for the physical design of these drains:
● Drain piping from feedwater heaters without an internal drains cooler must immediately drop vertically to provide as much static
head as possible upstream of the heater level control valve. Thereafter any horizontal runs must be sloped down a minimum of ¹⁄₄
in/ft (20 mm/m) in the direction of flow.
● Drain piping from feedwater heaters with an internal drain cooler may be routed horizontally without sloping upon leaving the
heater.
● Heater level control valves should be located as close as possible to the receiving vessel, with consideration for ease of access and
maintenance.
● The heater drain system arrangements must be coordinated with the system engineer for analysis to ensure that single-phase
water flow is maintained upstream of the heater level control valves and to determine where downstream velocities may require
tees and target plates in lieu of elbows for minimizing erosion.
● Heater drain dump lines should enter the condenser at approximately the horizontal centerline of the tube bundle. This location
should be coordinated with the condenser manufacturer, who will provide the necessary baffle plates to prevent impingement on
the condenser tubes.
● Only long-radius elbows should be used in heater drain piping.
● The use of reducers should be avoided, except at the control valves, which are generally smaller than the line size.
4.9.3 Utility stations

Utility Stations
Provide and locate utility stations with water, steam, or air as indicated below:
All areas should be reachable with a single 50 foot (20m) length of hose from the station.
Provide water outlets at grade level only, in pump areas, and near equipment that should be water washed during maintenance.
Provide steam outlets at grade level only in areas subject to product spills, and near equipment that requires steaming out during maintenance.
Provide air outlets in areas where air-driven tools are used such as at exchangers, both ends of heaters, compressor area, top platform of reactors, and on columns at each manway.
Hose, hose rack, and hose connections should be provided by the client or be purchased to match the clients existing hardware.
Utility stations shall be provided as required for air, water, steam/hot water and nitrogen. Each
station shall be numbered and located in the general working areas at deck level. Freshwater,
seawater and plant air systems shall be equipped with hosereels. Nitrogen stations shall not be
located inside enclosed areas. Nitrogen hoses shall be installed if required (for reference,
see L-003). Different types of couplings shall be used for air and nitrogen.
4.9.4 Pressure relief piping
Piping to pressure relief valve inlet shall be as short as possible.
Piping design, layout and stress analysis L-002
Rev. 2, September 1997
NORSOK standard Page 12 of 17
When relief valves discharge to atmosphere, the elevation at the top of the discharge line shall
typically be 3000 mm above all adjacent equipment. This is to keep adjacent equipment outside
plume area. Discharge tail pipes shall have a drain hole at the low point of the line.
Relief valves discharging to a flare system shall be installed so as to prevent liquid being trapped
on
the outlet side of the valve. All relief lines and headers shall be designed to eliminate pockets,
but if
a relief valve must be located at a lower elevation than the header, an automatically operated
drain
valve shall be installed at the valve outlet and piped to a collecting vessel or closed drain.
Relief valve headers shall slope towards the knock-out drum, taking into account anticipated
deck
deflection and platform tilt during operation. Pockets are to be avoided, but where a pocket is
unavoidable, some approved means of continuous draining for the header shall be incorporated.
Unless specifically noted on the P&ID all branch connections on relief and blowdown systems
shall
be at 90° to the pipe run. Should there be a special requirement for a particular branch to enter a
header 45°, this shall be highlighted by process engineers on the P&ID.
4.9.5 Open drain systems
Drains shall have slope as specified on the P&ID's. Open drain branch connections shall all be
45°.
Rodding points shall preferably be through drain boxes and change of direction shall be
evaluated
against flushing requirements, where the total change of direction is greater than 135°.
4.9.6 Pneumatic conveying
Pneumatic conveying piping shall be designed according to and approved by the pneumatic
conveying system manufacturer. Purge connections shall be easy accessible to avoid waste of
time
when plugs occur.
4.9.7 Fire/explosion protection
All project accidental load requirements shall be met (ref. S-001).
4.9.8 Firewater distribution system
The layout of the firewater distribution system shall be carefully designed with respect to
hydraulic
pressure drop.
Deluge nozzles branch off shall be located away from the bottom of the header to avoid plugging
of
nozzles.
Location of nozzles shall be as specified by the safety discipline. Necessary deviations to avoid
obstructions etc. shall be approved by the safety discipline.
Dead end headers shall be avoided.
4.9.9 Lube, seal and hydraulic oil systems
Lube, seal and hydraulic oil systems shall have flanges and blind flanges on header ends for
pickling
and hot oil flushing.
Hot water:
SCOPE Direct buried conduit systems shall be installed, maintained, and
repaired in accordance with the Manufacturer’s Approved Brochure and NAVFAC
Guide Specifications NFGS-15705, Underground Heat Distribution Systems
(Prefabricated or Pre-Engineered Types). Systems shall have a Letter of
Acceptability issued by Federal Agency Committee on Underground Heat
Distribution Systems. The Letter of Acceptability is signed by
representatives of federal agencies participating in the committee and stating
that the supplier’s system is approved for use for the site ground-water .
conditions, operating temperature, and soil classification(s) indicated.
Shallow concrete trench systems shall be installed in accordance with
NFGS-15751, Heat Distribution System Outside of Buildings (Concrete Shallow
Trench Type). Hot water can be distributed more efficiently and cost
effectively than steam. For this reason hot water should be utilized over
steam wherever feasible. Engineering Field Divisions shall assist and
activities shall assure that operation and maintenance of hot water
distribution systems are performed. The Power Principles Video Training
Program shall provide further assistance to all concerned.
2 HTW HEAT TRANSMISSION. High temperature water (HTW) is an alternate medium
to steam for conveying heat to customers located some distance from the
generating plant. HTW can be efficiently generated and distributed, easily
controlled, and accurately measured. It is distributed in a closed system
from the generating plant to customers within a radius of 6 miles; although,
with booster pumps-this distance can be extended.
little energy loss except for line heat losses of
distribution piping.
3 HTW DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
3.1 Definition. An HTW distribution system cons
equipment:
The system experiences
3°F to 8°F per mile of
ists of the following
(a) Piping to transport high temperature supply water from a central HTW
generating plant to consumers;
(b) Piping to return the high temperature water to the generating plant;
(c) Equipment, instrumentation, and related facilities to safely and
efficiently accomplish these tasks.
3.2 Types of HTW Distribution Systems.
(a) Low Temperature Water System (LTW). A hot water heating system operating
with a pressure of approximately 30 psig and a maximum temperature of 250°F.
(b) Medium Temperature Water System (MTW). A hot water heating system
operating at temperatures of 350°F or less, with pressures not exceeding
150 psig. The usual supply temperature is approximately 250 to 325°F.
4-1
(c) High Temperature Water System (HTW). A hot water heating system
operating at temperatures over 350°F and pressure of approximately 300
psig. The usual maximum supply water temperature is 400 to 450°F.
(d) Selecting type of Hot Water Distribution System. Systems must
maintain adequate pressure and temperature and assure uniform flow of water to
customers. Hot water generators consist of natural circulation boilers or
forced circulation boilers. Since hot water distribution systems are more
efficient than steam distribution systems, they should be selected whenever
practical. The lower the temperature required the more efficient the system
should operate due to the lower temperature differential between the hot water
and piping’s external temperature. Lower temperature systems are less costly
to construct as well. All projects calling for the replacement or new
installation of a heating system shall include a life cycle economic analysis
of steam vs LTW, MTW, and HTW distribution systems, and justification, stating
the conditions which prohibits the use of above-ground systems on all MCON and
special projects. This includes repair by replacement type projects where the
existing distribution systems’ are steam and/or underground. The following
factors will be among those considered in the analysis:
(1) Economic advantage of thermal storage of the hot water system
in sizing of equipment such as boilers, pumps, and piping.
(2) Operation and maintenance costs of hot water distribution
system versus steam distribution system.
(3) Customer requirements of temperature or pressure served more
economically by steam or hot water.
(4) Replacement or renovation of existing plant and distribution
system compared with construction of new plant and/or distribution system.
Comparison to be on a life cycle basis.
(5) Prevalence of skilled steam plant or hot water plant operators
in area, especially in remote locations.
(6) Complexity of controls and ability of steam to maintain varying
or constant temperature conditions through the assigned or existing heat
transfer equipment.
3.3 Heat Storage Capacity. A useful characteristic of HTW systems is the
large heat storage capacity. This property gives the system a thermal flywheel
effect which permits-close temperature control and more rapid response
to changing load demands. In fact, the system acts as an accumulator of the
heat generated: and helps equalize the heating load on the boilers. Table 4-1
shows a comparison of the heat storage capacity of water and steam for
different pressures and temperatures. The variations of density and volume of
HTW with changes in temperature are shown in table 4-2.
3.4 Temperature Differential. To take full advantage of the high heat
content of HTW, distribution systems are designed for the largest temperature
4-2
TABLE 4-1. Heat Storage Comparison TABLE 4-2. Density and Volume
of HTW and Steam Variations of HTW
With Temperature
Total Heat Content Saturated Heat
Tempera- (Btu/ft’) Content
ture Absolute Ratio
Pressure
(°F) HTW/ (psia) HTW Steam Steam
250 29.82 12,852 84.22 152.6
260 35.43 13,378 99.23 134.8
270 41.86 13,910 116.35 119.5
280 49.20 14,430 135.77 106.3
290 57.56 14,946 157.73 95.17
300 67.01 15,449 182.44 84.68
310 77.68 15,950 210.18 75.88
320 89.66 16,446 241.19 68.19
330 103.06 16,930 275.76 61.39
340 118.01 17,411 314.18 55.42
350 134.63 17,878 356.76 50.10
360 153.04 18,342 392.29 55.70
370 173.37 18,803 455.73 41.26
380 195.77 19,251 513.10 37.52
390 220.37 19,685 575.73 34.21
400 247.31 20,116 644.55 31.21
410 276.75 20,545 719.82 28.54
420 308.83 20,949 802.07 26.09
430 343.72 21,350 891.76 23.94
440 381.59 21,750 989.48 21.98
450 422.6 22,170 1,095.79 20.23
Saturated
Temperature
70
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
Density
(lb/ft')
62.30
58.82
58.51
58.24
57.94
57.64
57.31
56.98
56.66
56.31
55.96
55.59
55.22
54.85
54.47
54.05
53.65
53.25
52.80
52.36
51.92
51.50
Spec. Volume
ft'/lb
0.01606
0.01700
0.01709
0.01717
0.01726
0.01735
0.01745
0.01755
0.01765
0.01776
0.01787
0.01799
0.01811
0.01823
0 .0183b
0.01850
0.01864
0.01878
0.01894
0.01910
0.01926
0.01940
difference between the supply and the return water consistent with economical
considerations. The amount of heat extracted from a given amount of water
effects the temperature differential between the supply and the return water.
The greater the temperature difference, the more heat obtained per unit of
water. Higher heat extraction permits cutting down the flow rates, which
reduces the size requirements of the distribution pipes and pumps, and the
pump horsepower. The usual temperature differential range for an HTW system
is 100°F to 150°F. A maximum differential of 200°F is practical with forced
circulation boilers. For natural circulation boilers, a maximum differential
of 250°F is considered practical.
4 EXPANSION TANKS. All HTW systems require expansion tanks to allow for
variations in the system water volume caused by temperature changes. Volume
expansion is not based on cold water conditions because that extreme variation
only occurs when starting up cold. Rather, the tank is sized to handle
changes in water volume resulting from normal load changes. In general, the
following factors are considered in sizing a tank.
Sludge and suction space at the bottom of the tank. From 6 to 9
inches of elevation are reserved for this purpose.
4-3
Reserve storage of not less than 30 seconds supply to all pumps
connected to the tank.
Space for water expansion due to temperature changes. This depends
on the supply and return temperature limits, and on the total amount
of water in the system.
Space for operation of level alarms and overflow. Normally, l-foot
depth is reserved for this purpose.
Space pressurization above the overflow level. When steam
pressurization is used, this space amounts to 20 percent of the
volume reserved for water expansion.
The ratio of diameter to length is kept to
with a minimum tank diameter of 6 feet.
4.1 Expansion Tank Connections. The following connecti
provided for expansion tanks.
3.5 approximately,
ons are usually
Draining and filling connections used to completely drain the tank
or to fill it with water after a shutdown.
Supply piping for steam pressurized tanks. The boiler water should
be fed horizontally below tank water level through independent pipe
leads from each boiler.
Pump suction connections usually provided with vortex eliminators.
Safety valves for protection against overpressure.
Blowoff connections to rapidly remove large quantities of water
resulting from volume expansion when starting up a system, to reduce
water concentration, and to aid in the removal of sludge.
Overflow connections.
Connections for thermometers, pressure gauges, water gauge glasses,
level controls, and alarms for proper operation and control.
5 PRESSURIZATION. The design boiler pressure must be high enough to produce
saturated water at a temperature substantially above the design supply water
temperature. This is required to prevent a flashing of water into steam
should the system flow pressure drop. The temperature difference, 20°F to
30°F approximately, can be obtained by cooling the water below the saturation
temperature before it enters the circulation system pump. Additionally, the
expansion tank of a steam pressurized system is usually located about 16 feet
above the boiler outlet header, and this additional head provides a safe
margin above the saturation temperature. The two basic methods of system
pressurization that are used to keep the HTW in its liquid state are the steam
cushioned system, and the inert gas pressurized system.
5.1 Steam Cushioned System. In this system, the steam present at saturated
water temperature conditions in the expansion tank is used directly
4-4
to impose a pressure cushion. The elevation of the tank above the circulation
system pump provides the required head to prevent flashing of the supply high
temperature water.
5.2 Inert Gas Pressurized System. In this system an inert gas, usually
nitrogen, is used in the expansion tank to impose a pressure higher than the
maximum saturated pressure of the high temperature water. The expansion tank
can be located at floor level. When an inert gas is used to pressurize the
system, the expansion tank is generally connected to the main return line and
no circulation takes place in the tank. Compressed air is never used for
pressurization because absorption of oxygen by water would occur with
unacceptable corrosion of the metallic elements of the system.
6 PUMPING SYSTEMS. Two main pumping systems that are in use as a result of
the different pump arrangements are the combined pumping system and the
separate pumping system.
6.1 Combined Pumping System. In this system the same pumps are used to
circulate water through both the HTW generators and the system. In general,
these systems are used where the circulation rate in a single distribution
system is fairly constant, and heat load capacities do not exceed 31,500,000
Btu per hour. Figure 4-1 illustrates a steam pressurized HTW combined pumping
system. Combined pumping systems are generally provided with the following
equipment.
FIGURE 4-1. Steam Pressurized HTW Combined Pumping System
4-5
(a) Automatic Bypass Control Valve. This valve is installed at the
discharge of the combination pumps, bypassing the distribution system, and is
activated by the boiler inlet waterflow rate. The purpose of the valve is to
ensure minimum required boiler circulation at all times, regardless of load
conditions. The valve is provided with a manual bypass.
(b) Temperature Control Valve. This valve is installed in the blending
line to the suction of the combination pumps. Its purpose is to cool water
entering the pumps, below the point at which flashing may occur. Also, it
serves to regulate the HTW supply temperature by mixing the hot water from the
expansion tank with a portion of the cooler high temperature water return.
The valve is furnished with a manual bypass.
(c) Water Flowmeters. These meters are provided for
waterflow to each boiler inlet piping so that all boiler fl
equalized.
(d) Automatic Closing Valves. These valves are provi
measurement of
ows can be
ded to isolate the
using end of the system should a major break occur in the supply or return
main. In such a case, the automatic bypass control valve referred to in (a)
above operates to direct the discharge water from the combination pumps to the
boiler inlet. This maintains the required waterflow through the HTW
generators and prevents tube burnout.
(e) Pressure Differential Switch. This switch is installed across the
pump suction and discharge headers to terminate firing when the pressure
differential falls below a preset minimum. Often, a minimum flow switch in
each flowmeter is used instead, which terminates firing when insufficient
water flows through the boiler.
(f) Combustion Control Interlocks. The pump starters are interlocked
with the combustion control to prevent boiler operation without pump operation.
6.2 Separate Pumping System. In these systems, water is circulated through
the boiler by individual boiler recirculation pumps, while separate
circulating pumps circulate the water through the distribution system. This
is a more flexible arrangement which assures circulation through the boiler
Independently of the water circulation through the distribution circuit.
Figure 4-2 illustrates a nitrogen pressured HTW separate pumping system.
Separate pumping systems are used for the following conditions:
Where heat loads vary greatly and adequate flow cannot be obtained
under minimum load conditions
Where it is desirable to operate a distribution system for short
periods independently of the boilers
Where several zoned distribution systems are required, each with
its own set of system circulating pumps
Where the heat load is over 31,500,000 Btu per hour and the system
is economically justified
4-6
FIGURE 4-2. Nitrogen Pressurized HTW Separate Pumping System
Where it is mandatory that a boiler circulating system be isolated
from the distribution system
6.3 Alternate Equipment. Separate pumping systems are usually provided with
the following equipment.
(a) Temperature Control Valve. This automatic valve is installed in the
blending line to the suction of the system c
same purpose described for combined systems
furnished with a manual bypass. The purpose
which is installed in the return line supply
pumps, is to create a pressure drop, thereby
temperature control valve.
irculation pumps. It serves the
in 6.1(b) above. The valve is
of the manual throttling valve,
ing the boiler recirculation
facilitating operation of the
(b) Automatic Closing Valves. These are motor operated valves provided
to isolate the using end of the system should a major break occur in the
supply or return mains. They are set to close when the waterflow exceeds a
predetermined value.
4-7
(c) Water Flowmeters. These meters are used for the same purpose
described in 6.1(c) above for combined pumping systems.
(d) Minimum Flow Switch. A minimum flow switch is incorporated in each
boiler flowmeter to terminate firing when the waterflow drops below a safe
level.
(e) Combustion Control Interlocks. The starting switches of the boiler
recirculation pumps are interlocked with the combustion control of all boilers
to prevent boiler operation without pump operation.
6.4 Zoning. When economically justified, zoning arrangements of the
distribution circuits are provided where various groups of buildings with
different requirements of temperature, pressure, and flow must be served.
This is generally the case when hospitals, laundries, airports, and kitchens
have to be supplied from the same distribution system. In those cases,
separate circulation pumps are used for each zone, which permits independent
regulation of the flow, pressure, and temperature for each group of related
consumers. The zone temperature is controlled by an individual temperature
control valve through the blending connection for the zone. This permits
maintaining a constant supply temperature to each zone of a distribution
system and at the same time holding a constant expansion tank pressure. The
net result is higher economy and flexibility.
4-8
Cold water:
Cooling Water Systems
There are several types of cooling water systems utilized today in the engineering and design of power generation, petrochemical,
and industrial plants. The most common system in use for many years in power generation was the direct use of the water from the
nearby river, bay, or ocean. In this system a water intake structure is located along the shoreline and includes as a minimum
circulating water pump(s), piping, both fixed and traveling intake screens, and the necessary crane facilities for the removal,
replacement, and maintenance of the pumps and their motors. The intake screens are provided to prevent fish, crabs, and other
debris from entering and damaging the pumps. In addition to this main cooling water
system, there may be one or more service water systems for other equipment throughout the plant. The following guidelines apply
in the design and routing of these systems:
● Where butterfly valves are used, follow the guidelines provided for valves. Any given heat exchanger inlet and outlet valves
should be located close together for balancing the system.
● Avoid unnecessary vertical loops in any closed cooling water system. This type of system will usually include an expansion tank,
which should be located at or above the highest point in the system, and the outlet from this tank should be piped directly to the
pump suction.
● For piping at centrifugal pumps, follow the guidelines provided for piping of centrifugal pumps.
● Consult the Hydraulic Institute standards and the pump manufacturer's guidelines for layout and arrangement of deep-well type
of pumps. Since the temperature in these systems is not high and does not vary widely, piping offsets to accommodate thermal
expansion and/or contraction are not of
paramount importance.
Fire Protection
The fire protection system usually consists of two or more fire pumps taking suction from the fire water source with the discharge of
each pump independently connected to the underground fire main and as widely separated as possible. The underground fire main
loop shall completely encircle the plant and may serve multiple sites if cross-connected between units. The National Fire Protection
Association codes and the following guidelines may be used to design and lay out the yard fire main loop:
● Locate the yard fire main such that all fire hydrants will be a minimum of 50 ft (15 m) from any building or structure whenever
possible.
● The underground fire main shall be sectionalized in accordance with NFPA code using post indicator valves.
● Post indicator valves shall be provided on each side of any fire pump discharge connection into the fire main loop.
● All fire protection system branches from the yard fire main loop shall be provided with a shutoff valve located not less than 40 ft
(12 m) from the building or structure being served.
● Two-way fire hydrants with individual curb boxes should be provided at 250- to 300-ft (75- to 90-m) intervals along the yard fire
main loop.
Water fire-extinguishing systems within any building may consist of automatic sprinkler systems, spray systems, deluge systems,
and hose stations, as determined by the project engineering group. The following guidelines shall apply to the design of these
systems:
● Large areas, such as below the turbine operating floor, should be divided into sectors each served by an individual branch from
the yard fire main loop.
● Each sector should be controlled by an exterior post indicator valve and an alarm check valve or automatic valve located inside
the building.
● The maximum area served by any one alarm check valve or automatic sprinkler valve shall not exceed 25,000 ft2 (7620 m2).
● The maximum number of sprinkler heads in any sector shall not exceed 275.
● Provide automatic wet sprinkler systems in the area of the tube oil system below the turbine operating floor and in the ceiling of
the clean and dirty tube oil storage tank room.
● Separate water spray systems should be provided in the area of the tube oil system, in addition to the wet sprinkler system noted
above, and in the area of the hydrogen seal system.
● Standpipes and hose stations should be provided in accordance with the NFPA code as a complement to the automatic
suppression systems noted above.
● The hose stations on any given floor should be fed from above to avoid creating a series of unvented high points.
UTILITY MARKING TAPE:

A. Utility marking tape shall be acid and alkali-resistant polyethylene film 6 inches wide with
minimum thickness of 0.004 inch. Tape shall have a minimum strength of 1750 psi
lengthwise and 1500 psi crosswise. The tape shall be manufactured with integral wires, foil
backing, or other means to enable detection by a metal detector when the tape is buried up
to 3 feet deep. The tape shall be of a type specifically manufactured for marking and
locating underground utilities. The metallic core of the tape shall be encased in a protective
jacket or provided with other means to protect it from corrosion. Tape color shall be as
specified in TABLE 1 and shall bear a continuous printed inscription (black lettering)
describing the specific utility.
TABLE 1
Utility Color Printed Inscription
Chilled Water Purple “Caution Chilled Water
Lines -Do Not Drink”
Communications Orange “Caution Communication
Lines”
Potable Water Blue “Caution Water Lines Below”
Gas Yellow “Caution Gas Lines”
Electric Red “Caution Electric Lines”
Sanitary Sewer Green “Caution Sanitary Sewer”
Storm Sewer Green “Caution Storm Sewer”
Fire Service Blue “Caution Fire Service”
Utility layout:
11. UTILITY LAYOUT AND SPACING
11.1 Requirements and Design Criteria
11.1.1 The utility area should be near the process area.
11.1.2 The utility area should be arranged for easy access and adequate working area provided around
all equipment, for maintenance.
11.1.3 The cooling tower should be located to provide the least possible restriction to the free flow of air,
and away from areas where drift or fogging might create a problem.
NFPA Code, Standard and Recommendation 214, Chapters 2 and 5 shall be considered for locating and
spacing of cooling towers.
11.1.4 The circulating fuel oil system that supplies oil for process heaters and boilers is usually located in
one corner of the utility area including tanks and circulating pumps. Tanks are to be diked.
11.1.5 All boilers are grouped together with space provided for at least one future boiler. All boiler
auxiliaries including deaerator, feed pumps, flash drums and chemical feed systems are located in close
proximity to the boiler. Consideration must be given to single stacks for each boiler or one common stack.
11.1.6 Plant and instrument air compressors including dryers should be located in the utility area.
11.1.7 Switchgear for the electrical system is placed in an enclosed building and located within the utility
area. Substation serving process Units and offsite facilities are usually located in OGP process areas
dependent upon the areas served.
11.1.8 Utility control house shall be provided to house all board mounted instruments used for operation
and control of utility equipment.
11.1.9 Raw water storage and fire pumps shall be located adjacent to either the boilers or the cooling
towers whichever provides the more economic arrangement.
11.1.10 Critical steam and power facilities feeding major portions of the plant shall be protected from
possible fire or explosion in equipment handling hydrocarbons.
11.1.11 WASTE TREATMENT FACILITIES
1 The preferred location of the waste treatment area should be at a refinery/plant low point to insure
gravity flow from all areas. Where this is not possible lift stations must be provided as required.
2 The waste treatment area should be remote from the process and utility area and arranged to permit
future expansion of the system.
3 Layout of the area must include vehicle accessibility for maintenance purposes.
11.2 Spacing
General recommendation for spacing of boilers, utility & electric generating equipment, control houses,
etc.,shall be as specified in Appendix A, Tables A-4, A-5, and A-6 .
(pdf utility layout and equip layout)
4. Electricity / Communication / Gas :

GAS
The primary uses of gas include heating, cooling (rarely used), and powering
engines for electric generators. Gas pressures range from 20 psi to 50 psi in
most utility distribution systems. When the gas enters the service
connection, the pressure is typically reduced by a regulator to approximately
l/4 to 1/2 psi. Since gas is a vapor it has a tendency to rise; this fact
explains how such a low pressure can be used for distribution throughout a
building.
Pipe materials :
-Pipe made from mild steel, Grades A and B (specified minimum yield strengths
up to 35,000 psi in API)
-Black steel pipe, coated to reduce corrosion, is the most commonly used gas distribution piping inside a building.
-Ductile-Iron. Ductile-iron pipe must be manufactured in accordance with ANSI
A21.51/AWWA C151 Ductile Iron Pipe, Centrifugally Cast, in Metal Molds or
Sand Lined Molds for Gas.
-Plastic. Plastic pipe and components must be manufactured in accordance with
the following American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards:
ASTM D 2513 Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, Tubing,
and Fittings
ASTM D 2517 Reinforced Epoxy Resin Gas Pressure
Pipe and Fittings
-Copper. Copper tubing or pipe for use in gas mains is limited to pressures of 100
psi (7 kg/cm2) or less, must have a minimum wall thickness of 0.065 in (1.65 mm),
and must be hard-drawn.
Where the gas being transported contains more than an average of 0.3 grains
of hydrogen sulfide per 100 standard cubic feet (2.83 standard cubic meters) of gas,
copper may not be used.
ELECTRICAL/TELEPHONE/CABLE TV
The method of installation of underground electric, telephone, and cable TV are often very similar. All three
utilities have utilized both of the following installation methods:
1. Direct burial cable

2. Underground conduit (cable pulled through later)
In either case the trench depth will be dictated by the local utility as will the cable size and type. Direct burial cable is usually a simple and economic installation. There
are some strong advantages, though, to underground conduit. Firstly additional cable can be pulled at a later date by installing a spare conduit. Secondly the conduit
provides some protection from cable damage due to accidental excavation. Thirdly, some cable has a long delivery lead time and conduit installation allows the
remainder of the sitework to progress.

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Utility Services :

 B31.1 Power Piping

 B31.3 Process Piping

 B31.9 Building Services Piping

 American Petroleum Institute

 American Welding Society

 American Water Works Association

Identifying utility lines:

-Also fluid to be handled can be mentioned.

For Public Utilities :

4.a.) Water supply :

(4) Distribution system. A system of pipes and appurtenances by which water is

-Water Supply Network :

Pipe network in water supply :

1. Galvanized steel( 3/8’’ to 2’’) :

Outside diameter Inside diameter (ID)

4.b) Drainage (sewage):

Most commonly used where topography is suitable for its installation.

b)Low Pressure Systems.

GRAVITY SEWER DESIGN:

-The Manning formula will be used for design of gravity flow

General considerations in design:

- Generally, it is not desirable to design sewers for full flow, even at

-In addition, large trunk and

-Adequate sewer ventilation is a desirable method of preventing the accumulation of explosive,

- PVC sewer pipe is available in diameters 100 mm (4-inch) through 1,200 mm

-Disadvantages include possible chemical instability due to long-term exposure to sunlight,

b) Process: Compressed air used in this application becomes a

c) Control Purpose. Extensive use is made of compressed air to govern

TYPES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.

SELECTION OF ABOVEGROUND OR UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION

(b) Elevation Clearance.

(d) Drip Legs.

Bottom of all risers

Every 200 to 300 feet for horizontally pitched pipe

(e) Counter flow of Condensate.

2.)Underground distribution system:

(a) Pitch of Underground Systems.

(b) Drip Legs.

(c) Counter flow of Condensate.

General Considerations for both systems:

>When practical, pipelines distributing compressed air to

>Low-Pressure and Medium-Pressure Systems. (less than 250 psi ):

> High-Pressure Systems:

o Seamless steel pipe conforming to ASTM A 53 or A 120, with Schedule determined in

Definitions and Terminology:

Steam distribution systems:

(1)a trunk-line distribution network system :

(2) amain and feeder distribution network system.:

-To prevent a water slug type of water hammer and a

-Up to 950_F (510_C)—Use 11⁄₄ Cr. steel

-From 1050 to 1200_F (566 to 650_C)—Consider using austenitic stainless steel.

-Beyond 1200_F (650_C)—Use austenitic stainless steel.

• WASTE TREATMENT FACILITIES

• Piping Handbook (7th edition)

• Process Plant Layout (Roger Hunt)

• Engineering Handbook For Layout

• Maintenance of compressed air and steam system.( Navy handbook)

• Utility System for c41 (USA)

• Urban Design Standards Manual

• Waste Water Collection (USA)

• Certificate course on piping engineering (T.N. Gopinath)

4. Unexpected rock excavation