References: Heat Waves and Periods of Unusually Warm Weather

References
Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather
1. Llasa, Tibet -- Warmest June on record, 1998. Temperatures hovered above 77?F (25?C) for 23
days.
Reference: GISS. 1998. Goddard Institute of Space Studies.
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/data/update/csci
NCDC. 1998. National Climatic Data Center.

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/climatedata.html
2. Christchurch, New Zealand -- Warmest February on record, 1998. Daily temperatures averaged
near 67?F (19.4?C).
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/data/update/csci
NCDC. 1998. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/climatedata.html
3. Cairo, Egypt -- Warmest August on record, 1998. Temperatures reached 105.8?F (41?C) on
August 6, 1998.
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/data/
update/csci
NCDC. 1998. National Climatic Data Center. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/
climate/climatedata.html
4. Edmonton, Canada -- Warmest summer on record, 1998. Temperatures were more than 5.4?F
(3?C) higher than the 116-year average.
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/data/
update/csci
NCDC. 1998. National Climatic Data Center. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/
climate/climatedata.html
5. Southern Africa -- Warmest and driest decade on record, 1985-1995. Average temperature
increased almost 1?F (0.56?C) over the past century.
Reference: Arntzen, J., T. Downing, R. Leemans, J. Malcolm, N. Reynard, S. Ringrose, and D.
Rogers. 1996. Climate Change and Southern Africa: An exploration of some potential impacts in
the SADC region. 104 pp. World Wildlife Fund, Climatic Research Unit.
6. Central England -- Cold days declining, hot days increasing, 1772 to present. 1995 brought 26
days above 68?F (20?C) versus an average of 4 days per year since 1772.
Reference: Hulme, M. 1999. Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, personal
communication.
7. Glasgow, Montana -- No sub-zero days, 1997. For the first time ever, temperatures remained
above zero degrees Fahrenheit in December. The average temperature was 10.9?F (6?C) above normal.
Reference: Weathervane Magazine, May/June 1998.
8. Little Rock, Arkansas -- Hottest May on record, 1998.
Reference: NCDC, 1998. Climate of 1998-June Extremes. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/
research/1998/jun/jun98.html
9. Texas -- Deadly heat wave, summer 1998. Heat claimed more than 100 lives in the region. Dallas
temperatures were over 100?F (37.8?C) for 15 straight days.
Reference: NCDC, 1998. 1998 Summer Heat and Precipitation Extremes. National Climatic Data
Center. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/reports/texas98/texasrecords.html
10. Florida -- June heat wave, 1998. Melbourne endured 24 days above 95?F (35?C); nighttime
temperatures in Tampa remained above 80?F (26.7?C) for 12 days.
Reference: NCDC. 1998. Florida Wildfires and Climate Extremes. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/research/1998/fla/florida.html
11. USA -- Late fall heat wave 1998. An unprecedented autumn heat wave from mid-November to
early December broke or tied more than 700 daily-high temperature records from the Rockies to the East
Coast. Temperatures rose into the 70?F range (+21?C) as far north as South Dakota and Maine.
Reference: NCDC, 1998. Top weather and climate stories of 1998. 6 January 1999 Climate
Prediction Center. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/research/1998/ann/top-
99.html
12. Eastern USA -- July heat wave, 1999. More than 250 people died as a result of a heat wave that
gripped much of the eastern two-thirds of the country. Heat indices of over 100?F (37.8?C) were common
across the southern and central plains, reaching a record 119?F (48.3?C) in Chicago.
Reference: NCDC, 1999. Climate-Watch, July 1999. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/extremes/
1999/july/extremes0799.html
13. New York City -- Record heat, July 1999. New York City had its warmest and driest July on
record, with temperatures climbing above 95?F (35?C) for 11 days—the most ever in a single month.
Reference: Zielbauer, P., 1999. Sweaty July in New York City goes down as worst ever. August 1,
1999, New York Times, New York City;
NCDC, 1999. Selected U.S. city and state extremes-July 1999.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/extremes/
1999/july/julyext1999.html#TEMPERATURE
Spreading Disease
14. Kenya -- Deadly malaria outbreak, summer, 1997. Hundreds of people died from malaria in the
Kenyan highlands where the population had previously been unexposed.
Reference: Epstein, P. 1997. Climate, ecology and human health. Consequences 3: 3-19.
15. Andes Mountains, Columbia -- Disease-carrying mosquitoes spreading. Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes that can carry dengue and yellow fever viruses were previously limited to 3,300 feet (1,006
m) but recently appeared at 7,200 feet (2,195 m).
Reference: Epstein, P., H. Diaz, S. Elias, G. Grabherr, N. Graham, W. Martens, E. M. Thompson,
and J. Susskind. 1998. Biological and physical signs of climate change: focus on mosquito borne
diseases. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79: 409-417.
16. Mexico -- Dengue fever spreads to higher elevations. Dengue fever has spread above its former
elevation limit of 3,300 feet (1,006 m) and has appeared at 5,600
feet (1,707 m).
Reference: Epstein, P., H. Diaz, S. Elias, G. Grabherr, N.
Graham, W. Martens, E. M. Thompson, and J. Susskind.
1998. Biological and physical signs of climate change:
focus on mosquito borne diseases. Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society 79: 409-417.
17. Tanzania -- Malaria expands in mountains. Higher annual
temperatures in the Usamabara Mountains have been linked to
expanding malaria transmission.
1998. Biological and physical signs of climate change:
focus on mosquito borne diseases. Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society 79: 409-417.
18. Indonesia -- Malaria spreads to high elevations. Malaria
was detected for the first time as high as 6,900 feet (2,103 m) in
the highlands of Irian Jaya in 1997.
1998. Biological and physical signs of climate change: focus on mosquito borne diseases. Bulletin
of the American Meteorological Society 79: 409-417.
19. Central America -- Dengue fever spreads to higher elevations. Dengue fever is spreading above
its former limit of 3,300 feet (1,006 m) and has been reported above 4,000 feet (1,219 m).
Reference: Epstein, P. 1999. Global Warming: Health and Disease. World Wildlife Fund.
Earlier spring arrival
20. United Kingdom -- Toads, frogs, and newts spawning early. Spawning was 9 to 10 days earlier
over a 17-year period.
Reference: Beebee, T. 1995. Amphibian breeding and climate. Nature 374: 219-220.
21. United Kingdom -- Birds laying eggs early. From 1971 to 1995, 31 percent of 65 bird species
studied in England showed significant trends towards earlier egg laying, moving up the date by an average
of 8.8 days.
Reference: Crick, H., C. Dudley, D. Glue, and D. Thomson. 1997. UK birds are laying eggs earlier.
Nature 388: 526.
22. Southern England -- Early leafing of oak trees. The four earliest leafing dates occurred in the
past decade, a response to increasing temperatures during January to March over the past 41 years.
Reference: Hulme, M. 1999. Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, personal
communication.
23. Lake Mendota, Wisconsin -- Fewer days of ice cover. The number of days per year with ice cover
has decreased by 22 percent since the mid-1800s.
Reference: Magnuson, J., R. Wynne, B. Benson, and D. Robertson. 1999. Lake and river ice as a
powerful indicator of past and present climates. Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin -
Madison. in press.
24. Mirror Lake, New Hampshire -- Earlier spring ice-out. The ice-covered period has declined by
about half a day per year during the past 30 years.
Reference: Likens, G. 1998. President/ Director, Institute for Ecosystem Studies, personal
communication.
25. Nenana, Alaska -- Early river thaw. During 82 years on record, four out of the five earliest thaws
on the Tanana River occurred in the 1990's.
Reference: NSIDC. 1998. The Nenana Ice Classic: Tanana River Ice Annual Breakup Dates.
National Snow and Ice Data Center. Digital data available from nsidc@kryos.colorado.edu.
Boulder, Colorado. NSIDC Distributed Active Archive
Center, University of Colorado at Boulder. http://www-
nsidc.colorado.edu/NASA/GUIDE/docs/dataset_documents/
nenana_river_ice_breakup_dataset_document.html
26. Washington, D.C. -- Cherry trees blossoming earlier. Average peak bloom from 1970-1999 came
April 3, compared to April 5 from 1921-1970.
Reference: Robert DeFeo, US Park Service, personal communication. Bloomfield, J. and Showell,
S., 1997. Global Warming: Our Nation?s Capital at Risk. Environmental Defense Fund, New York,
NY.
Plant and animal range shifts and population changes
27. Austria -- Alpine plants retreat up mountains. Over a 70 to 90 year period, alpine plants in the
Austrian and Swiss Alps moved higher up on mountain slopes in response to an increase in average
annual temperature.
Reference: Grabherr, G., M. Gottfried, and H. Pauli. 1994. Climate effects on mountain plants.
Nature 369: 448.
28. California -- Butterfly range shift. Edith's Checkerspot Butterfly has been disappearing from the
lower elevations and southern limits of its range.
Reference: Parmesan, C. 1996. Climate and species' range. Nature 382: 765-766.
29. Europe -- Butterfly ranges shift northward. 22 of 35 butterfly species studied have shifted their
ranges northwards by 22 to 150 miles, consistent with a 1.4?F (0.78?C) warming over the past century.
Reference: Parmesan, C., et al. 1999. Poleward shifts in geographical ranges of butterfly species
associated with regional warming. Nature 399: 579-583.
30. Germany -- Mollusc range shift. 20 percent of 40 mollusc species in a national park have changed
their distribution in response to warming.
Reference: Irmler, U., and V. Wiese. 1997. Ecological impacts of climate change on national
parks and protected areas of the world. World Wildlife Fund.
31. Olympic Mountains, Washington -- Forest invasion of alpine meadow. Sub-alpine forest has
invaded higher-elevation alpine meadows, partly in response to warmer temperatures.
Reference: Peterson, D., R. Rochefort, R. Little, and A. Woodward. 1994. Changes in sub-alpine
tree distribution in western North America: a review of climatic and other causal factors. The
Holocene 4: 89-100.
32. Antarctica -- Penguin population decline. Adelie Penguin populations have shrunk by 33 percent
during the past 25 years in response to declines in their winter sea ice habitat.
Reference: Fraser, W. 1998. Antarctic Biology and Medicine Program, University of Montana,
personal communication.
33. Alaska -- Sea bird population decline. The black guillemot population is declining from 1990 levels
because melting sea ice has increased the distance the birds must fly to forage for food and reduced the
number of resting sites available.
Reference: Markham, A. 1998. Director of Climate Change Campaign, World Wildlife Fund,
personal communication.
34. Canadian Arctic -- Caribou die-offs. Peary caribou have declined from 24,000 in 1961 to perhaps
as few as 1,100 in 1997, mostly because of major die-offs that have occurred in recent years after heavy
snowfalls and freezing rain covered the animals' food supply.
Reference: Gunn, A. 1998. National Recovery Team for Peary and Arctic-Island Caribou, personal
communication.
35. Monterey Bay , California -- Shoreline sea life shifting northwards. Changes in invertebrate
species such as limpets, snails, and sea stars in the 60-year period between 1931-1933 and 1993-1994
indicate that species' ranges are shifting northwards, probably in response to warmer ocean and air
temperatures.
Reference: Barry, J., C. Baxter, R. Sagarin, and S. Gilman. 1995. Climate related, long-term
faunal changes in a Californian rocky intertidal community. Science 267: 672-675.
36. Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica -- Disappearing frogs and toads. A reduction in dry-
season mists due to warmer Pacific ocean temperatures has been linked to disappearances of 20 species
of frogs and toads, upward shifts in the ranges of mountain birds, and declines in lizard population.
Reference: Pounds, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L., and Campbell, J.H., 1999. Biological response to climate
change on a tropical mountain. Nature 398: 611-615.
37. United Kingdom -- Birds shift northward. Over a 20-year period, many birds have extended the
northern margins of their ranges by an average of about 12 miles.
Reference: Thomas, C.D. and Lennon, J.J., 1999. Birds extend their ranges northwards. Nature
399: 213.
38. U.S. West Coast -- Sea bird population decline. A decline of about 90 percent in sooty
shearwaters from 1987 to 1994 corresponds to a warming of the California Current of about 1.4?F (0.78?
C).
Reference: Viet, R. A., J. A. McGowan, D. G. Ainley, T. R. Wahl, and P. Pyle. 1997. Apex marine
predator declines ninety percent in association with changing oceanic climate. Global Change
Biology 3: 23-28.
Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding
39. Chesapeake Bay -- Marsh and island loss. The current rate of a sea-level rise is three times the
historical rate and appears to be accelerating. Since 1938, about one-third of the marsh at Blackwater
National Wildlife Refuge has been submerged.
Reference: Irmler, U., and V. Wiese. 1997. Ecological impacts of climate change on national
parks and protected areas of the world. World Wildlife Fund.
Stevenson, C. 1998. Horn Point Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental
Sciences, personal communication.
40. Bermuda -- Dying mangroves. Rising sea level is leading to saltwater inundation of coastal
mangrove forests.
Reference: Ellison, J. 1993. Mangrove retreat with rising sea-level, Bermuda. Estuarine, Coastal,
and Shelf Science 37: 75-87.
41. Senegal -- Sea-level rise. Sea-level rise is causing the loss of coastal land at Rufisque, on the South
Coast of Senegal.
Reference: Dennis, K., I. Niang-Diop, and R. Nicholls. 1995. Sea-level rise and Senegal: potential
impacts and consequences. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 14: 243-261.
42. Hawaii -- Beach loss. Sea-level rise at Waimea Bay, along with coastal development, has
contributed to considerable beach loss over the past 90 years.
Reference: Nunn, P. 1997. Keimami sa vakila na liga ni Kalou (Feeling the hand of God): Human
and nonhuman impacts on Pacific Island environments. School of Social and Economic
Development, The University of South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
43. Fiji -- Sea-level rise. Reports from local inhabitants at 16 sites indicate that the island's average
shoreline has been receding half a foot per year over at least the past 90 years.
44. American and Western Samoa -- Land loss. Western Samoa has experienced shore recession of
about one and a half feet per year for at least the past 90 years.
45. Recife, Brazil -- Sea-level rise. Shoreline receded more than 6 feet (1.8 m) per year from 1915 to
1950 and more than 8 feet (2.4 m) per year from 1985 to 1995. The dramatic land loss was due to a
combination of sea-level rise and loss of sediment supply following dam construction, harbor dredging,
and other coastal engineering projects.
Reference: Neves, C., and D. Muehe. 1995. Potential impacts if sea-level rise on the metropolitan
region of Recife, Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 14: 116-131.
Coral reef bleaching
46. Pacific Ocean, Mexico -- Coral reef bleaching.

Reference: see below.
47. Pacific Ocean, Panama -- Coral reef bleaching.
48. American Samoa -- Coral reef bleaching.
49. Papua New Guinea -- Coral reef bleaching.
50. Philippines -- Coral reef bleaching.
51. Indian Ocean -- Coral reef bleaching (inclues Seychelles;
Kenya; Reunion; Mauritius; Somalia; Madagascar; Maldives;
Indonesia; Sri Lanka; Gulf of Thailand [Siam]; Andaman Islands;
Malaysia; Oman; India; and Cambodia).
52. Persian Gulf -- Coral reef bleaching.
53. Caribbean -- Coral reef bleaching.
54. Florida Keys and Bahamas -- Coral reef bleaching.
55. Bermuda -- Coral reef bleaching.
56. Australia, Great Barrier Reef -- Coral reef bleaching.
57. Seychelles Islands -- Coral reef bleaching.
58. Galapagos -- Coral reef bleaching..
The information for all the coral reef bleaching hotspots comes from maps and text from each of the
following four sources combined:
ISRS, 1998. ISRS statement on global coral bleaching in 1997-98. International Society for Reef
Studies. http://www.uncwil.edu/isrs/
NOAA, 1999. NOAA/NESDIS 1998 Coral Bleaching Hotspots. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration http://osdpd.noaa.gov
Wilkinson C, Linden O, Cesar H, Hodgson G, Rubens J, Strong AE (1999). Ecological and
socioeconomic impacts of 1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: An ENSO impact and a
warning of future change? Ambio 28, 188-196.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998. The 1998 Global Coral Bleaching Incident. 4
December 1998. http://www.wcmc.org.uk/latenews/bleaching.htm
Glaciers melting
59. Garhwal Himalayas, India -- Glacial retreat at record pace. The Dokriani Barnak Glacier
retreated 66 feet (20.1 m) in 1998 despite a severe winter. The Gangorti Glacier is retreating 98 feet per
year. At this rate scientists predict the loss of all central and eastern Himalayan glaciers by 2035.
Reference: 1998. Himalayan glacier backing off. Science 281: 1277.
60. Caucasus Mountains, Russia -- Half of all glacial ice disappeared in the past 100 years.
Reference: Meier, M., 1998. Land ice on Earth: a beginning of a global synthesis. Unpublished
transcript of the 1998 Walter B. Langbein Memorial Lecture, American Geophysical Union Spring
Meeting, Boston, MA, 26 May 1998.
61. Kenya -- Mt. Kenya's largest glacier disappearing. 92 percent of the Lewis Glacier has melted in
the past 100 years.
Reference: Hastenrath, 1991. Climate dynamics of the tropics. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, Netherlands, 488 p.
62. Tien Shen Mountains, China -- Glacial ice reduced by one quarter in the past 40 years.
Reference: Meier, M. 1998.
63. Austria -- Record glacial retreat. Emergence of a frozen Stone Age mummy from a melting glacier
in the Oetztal Alps indicates that glacial ice is more reduced today than at any time during the past 5,000
years.
Reference: Haeberli, W., and M. Beniston. 1998. Climate change and its impacts on glaciers and
permafrost in the Alps. Ambio 27: 258-265.
64. Andes Mountains, Peru -- Glacial retreat accelerates seven-fold. The edge of the Qori Kalis
glacier was retreating 13 feet (4.0 m) annually between 1963 and 1978. By 1995, the rate had stepped up
to 99 feet (30.1 m) per year.
Reference: Mosley-Thompson, E. 1997. Glaciological evidence of recent environmental changes.
Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geography, Fort Worth, Texas.
65. Glacier National Park, Montana -- All glaciers in the park will be gone by 2070 if retreat
continues at its current rate.
Reference: Meier, M. 1998.
66. Spain -- Half of glaciers present in 1980 are gone.
Reference: Martinez de Pison, E., 1998. Observaciones Sobre el Estado de Los Glaciares del
Pirineo Espanol. Campana 1995, In La Nieve en las Cordilleras Espanolas, Program ERHIN,
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain.
67. New Zealand -- The average elevation for glaciers in the Southern Alps has shifted upslope
by more than 300 feet (91.4 m) over the past century.
Reference: Chinn, T. 1996. New Zealand glacier responses to climate change of the past century.
New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 39: 415-428.
Arctic and Antarctic warming
68. Interior Alaska -- Permafrost thawing. Permafrost thawing is causing the ground to subside 16-33
feet (4.9-10 m) in parts of interior Alaska. The permafrost surface has warmed by about 3.5?F (1.9?C)
since the 1960's.
Reference: Osterkamp, T., and V. Romanovsky. 1998. Permafrost monitoring and detection of
climate change-comments. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 9: 87-89.
69. Barrow, Alaska -- Less snow in summer. Summer days without snow have increased from fewer
than 80 in the 1950's to more than 100 in the 1990's.
Reference: Springer, A. 1999. Is it all climate change? Why marine bird and mammal populations
fluctuate in the North Pacific. Biotic Impacts of Extratropical Climate Change in the Pacific, Aha
Huliko'a Proceedings, University of Hawaii.
70. Antarctic Peninsula -- Warming 5 times global average. Since 1945, the Antarctic Peninsula has
experienced a warming of about 4.5?F (2.5?C). The annual melt season has increased by 2 to 3 weeks in
just the past 20 years.
Reference: NSIDC. 1998. National Snow and Ice Data Center; Watson, R., M. Zinyowera, and R.
Moss, eds. 1998. The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
71. Bering Sea -- Reduced sea ice. Sea-ice extent has shrunk by about 5 percent over the past 40
years.
Reference: Weller, G., A. Lynch, T. Osterkamp, and G. Wendler. 1998. Climate trends and
scenarios. Pages 157 in G. a. P. A. Weller, ed. Implications of Global Change in Alaska and the
Bering Sea Region: Proceedings of a Workshop, Center for Global Change and Arctic System
Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska.
72. Arctic Ocean -- Shrinking sea ice. The area covered by sea ice declined by about 6 percent from
1978 to 1995.
Reference: Bjorgo, E., O. Johannessen, and M. Miles. 1997. Analysis of merged SMMR-SSMI time
series of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice parameters 1978-1995. Geophysical Research Letters 24:
413-416.
73. Antarctica -- Ice shelf disintegration. The 770 square mile Larsen A ice shelf disintegrated
suddenly in January 1995.
Reference: NSIDC, 1998. January 1995 Events in the Northern Larsen Ice Shelf and Their
Importance. National Snow and Ice Data Center; Scambos, T. 1998. Cooperative Institute for
Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), personal communication.
74. Antarctica -- Ice shelf breakup. After 400 years of relative stability, nearly 1,150 square miles
(2,978 km2) of the Larson B and Wilkins ice shelves collapsed between March 1998 and March 1999.
Reference: NSIDC, 1999. Antarctic ice shelves breaking up due to decades of higher
temperatures. National Snow and Ice Data Center, 7 April 1999.
http://www.colorado.edu/PublicRelations/NewsReleases/1999/35.html
74A. Antarctica -- Ice shelf collapse. In the single largest event in a 30 year series of ice retreats,
1260 square miles (3,263 km2) of the Larsen B ice shelf, an area greater than the size of Rhode Island
and the thickness of a 60 story building, disintegrated in the span of just 35 days from February to March,
2002. Scientists attribute the retreats to strong regional warming of about 4.5?F (2.5?C) since the late
1940's.
Reference: NSIDC, 2002. Antarctic ice shelf collapses. National Snow and Ice Data Center, 18
March, 2002. http://nsidc.org/iceshelves/larsenb2002/index.html
Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding
75. New South Wales, Australia -- Wettest August on record, 1998. On August 15-17, a storm
dumped nearly 12 inches (30.5 cm) of rain on Sydney, over 8 inches (20.3 cm) more than what normally
falls during that entire month.
Reference: 1999. Australian Bureau of Meteorology. http://www.bom.gov.au/
76. New England -- Double normal rainfall, June 1998. Rainfall in Boston on June 13-14 broke a
117-year-old record, closing Logan Airport and two interstate roads. Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island, and Massachusetts each received more than double their normal monthly rainfall.
Reference: New England Regional Climate Center. Climate Impacts- 1998.
http://met-www.cit.cornell.edu/climate/Impacts_06-98.html; 1998. From Yosemite to
the east, it's sloshing, soaking wet. Orlando Sentinel, Orlando, Florida.
77. Korea -- Heavy rains and flooding. Severe flooding struck during July and August, 1998, with daily
rainfall totals exceeding 10 inches (25.4cm).
Reference: NCDC. 1998. Severe flooding in North and South Korea--July-August 1998 National
Climatic Data Center. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/res40.pl?page=gsod.html (go
to "Data Files:Severe Events")
78. Black Hills, South Dakota -- Record snowfall, 1998. At the
end of February, the Black Hills received 102.4 inches (260 cm) of
snow in five days, almost twice as much snow as the previous
single-storm record for the state.
Reference: Kocin, P., W. Gartner, and D. Graf. 1998. The
1996-97 snow season. Pages 47-54. Weatherwise.
79. Texas -- Record downpours, 1998. Severe flooding in
southeast Texas from two heavy rain storms with 10-20 inch (25.4-
50.8 cm) rainfall totals caused $1 billion in damage and 31 deaths.
Reference: NCDC, 1998. Billion dollar U.S. weather
disasters, 1980-1999. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/reports/billionz.html
80. Santa Barbara, California -- Wettest month on record,
1998. 21.74 inches (55.2 cm) of rain fell in February, the most rain
in a month since record keeping began.
Reference: NCDC, 1998. California Flooding and Florida
Tornadoes -Feb 1998. National Climatic Data Center
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/reports/febstorm/
february98storms.html#CRAIN
81. Mount Baker, Washington -- World record snowfall, 1999.
1,140 inches (2,895.6 cm) of snow fell between November 1998 and the end of June 1999, a world record
for most snowfall in a single winter season.
Reference: NOAA, 1999. Mt. Baker holds snowfall record, NOAA Reports.
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s253.htm
Droughts and fires
82. Florida -- Worst wildfires in 50 years, 1998. Fires burned 485,000 acres (196,272.5 ha) and
destroyed more than 300 homes and structures.
Reference: NCDC. 1998. Florida Wildfires and Climate Extremes. National Climatic Data Center.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/research/1998/fla/florida.html
83. Mediterranean -- Intense drought and fires. Spain lost more than 1.2 million acres (485,622.8
ha) of forest to wildfires in 1994, and 370,000 acres (132,332.2 ha) burned in each of Greece and Italy in
1998.
Reference: IFFN, 1995. Spain: 1994 Forest Fire Season, International Forest Fire News 12,
(January 1995). Forest Fires in Italy 1998, International Forest Fire News 21, (October 1999).
http://www.ruf.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe/
welcome.html#International Forest Fire News
84. Florida, Texas, Louisiana -- Driest period in 104 years, April-June 1998. San Antonio received
only 8 percent of its normal rainfall in May. New Orleans suffered its driest and hottest May in history.
Reference: WMO, 1999. WMO statement on the status of
the global climate in 1998. World Meteorological Organization.
http://www.wmo.ch/index.html
85. Mexico -- Worst fires season ever, 1998. 1.25 milion acres (505,857 ha) burned during a severe
drought. Smoke reaching Texas triggered a statewide health alert.
Reference: Rodriguez-Trejo, D., and S. Pyne. 1999. Mexican fires of 1998. International Forest
Fire News 20 (January 1999).
NRDC. 1998. Scorched Earth: impacts and implications of the 1998 fire disaster in North and
Central America. Natural Resources Defense Council.
86. Nicaragua -- 2.2 million acres (890,308 ha) burned, 1998. Over 15,000 fires burned in 1998,
and the blazing acreage included protected lands in the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve.
Reference: NRDC. 1998. Scorched Earth: impacts and implications of the 1998 fire disaster in
North and Central America. Natural Resources Defense Council.
A.J. de Dixmude, S.Flasse, I.Downey, P.Navarro, C.Searm, P.Ceccato, J.Williams, R. Alvarez,
F.Uriarte, A.Ramos, I.Humphrey, and Z.Z'niga . 1999. Country Notes: Nicaragua: A Survey of
Three Successive Recent Fire Seasons. International Forest Fire News 20 (March 1999).
87. Indonesia -- Burning rainforest, 1998. Fires burned up to 2 million acres (809,371 ha) of land,
including almost 250,000 acres of primary forest and parts of the already severely reduced habitat of the
Kalimantan orangutan.
Reference: International Forest Fire Management Program
88. Khabarovsk, Russia -- Wildfires threaten tiger habitat, 1998. Drought and high winds fueled
fires that destroyed 3.7 million acres (1,497,337 ha) of taiga and threatened two important nature
reserves that are habitat for the only remaining Amur tigers.
Reference: BBC. 1998. Russian fires are 'world disaster.' BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/
asia-pacific/newsid_190000/190654.stm
Forest Fires on the Island of Sakhalin and the Khabarovsk Krai - UNDAC (United Nations Disaster
Assessment and Coordination) Mission Report. September - October 1998.
http://www.unep.org/unep/per/for_fire/rundac1.htm
89. Eastern USA -- Driest growing season on record, 1999. The period from April-July 1999 was the
driest in 105 years of record-keeping in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Rhode Island. Agricultural
disaster areas were declared in fifteen states, with losses in West Virginia alone expected to exceed $80
million.
Reference: NOAA, 1999. Four States in Northeast Have Driest Growing Season on Record.
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s258.htm
New Points (2003)

Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather
90. Southern India - Heat wave, May 2002. In the state of Andhra Pradesh temperatures rose to 120?
F (49?C), resulting in the highest one-week death toll on record (NCDC, 2002a). This heat wave came in
the context of a long-term warming trend in Asia in general. India, including southern India, has
experienced a warming trend at a rate of 1?F (0.6?C) per century (IPCC, 2001b; NCDC, 1999).
Reference: NCDC, 1999. Area averaged temperature time series for China, India, and the United
States. National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC.
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/doe/doe.html
NCDC, 2002a. Climate-Watch, May 2002. National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC.
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/extremes.html
IPCC, 2001b. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II, MacCarthy, J.J. et al., eds. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK.
91. Nepal - High rate of temperature rise. Since the mid-1970s the average air temperature
measured at 49 stations has risen by 1.8?F (1?C), with high elevation sites warming the most (Shrestha
et al., 1999). This is twice as fast as the 1?F (0.6?C) average warming for the mid-latitudinal Northern
Hemisphere (24 to 40?N) over the same time period, and illustrates the high sensitivity of mountain
regions to climate change.
Reference: Shrestha, A.B., C.P. Wake, P.A. Mayewski, J.E. Dibb, 1999. Maximum temperature
trends in the Himalaya and its vicinity: An analysis based on temperature records from Nepal for
the period 1971-94. Journal of Climate, 12: 2775-2787.
92. Chiclayo, Peru - Large increase in average minimum temperatures. Average minimum
temperatures along Peru?s north coast increased 3.5?F (2?C) from the 1960s to 2000 (SENAMHI, 2001).
The temperature in the high plateau region in extreme southeastern Peru has also risen 3.5?F (2?C), from
an average of 48?F (9?C) in the 1960s to 52?F (11?C) in 2001 (Inter-Press Service, 2001). Northwestern
South America has warmed by 0.8-1.4?F (0.5-0.8 ?C) in the last decade of the 20th century (IPCC,
2001b).
Reference: IPCC, 2001b. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II, MacCarthy, J.J. et al., eds.
SENAMHI, 2001. Cambio Climatico. Direcci󮠇eneral de Meteorolog�DCL, Servicio Nacional de
Meteorolog�e Hidrolog�del Per?viembre 2001 (In Spanish).
http://www.senamhi.gob.pe/pronosticos/clim/bol/cambio_climat.php.
Inter-Press Service, 2001. Weaker El Ni񯠳till to affect Andean glaciers. Article by Abraham Lama,
August 31, 2001.
93. Taiwan - Average temperature increase. The average temperature for the island has risen 1.8-
2.5?F (1-1.4?C) in the last 100 years. The average temperature for 2000 was the warmest on record (Hsu
and Chen, 2002).
Reference: Hsu, H.-H. and C.-T. Chen, 2002. Observed and projected climate change in Taiwan,
Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 79, 1-2: 87-104.
94. Afghanistan - 2001 - Warmest winter on record. Arid Central Asia, which includes Afghanistan,
experienced a warming of 0.8-3.6?F (1-2?C) during the 20th century (IPCC, 1998)(WMO, 2002b).
Reference: WMO, 2002b. The drought in central and southern Asia. World Climate News, No. 20,
January 2002, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.wmo.ch
IPCC, 1998. The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability. Special
Report of the IPCC Working Group II, R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera, R.H. Moss and D.J. Dokken,
eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
95. Tibet - Warmest decade in 1,000 years. Ice core records from the Dasuopu Glacier indicate that
the last decade and last 50 years have been the warmest in 1,000 years (Thompson et al., 2000).
Meteorological records for the Tibetan Plateau show that annual temperatures increased 0.4?F (0.16?C)
per decade and winter temperatures increased 0.6?F (0.32?C) per decade from 1955 to 1996 (Liu and
Chen, 2000).
Reference: Thompson, L.G., T. Yao, E. Mosley-Thompson, M.E. Davis, K. Henderson, K., and P.-
N. Lin, 2000. A high-resolution millennial record of the South Asian Monsoon from Himalayan Ice
Cores. Science, 289: 1916-1919.
Liu, X. and B. Chen, 2000. Climatic warming in the Tibetan Plateau during recent decades.
International Journal of Climatology, 20: 1729-1742.
96. Mongolia - Warmest century of the past millennium. A 1,738-year tree-ring record from remote
alpine forests in the Tarvagatay Mountains indicates that 20th century temperatures in this region are the
warmest of the last millennium. Tree growth during 1980-1999 was the highest of any 20-year period on
record, and 8 of the 10 highest growth years occurred since 1950. The 20th century warming has been
observed in tree-ring reconstructions of temperature from widespread regions of Eurasia, including sites in
the Polar Urals, Yakutia, and the Taymir Peninsula, Russia (D?Arrigo, 2001). The average annual
temperature in Mongolia has increased by about 1.3?F (0.7?C) over the past 50 years (IPCC, 2001b).
D'Arrigo, R. et al., 2001. 1,738 years of Mongolian temperature variability inferred from a tree-
ring width chronology of Siberian Pine. Geophysical Research Letters, 28, 3: 543.
97. Southeast Europe and Middle East - Widespread heat wave, July-August 2000. Temperatures
reached as high as 111?F (43.8?C) in locations across Turkey, Greece, Romania, Italy, and Bulgaria. In
Bulgaria, 100-year records for daily maximum temperature were broken at more than 75% of the
observing stations on July 5th. For Armenia, 2000 was the hottest summer of the century. Jordan
reported the longest stretch of summer heat in its 77-year record (NCDC, 2000; WMO, 2000; WMO,
2001). Continental Europe warmed 1.4?F (0.8?C) during the past century, with the last decade being the
warmest on record (IPCC, 2001b).
NCDC, 2000. Climate-Watch, July 2000. National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC.
WMO, 2000. WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 2000, 19 December 2000.
http://www.wmo.ch/web/Press/Press657.html
WMO, 2001. Annual Bulletin on the Climate in WMO Region VI - Europe and Middle East - 2000.
www.dwd.de/research/klis/produkte
/monitoring/ra-vi-bulletin/RA6_2000_color.pdf
98. Denmark and Germany - 2001 - Warmest October on record. In Germany temperatures were as
much as 7?F (4?C) above average (WMO, 2002a). The record-breaking temperatures occurred in the
context of a warming trend of 1.4?F (0.8?C) over continental Europe during the past century (IPCC,
2001b).
Reference: WMO, 2002a. WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2001. WMO-No.
940, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
http://www.wmo.ch/web/wcp/wcdmp/statement/pdf/wmo940e.pdf
99. Central England - 2001 - Warmest October on record. Over the 20th century Central England
temperature has warmed by about 1?F (0.5?C). Four of the five warmest years in the 343-year record
occurred in the last decade (Hulme, 1999)(WMO, 2002a).
Reference: Hulme, M. 1999. Air Temperature in Central England. Indicators of Climate Change in
the UK, Department of the Environment, Transport, and the
Regions.http://www.nbu.ac.uk/iccuk/
WMO, 2002a. WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2001. WMO-No. 940, World
Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
100. Australia - 2002 - Warmest April on record . This occurred in the context of an average annual
temperature increase of 0.9-1.8?F (0.5-1.0?C) per decade over the past century. There has also been an
increase in warm days and a decrease in cold winter days (IPCC, 2001b)(Collins, 2002; Reuters 2002).
Reference: Collins, Dean, 2002. Personal communication confirming information in Reuters,
2002. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
Reuters, 2002. Australia has hottest April on record, article on May 6, 2002. Sydney, Australia.
101. Tropical Andes (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northernmost Chile) - Increase in average
annual temperature. Average annual temperature has increased by about 0.18?F (0.1?C) per decade
since 1939. The rate of warming has doubled in the last 40 years, and more than tripled in the last 25
years, to about 0.6?F (0.33?C) per decade (Vuille and Bradley, 2000).
Reference: Vuille, M. and R.S. Bradley, 2000. Mean annual temperature trends and their vertical
structure in the tropical Andes. Geophysical Research Letters, 27, 23: 3885-3888.
Spreading Disease
102. North America - Genetic adaptation to global warming in mosquito. Ecologists have identified
the first genetic adaptation to global warming in the North American mosquito Wyeomyia smithii. Modern
mosquitoes wait nine days more than their ancestors did 30 years ago before they begin their winter
dormancy, with warmer autumns being the most likely cause (Bradshaw and Holzapfel, 2001). Higher
temperatures, enhancing mosquito survival rates, population growth and biting rates, can increase the
risk of disease transmission (Gubler, et al., 2001).
Reference: Bradshaw, W.E. and C.M. Holzapfel, 2001. Genetic shift in photoperiodic response
correlated to global warming. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science
http://www.pnas.org, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.241391498 (see also:
http://www.nature.com/nsu/nsu_pf/011108/011108-6.html).
Gubler, D.J., P. Reiter, K.L. Ebi, W. Yap, R. Nasci and J.A. Patz, 2001. Climate variability and
change in the United States: Potential impacts on vector- and rodent-borne disease.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, Supplement 2: 223-233.
103. Bangladesh - Link between stronger El Ni񯠥vents and cholera prevalence. Researchers found
a robust relationship between progressively stronger El Ni񯠥vents and cholera prevalence, spanning a 70-
year period from 1893-1940 and 1980-2001 (Rodo et al. 2002). There has been a marked intensification
of the El Ni񯯓outhern Oscillation phenomenon since the 1980s, which is not fully explained by the known
shifts in the Pacific basin temperature regime that began in the mid-1970s. Findings by Rodo et al. are
consistent with model projections of El Ni񯠩ntensification under global warming conditions. The authors
make a strong case for the climate-health link by providing evidence for biological sensitivity to climate,
meteorological evidence of climate change, and evidence of epidemiological change with global warming.
The study likely represents the first piece of evidence that warming trends over the last century are
affecting human disease (Patz, 2002).
Reference: Rodo, X., M. Pascual, G. Fuchs, and A.S.G. Faruque, 2002. ENSO and cholera: A
nonstationary link related to climate change? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
99, 20: 12901-12906.
Patz, J.A., 2002. A human disease indicator for the effects of recent global climate change.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 20: 12506-12508.
Earlier spring arrival
104. Tornionjoki River, Finland - Earlier ice break-up. Spring ice breakup now comes about 7 days
earlier compared to a century ago. Thirty-eight of 39 records of ice cover from throughout the Northern
Hemisphere show a trend toward earlier spring ice breakup and later winter freezing between 1846 and
1995 (Magnuson et al., 2000). This shift corresponds with surface air temperature measurements showing
the largest rates of warming since 1976 over the mid- and high latitude continental regions of the
Northern Hemisphere (IPCC, 2001a).
Reference: Magnuson, J. et al., 2000. Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the Northern
Hemisphere. Science, 289: 1743-1746.
IPCC, 2001a. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Working Group I, J.T. Houghton et al., eds. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
105. Lake Baikal, Russia - Shorter freezing period. Winter freezing is about 11 days later and spring
ice breakup is about 5 days earlier compared to a century ago (Magnuson et al., 2000). Some regions of
Siberia have warmed by as much as 2.5?F (more than 1.4?C) in just 25 years (IPCC, 2001a).
Reference: Magnuson, J. et al., 2000. Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the Northern
Hemisphere. Science, 289: 1743-1746.
IPCC, 2001a. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Working Group I, J.T. Houghton et al., eds. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
106. The Netherlands - Earlier flight peak of moths. Between 1975 and 1996 the flight peak of small
moths shifted to a date 11.6 days earlier (Ellis et al., 1997). Warmer temperatures promote the earlier
appearance of insects and earlier peak flight times.
Reference: Ellis W.N., J.H. Donner and J.H, Kuchlein, 1997. Recent shifts in phenology of
Microlepidoprera, related to climatic change (Lepidoptera). Entomologische Berricten
(Amsterdam) 57: 66-72.
107. Hungary - Earlier flowering dates. Flowering dates of the locust tree occurred 3-8 days earlier
during the period 1983-1994 compared to 1851-1930. The study indicates that a rise in temperature of
1.8?F (1?C) causes an advanced flowering by 7 days (Walkovsky, 1998).
Reference: Walkovsky, A., 1998. Changes in phenology of the locust tree (Robnia pseudoacacia
L.) in Hungary. Int. J. Biometerology, 41: 155-160.
108. Europe - Change in timing of spring and autumn events. A study of European plants from 1959
to 1993 shows that spring events (such as flowering) have advanced by about 6 days and autumn events
(such as leaf coloring) have been delayed by about 5 days (Menzel and Fabian, 1999). The plant response
occurred during a period of a warming. Annual average temperature over continental Europe has
increased 1.4?F (0.8?C)over the past century (IPCC, 2001b).
Reference: Menzel, A. and P. Fabian, 1999. Growing season extended in Europe, Nature, 397:
659.
109. Colorado - Earlier emergence from hibernation. Marmots are emerging from hibernation on
average 23 days earlier than 23 years ago. This coincides with an increase in average May temperatures
of about 1.8?F (1?C) over the same time period (Inouye et al., 2000).
Reference: Inouye, D.W. et al., 2000. Climate change is affecting altitudinal migrants and
hibernating species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97, 4: 1630-1633.
110. Southeast Arizona - Earlier egg-laying. Mexican jays are laying eggs 10 days earlier than in
1971. The earlier breeding coincides with a nearly 5?F (2.8?C) increase in average nighttime temperatures
from 1971 to 1998 (Brown et al., 1999).
Reference: Brown, J.L., S. Li, and N. Bhagabati, 1999. Long-term trend toward earlier breeding in
an American bird: a response to global warming? Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 96: 5565-5569.
111. Europe - Earlier growing season. A study of the timing of leaf unfolding for four tree species
shows that from 1969 to 1998 the beginning of the growing season has advanced by 8 days. The earlier
leaf unfolding corresponds with increasing early spring temperatures over the last 30 years. The greatest
warming occurred in Portugal, where average air temperatures in early spring (February to March)
increased by nearly 1.1?F (0.6?C) per decade, and the beginning of the growing season has advanced by
about 14 days since 1969 (Chmielewski and R?r, 2001).
Reference: Chmielewski, F.-M. and T. R?r, 2001. Response of tree phenology to climate change
across Europe. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 108: 101-112.
112. Turku, Finland - Longer growing season. The growing season has lengthened by over 10 days
over the last century. Throughout the Nordic region the start of the growing season has become
progressively earlier by between 4 and 12 days (Carter, 1998).
Reference: Carter, T., 1998: Changes in the thermal growing season in Nordic countries during
the past century and prospects for the future. Agricultural and Food Science in Finland, 7: 161-
179.
113. England - Earlier first flowering date. One of the most comprehensive studies of plant species in
Britain revealed that the average first flowering date of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5
days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades: 16% of species flowered
significantly earlier in the 1990s than previously, with an average advancement of 15 days in a decade.
These data reveal the strongest biological signal yet of climatic change. Flowering is especially sensitive to
the temperature in the previous month, and spring-flowering species are most responsive (Fitter and
Fitter, 2002).
Reference: Fitter, A.H. and R.S.R. Fitter, 2002. Rapid Changes in Flowering Time in British Plants.
Science, 296: 1689-1691.
Plant and animal range shifts and population changes
114. Alaska - Changing vegetation patterns. Comparison of photographs taken in 1948-50 to those
taken in 1999-2000 of the area between the Brooks Range and the Arctic coast show an increase in shrub
abundance in tundra areas, and an increase in the extent and density of spruce forest along the treeline
(Sturm et al., 2001). The increased vegetation growth is attributed to increasing air temperatures in
Alaska, on average 1.8?F (1?C) per decade over the last three decades (Alaska Regional Assessment
Group, 1999).
Reference: Alaska Regional Assessment Group, 1999. Preparing for a changing climate; The
potential consequences of climate variability and change: Alaska. Center for Global Change and
Arctic System Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK.
Sturm, M., C. Racine and K. Tape, 2001. Increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. Nature, 411:
546-547.
115. Western Hudson Bay, Canada - Stressed Polar Bears. Decreased weight in adult polar bears
and a decline in birthrate since the early 1980s has been attributed to the earlier spring breakup of sea
ice. Rising spring temperatures have shortened the spring hunting season by two weeks over the last two
decades (Stirling et al., 1999).
Reference: Stirling, I. et al., 1999. Long term trends in the population ecology of polar bears in
Western Hudson Bay in relation to climatic change, Arctic 53, 3: 292-306.
116. Banks Island, Canada - Expanded Ranges. The Inuit now regularly see species common much
further south that previously were never seen on the island, such as robins and barn swallows. Thunder
and lightning, never before recorded in Inuit oral history, have also been reported (Ashford and Castleden,
2001).
Reference: Ashford, G. and J. Castleden, 2001. Inuit Observations on Climate Change - Final
Report. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
http://www.iisd.org/publications/publication.asp?pno=410
117. Argentine Islands - Antarctic flowering plants changes. The populations of two native
Antarctic flowering plants increased rapidly between 1964 and 1990, coincident with the strong regional
warming over the Antarctic Peninsula. The Antarctic pearlwort population increased 5-fold while the
Antarctic hairgrass increased 25-fold. The unusually rapid increases are attributed to warmer summer
temperatures and/or a longer growing season, which enhance the plant?s ability to reproduce (Fowbert
and Smith, 1994).
Reference: Fowbert, J.A. and R.I.L. Smith, 1994. Rapid population increases in native vascular
plants in the Argentine Islands, Antarctic Peninsula. Arctic and Alpine Research, 26, 3: 290-296.
118. United Kingdom - Birds extend their northern ranges . A comparison of the breeding
distributions of birds for two time periods, 1968-72 and 1988-91, showed that the northern margins for
many species had moved northwards by an average of about 12 miles (19 km) (Thomas and Lennon,
1999). The range shift occurred during a period when central England?s temperature warmed by about
0.9?F (0.5?C) over the last century, and the 10-year period 1988-1997 was the warmest such period in
the record (Hulme, 1999).
Reference: Thomas, C.D. and Lennon, J.J., 1999. Birds extend their ranges northwards. Nature,
399: 213.
Hulme, M. 1999. Air Temperature in Central England. Indicators of Climate Change in the UK,
Department of the Environment, Transport, and the Regions. http://www.nbu.ac.uk/iccuk/
Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding
119. Chokoria Sundarbans, Bangladesh - Flooded mangroves. Rising ocean levels have flooded
about 18,500 acres (7,500 hectares) of mangrove forest during the past three decades (Huq et al., 1999).
Global sea-level rise is aggravated by substantial deltaic subsidence in the area with rates as high as 5.5
mm/year (Huq et al., 1995).
Reference: Huq, Z., et al. (eds.), 1999. Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change for
Bangladesh. Kluwer Academic Publisher, The Netherlands.
Huq, S., S.I. Ali, and A.A. Rahman, 1995. The implications of sea-level rise and Bangladesh: A
preliminary analysis. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 14: 44-53.
120. China - Rising waters and temperature. The average rate of sea-level rise was 0.09 +/- 0.04
inches/yr (2.3 +/- 0.9 mm/yr) over the last 30 years. Global sea-level rise was aggravated locally by
subsidence of up to 2 inches/year (5 cm/year) for some regions due to earthquakes and groundwater
withdrawal. Also, ocean temperatures off the China coast have risen in the last 100 years, especially since
the 1960s (Han, Hou and Wu, 1995).
Reference: Han, M., H. Jianjun and L. Wu. 1995. Potential impacts of SLR on China's coastal
environment and cities: A national assessment. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 14:
79-95.
121. World Ocean - Worldwide ocean warming. The world ocean has experienced a net warming of
0.11?F (0.06?C) from the sea surface to a depth of 10,000 feet (3000 m) over the past 35-45 years. More
than half of the increase in heat content has occurred in the upper 1000 feet (300 m), which has warmed
by 0.56?F (0.31?C). Warming is occurring in all ocean basins and at much deeper depths than previously
thought (Levitus et al., 2000). These findings lend support to the hypothesis that the oceans are taking up
excess heat as the atmosphere warms, and would account for the apparent discrepancy in the magnitude
of the observed atmospheric warming as compared to climate model predictions.
Reference: Levitus, J., I. Antonov, T.P. Boyer, and C. Stephens, 2000. Warming of the World
Ocean. Science, 287: 2225-2229.
122. Southern Ocean - Strong warming trend. Measurements from data recorders in the Southern
Ocean waters around Antarctica show a 0.3?F (0.17?C) rise in ocean temperatures between the 1950s and
the 1980s (Gille, 2002).
Reference: Gille, S.T., 2002. Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science, 295:
1275-1277.
123. New Zealand - Ocean warming. The oceans around New Zealand have been warming over the
past decade at a rate not seen since the 1930s. Over the last century the average ocean temperatures
around New Zealand increased by about 1.8?F (1?C), slightly more than the global average. Despite 20
years of cooling from the 1970s through the early 1990s - due to longer and stronger El Ni񯠥vents
affecting the regional ocean temperatures - New Zealand?s ocean temperature increase over the 20th
century is consistent with the global average upward trend. Sea level along the country?s shoreline has
been rising accordingly by an average of 0.04-0.08 inches/year (1-2 mm/year) (NIWA, 2002).
Reference: NIWA, 2002. New Zealand?s oceans are hotting up. Media Release, 18 April, 2002.
National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research. Auckland, New Zealand.
Coral reef bleaching
124. Fiji - Coral reef bleaching, 2000. A new wave of coral bleaching events has been observed during
the southern summer in Fiji and on many other South Pacific atolls (WWF South Pacific Programme,
2000). Satellite measurements by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association documented
unusually high temperatures across much of the Pacific (NOAA- ORA/OSDPD Coral Reef Team, 2000). The
1990s has seen several major bleaching events. Repeated and prolonged bleaching episodes - expected as
tropical water temperatures warm with climate change - eventually kill corals and cause a decline in
associated marine species.
Reference: WWF South Pacific Programme, 2000. Pacific Reefs Hit by Coral Bleaching. Climate
Ark. http://www.climateark.org/articles/2000/2nd/paccreez.htm.
NOAA-ORA/OSDPD Coral Reef Team, 2000. Experimental Coral Bleaching HotSpots for the year
2000. http://www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/EPS/SST/climohot_2000.html.
125. Galapagos, Ecuador - Coral reef bleaching, March/April 2002. Sea-surface temperatures rose
above 81?F (27.5?C) several times, causing repeated coral bleaching events (NOAA-NESDIS, 2002).
Repeated and prolonged bleaching episodes - expected as tropical water temperatures warm with climate
change - eventually kill corals and cause a decline in associated marine species.
Reference: NOAA-NESDIS, 2002. Sea surface temperature (SST) time series. National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service.
http://orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/orad/sub/sst_series_24reefs.html
Glaciers melting
126. Bhutan - Melting glaciers; swelling lakes . As Himalayan glaciers melt glacial lakes are swelling
and in danger of catastrophic flooding. Average glacial retreat in Bhutan is 100-130 ft. (30-40 m) per year
(ICIMOD, 2002). Temperatures in the high Himalayas have risen 1.8?F (1?C) since the mid 1970s
(Shrestha et al., 1999).
Reference: ICIMOD, 2002. Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods,
Monitoring and Early Warning Systems in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region - Bhutan,
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and United Nations
Environment Programme. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/issues/glof/.
Shrestha, A.B., C.P. Wake, P.A. Mayewski, J.E. Dibb, 1999. Maximum temperature trends in the
Himalaya and its vicinity: An analysis based on temperature records from Nepal for the period
1971-94. Journal of Climate, 12: 2775-2787.
127. India - Himalayan glaciers retreating. Glaciers in the Himalayas are retreating at an average
rate of 50 ft. (15 m) per year (Geological Survey of India, 1999), consistent with the rapid warming
recorded at Himalayan climate stations since the 1970s. Winter stream flow for the Baspa glacier basin
has increased 75% since 1966 and local winter temperatures have warmed, suggesting increased glacier
melting in winter (Kulkarini et al., 2002).
Reference: Geological Survey of India, 1999. Inventory of the Himalayan Glaciers: A Contribution
to the International Hydrological Programme, Special Publication No. 34, edited by M.K. Kaul.
Kulkarini, A.V., P. Mathur, B.P. Rathore, S. Alex, N. Thakur, M. Kumar, 2002. Effect of global
warming on snow ablation pattern in the Himalaya. Current Science, 83, 2: 120-123.
128. Argentina - Receding glaciers. Glaciers in Patagonia have receded by an average of almost a mile
(1.5 km) over the last 13 years (Wessels et al., 2001; Painter, 2001). There has been an increase in
maximum, minimum, and average daily temperatures of more than 1.8?F (1?C) over the past century in
southern Patagonia, east of the Andes (IPCC, 1998).
Reference: Wessels, R., J.S. Kargel, and H.H. Kieffer, 2001. GLIMS: Documenting the demise of
the Earth's glaciers using ASTER. Eos Trans. AGU, Spring Meet. Suppl., Abstract 31A-03.
Painter, D., 2001. Melting glaciers signal global warming. Arizona State University News Release,
May 29, 2001. http://clasdean.la.asu.edu/news/glacier.htm
129. Heard Island (Australia) - Rising temperatures; retreating glaciers. Since 1947 the island's
34 glaciers have decreased by 11 percent in area and 12 percent in volume, with half the loss occurring in
the 1980s. Air temperature has risen 1.3? F (0.7?C) between 1947 and 2001 (Pockely, 2001; Reuters,
2001a).
Reference: Pockely, P., 2001. Climate change transforms island ecosystem. Nature, 410: 616.
Reuters, 2001a. Global warming melts Australia's glaciers. Article by Michael Perry, May 31,
2001, Sydney, Australia.
130. Mt. Everest - Retreating glacier The Khumbu glacier, popular climbing route to the summit of Mt.
Everest, has retreated over 3 miles (5 km) since 1953 (UNEP, 2002). The Himalayan region overall has
warmed by about 1.8?F (1?C) since the 1970s (Shrestha et al., 1999).
Reference: Shrestha, A.B., C.P. Wake, P.A. Mayewski, J.E. Dibb, 1999. Maximum temperature
trends in the Himalaya and its vicinity: An analysis based on temperature records from Nepal for
the period 1971-94. Journal of Climate, 12: 2775-2787.
UNEP, 2002. Impact of global warming on mountain areas confirmed by UNEP-backed
mountaineers. GRID-Arendel News, United Nationas Environmental Program. June 5, 2002.
http://www.grida.no/inf/news/news02/news41.htm
131. Kyrgyzstan - Disappearing glaciers. During 1959-1988, 1081 glaciers in the Pamir-Altai
disappeared. Temperatures in the mountains of Kyrgyztan have increased by 0.9-2.7? F (0.5-1.5?C) since
the 1950s (UNEP, 2000).
Reference: UNEP, 2000. State of the Environment of the Aral Sea Basin, Regional Report of the
Central Asian States? 2000.
http://www.grida.no/aral/aralsea/english/climat/climats.htm
132. Venezuela - Disappearing glaciers. Of six glaciers in the Venezuelan Andes in 1972, only 2
remain, and scientists predict that these will be gone within the next 10 years (OSU, 2001). Glaciers in
the mountains of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru show similar rapid rates of retreat (Schubert, 1999).
Temperature records in other regions of the Andes show a significant warming of about 0.6? F (0.33?C)
per decade since the mid-1970s (Vuille and Bradley, 2000).
Reference: OSU, 2001. Ice caps in Africa, tropical South America likely to disappear within 15
years. Ohio State University press release.
http://www.acs.ohio-state.edu/units/research/archive/glacgone.htm
Schubert, C., 1999. Glaciers of South America - Glaciers of Venezuela. In: Satellite Image Atlas
of Glaciers of The World, R.S. Williams, Jr., and J.G. Ferrigno, eds., U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 1386-I-1, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Vuille, M. and R.S. Bradley, 2000. Mean annual temperature trends and their vertical structure in
the tropical Andes. Geophysical Research Letters, 27, 23: 3885-3888.
133. Mount Kilmanjaro, Tanzania - Ice projected to disappear by 2020. 82% of Kilimanjaro?s ice
has disappeared since 1912, with about one-third melting in just the last dozen years. At this rate, all of
the ice will be gone in about 15 years (OSU, 2001). Scientists hypothesize that less snow on the mountain
during the rainy season decreases the surface reflectiveness, leading to higher rates of absorption of heat
and increased ice melt (Hardy, 2002).
Reference: OSU, 2001. Ice caps in Africa, tropical South America likely to disappear within 15
years. Ohio State University press release. http://www.acs.ohio-
state.edu/units/research/archive/glacgone.htm
Hardy, D., 2002. Kilimanjaro Climate & Glaciers.
http://www.geo.umass.edu/climate/kibo.html
134. Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda - Disappearing glaciers. Since the 1990s, glacier area has
decreased by about 75% (Kaser, 1999). The continent of Africa warmed by 0.9? F (0.5?C) during the past
century, and the five warmest years in Africa have all occurred since 1988 (IPCC, 2001b).
Reference: Kaser, G., 1999. A review of modern fluctuations of tropical glaciers. Global and
Planetary Change, 22: 93-103.
135. Canadian Rockies - Disappearing glaciers. The Athabasca Glacier has retreated one-third of a
mile (0.5 km) in the last 60 years and has thinned dramatically since the 1950s-60s (State of the
Canadian Cryosphere, 2002). In British Columbia the Wedgemont Glacier has retreated hundreds of
meters since 1979, as the climate has warmed at a rate of 2?F (1.1?C) per century, twice the global
average (BC Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection, 2002).
Reference: State of the Canadian Cryosphere, 2002. Past variability of Canadian glaciers.
University of Waterloo.
http://www.socc.uwaterloo.ca/glaciers/glaciers_hist_e.cfm.
BC Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection, 2002. Indicators of climate change for British
Columbia 2002. Victoria, BC.
136. Alaska - Increasing rate of retreat. A study of 67 glaciers shows that between the mid-1950s
and mid-1990s the glaciers thinned by an average of about 1.6 feet (0.5 m) per year. Repeat
measurements on 28 of those glaciers show that from the mid-1990s to 2000-2001 the rate of thinning
had increased to nearly 6 feet (1.8 m) per year (Arendt et al., 2002). Alaska has experienced a rapid
warming since the 1960s. Annual average temperatures have warmed up to 1.8?F (1?C) per decade over
the last three decades, and winter warming has been as high as 3?F (2?C) per decade (Alaska Regional
Assessment Group, 1999).
Reference: Arendt, A.A., K. A. Echelmeyer, W. D. Harrison, C. S. Lingle, V. B. Valentine, 2002.
Rapid wastage of Alaska glaciers and their contribution to rising sea level. Science, 297: 382-386
Alaska Regional Assessment Group, 1999. Preparing for a changing climate; The potential
consequences of climate variability and change: Alaska. Center for Global Change and Arctic
System Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK.
137. Greenland - Rapid thinning of ice sheet. Rapid thinning of the Greenland ice sheet in coastal
areas, especially of outlet glaciers, has been measured in two studies during the 1990s (Krabill et al.,
2000). The coastal land ice loss is attributed to a combination of warming-driven factors, including
increased melting during warmer summers, high snow accumulation rates feeding the outlet glaciers, and
increased rates of melting at the bottom of glaciers due to ocean warming (Rignot and Thomas, 2002).
Reference: Krabill, W., W. Abdalati, E. Frederick, S. Manizade, C. Martin, J. Sonntag, R. Swift, R.
Thomas, W. Wright, and J. Yungel, 2000. Greenland Ice Sheet: High-Elevation Balance and
Peripheral Thinning. Science, 289: 428-430.
Rignot, Eric and Robert H. Thomas, 2002. Mass balance of polar ice sheets. Science, 297: 1502-
1506.
Arctic and Antarctic warming
138. Arctic Ocean - Decreasing ice thickness. Ice thickness at 29 stations, as measured by submarine
sonar, decreased by an average of more than 4 feet (1.2 m) compared to 20 to 40 years ago,
representing a 40% reduction in ice volume (Rothrock et al., 1999). From 1966 to 1995, annual
temperatures in the Arctic increased by as much as 1.8?F (1?C) per decade, and spring temperatures
increased by as much as 3.6?F (2?C) per decade (Serreze et al., 2000). Temperature reconstructions from
tree rings, ice cores, and other long-term records indicate that the 20th century was the warmest century
in the Arctic since 1600 (Overpeck et al., 1997).
Reference: Rothrock, D.A., Y. Yu, and G.A. Mayhut, 1999. Thinning of the Arctic sea-ice cover.
Geophysical Research Letters 26, 23: 3469-3472.
Serreze, M.C., J.E. Walsh, F.S. Chapin III, T. Osterkamp, M. Dyurgerov, V. Romanovsky, W.C.
Oechel, J. Morison, T. Zhang and R.G. Barry, 2000. Observational evidence of recent change in
the northern high-latitude environment. Climatic Change, 46: 159-207.
Overpeck, J., K. Hughen, D. Hardy, R. Bradley, R. Case, M. Douglas, B. Finney, K. Gajewski, G.
Jacoby, A. Jennings, S. Lamoureux, A. Lasca, G. MacDonald, J. Moore, M. Retelle, S. Smith,
A.Wolfe and G. Zielinski, 1997. Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries. Science,
278: 1251-1256.
139. Arctic Ocean - Decreasing ice cover. Satellite measurements indicate the area of perennial ice
cover has decreased by about 7% per decade since 1978 (Johannessen et al., 1999).
Reference: Johannessen, O.M., E.V. Shalina, and M.W. Miles, 1999. Satellite evidence for an
Arctic sea ice cover in transformation. Science, 286: 1937-1939.
140. Antarctica - Decreasing ice thickness. The permanent ice cover of nine lakes on Signey Island
has decreased by about 45% since the 1950s. Average summer air temperature has warmed by 1.8?F (1?
C) (Quayle et al., 2002).
Reference: W.C. Quayle, L.S. Peck, H. Peat, J.C. Ellis-Evans, P.R. Harrigan, 2002. Extreme
responses to climate change in Antarctic lakes. Science, 295: 645.
141. Antarctic Peninsula - Collapsing ice shelf, January-February 2002. The northern section of
the Larsen B ice shelf, an area of 1,250 square miles (3,250 km2), disintegrated in a period of 35 days.
This was the largest collapse event of the last 30 years, bringing the total loss of ice extent from seven ice
shelves to 6,760 square miles (17,500 km2) since 1974. The ice retreat is attributed to the region?s strong
warming trend - 4.5?F (2.5?C) in the last 50 years (NSIDC, 2002).
Reference: NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center), 2002. Antarctic Ice Shelf Collapses.
March 18, 2002. http://www.nsidc.org/iceshelves/larsenb2002/index.html
142. Siberia - Melting permafrost. Large expanses of tundra permafrost are melting. In some regions
the rate of thawing of the upper ground is nearly 8 inches (20 cm) per year. Thawing permafrost has
already damaged 300 buildings in the cities of Norilsk and Yakutsk (Goldman, 2002). In Yakutsk, the
average temperature of the permanently frozen ground has warmed by 2.7 ?F (1.5?C) during the past 30
years (Romanovsky, 2000; Rozell, 2001).
Reference: Rozell, N., 2001. Alaska and Siberia Permafrost Thawing Together. Alaska Science
Forum, Article #1523, January 3, 2001.
http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF15/1523.html
Romanovsky, V.E., T.E. Osterkamp, T.S. Sazonova, N.I. Shender, V.T. Balobaev, 2000. Past and
future changes in permafrost temperatures along the East Siberian Transect and an Alaskan
Transect, Eos Trans. AGU, 81, 48, Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract B71F-09.
Goldman, E., 2002. Even in the High Arctic, nothing is permanent. Science, 297: 1493-1494.
Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding
143. Pampas region, Argentina/Uruguay - Worst flooding on record, August to October 2001.
Nearly 8 million acres (3.2 million hectares) of land in the Pampas region were flooded after 3 months of
high rainfall (WMO, 2002a). Mean annual precipiation in the humid Pampa increased by 35% in the last
half of the 20th century (IPCC, 1998).
Reference: WMO, 2002a. WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2001. WMO-No.
940, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
144. Southeastern Norway - Wettest year on record, 2000. The year 2000 was the wettest year
since records began in 1895 (WMO, 2001). Precipitation in northern Europe has increased 10-40% in the
last century (IPCC, 2001b).
Reference: WMO, 2001. Annual Bulletin on the Climate in WMO Region VI - Europe and Middle
East - 2000.
http://www.dwd.de/research/klis/produkte/monitoring/
ra-vi-bulletin/RA6_2000_color.pdf
145. Buenos Aires, Argentina - Heaviest rains in 100 years, May 2000. 13.5 inches (342 mm) of
rain, more than 4 times the average monthly rainfall, fell in just 5 days (NOAA Office of Global Programs,
2000). Northeastern Argentina is exhibiting a long-term trend of increasing precipitation (IPCC, 2001b).
Reference: NOAA-Office of Global Programs, 2000. Climate Information Project, NOAA Office of
Global Programs. http://www.cip.ogp.noaa.gov/
146. Venezuela - Heaviest rainfall in 100 years, December 1999 The heaviest rainfall in 100 years
caused massive landslides and flooding that killed approximately 30,000 people. Total December rainfall in
Maiquetia, near Caracas, was almost 4 feet (1.2 m), more than 5 times the previous December record.
The high death toll was attributed to population growth in vulnerable areas and forest clearing on steep
hill slopes (Wieczorek et al., 2001; USGS, 2000).
Reference: Wieczorek, G.F., M.C. Larsen, L.S. Eaton, B.A. Morgan, and J.L. Blair, 2001. Debris-
flow and flooding hazards associated with the December 1999 storm in coastal Venezuela and
strategies for mitigation. USGS Open-File Report 01-0144.
USGS, 2000. Preliminary observations: Flash-flood and landslide disaster of December, 1999,
north coast of Venezuela. http://pr.water.usgs.gov/public/venezuela/
Droughts and fires
147. Iran - Desiccated wetlands, 2001 Ninety percent of wetlands have dried up after 2 years of
extreme drought (WMO, 2002b). Much of South West Asia has experienced a prolonged three-year
drought that is unusual in its magnitude. Out of 102 years of record, 1999, 2000, and 2001 rank as the
fifth, third, and seventh driest on record. 1999-2000 was the driest winter on record (NCDC, 2002b).
January 2002, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
http://www.wmo.ch/web/catalogue/New%20HTML/frame/engfil/wcn/wcn20.pdf
NCDC, 2002b. Southwest Asia Eastern Mountains Drought - December 2001. National Climatic
Data Center, Asheville, NC.
148. Pakistan - Longest drought on record, 1999-2001. The prolonged three-year drought, which
covers much of South West Asia, has affected 2.2 million people and 16 million livestock in Pakistan
(WMO, 2002b).
January 2002, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
http://www.wmo.ch/web/catalogue/
New%20HTML/frame/engfil/wcn/wcn20.pdf
149. Tajikistan - Lowest rainfall in 75 years, 2001. 2001 marked the third consecutive year of
drought, which has destroyed half the wheat crop (UN, 2000; UN, 2001).
Reference: UN, 2000. Warning of famine in Tajikistan, UN appeals for some $77 million for
drought aid. September 19, 2000. United Nations.
UN, 2001. Millions of people in East Asia hit by heavy monsoon rains as Central Asia is gripped by
drought; Near East reels fro
150. Korea - Worst drought in 100 years of record . It coincided with an average annual temperature
increase in Asia?s temperate region, which includes Korea, by more than 1.8?F (1?C) over the past
century. The warming has been most pronounced since 1970 (IPCC, 1998)(AFP, 2001; NCDC, 2001; CNN,
2001).
Reference: AFP, 2001. Worst drought in a century hits Korean Peninsula. Agence France-Presse
(AFP), June 10, 2001.
CNN, 2001. South Korea drafts troops to fight 100-year drought . June 12, 2001.
http://asia.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf
/east/06/12/skorea.drought.01/
NCDC, 2001. Climate of 2001 - June Global Regional Analysis, July 13, 2001. National Climatic
Data Center, Asheville, NC.
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research
/2001/jun/global_regional.html#Asia
151. Kenya - Worst drought in 60 years, 2001. Over four million people were affected by a severely
reduced harvest, weakened livestock, and poor sanitary conditions (USAID, 2001).
Reference: USAID, 2001. Kenya - Drought Information Bulletin #1 (FY 2001) June 19, 2001
http://www.usaid.gov/hum_response/ofda/kenyadrought_ib1_fy01.html
152. Samos Island, Greece - Fires, July 2000 Fires due to dry conditions and record-breaking heat
consumed one-fifth of the island. Temperatures reached up to 104?F (40?C) in some areas (WMO, 2000).
Averaged over the continent, Europe has warmed 1.4?F (0.8?C) during the past century (IPCC, 2001b).
Reference: WMO, 2000. WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 2000, 19
December 2000. http://www.wmo.ch/web/Press/Press657.html
153. Argentina - Fire outbreak. 3.7 million acres (1.5 million hectares) burned in La Pampa province,
sustained by record temperatures and persistent drought (NOAA-Office of Global Programs, 2001). Annual
average temperature in Argentina has increased by nearly 1.8?F (1?C) over the last century (Hulme and
Sheard, 1999).
Reference: NOAA-Office of Global Programs, 2001. Climate Information Project, NOAA Office of
Global Programs. http://www.cip.ogp.noaa.gov/
Hulme, M. and N Sheard, 1999. Climate Change Scenarios for Argentina. Climatic Research Unit,
Norwich, UK. http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~mikeh/research/wwf.argent.pdf
154. Lake Chad - Disappearing Lake. The surface area of the lake has decreased from 9,650 square
miles (25,000 km2) in 1963 to 521 (1,350 km2) today. Modeling studies indicate the severe reduction
results from a combination of reduced rainfall and increased demand for water for agricultural irrigation
and other human needs (Coe and Foley, 2001).
Reference: Coe, M.T. and J.A. Foley, 2001. Human and natural impacts on the water resources of
the Lake Chad basin, Journal of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres),106, D4: 3349-3356.
155. China - Disappearing Lakes, 2001. More than half of the 4,000 lakes in the Qinghai province are
disappearing due to drought. The severity of the impact is exacerbated by overpumping of aquifers
(Reuters, 2001b). Annual average temperature in China has increased during the past century, with
pronounced warming since 1980 (NCDC, 1999). Most of the warming has been in northern areas,
including Qinghai Province, and in the winter.
Reference: Reuters, 2001b. Water sources for China Yellow River dry up- Xinhua. October 10,
2001, Reuters New Service, Beijing, China.
http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/12711/story.htm
NCDC, 1999. Area averaged temperature time series for China, India, and the United States.
National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC.
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/doe/doe.html
156. South Africa - Burning shores, January 2000. One of the driest Decembers on record and
temperatures over 104?F (40?C) fueled extensive fires along the coast in the Western Cape Province. The
intensity of the fires was exacerbated by the presence of invasive vegetation species, some of which give
off 300% more heat when burned compared to natural vegetation (IFFN, 2000).
Reference: IFFN, 2000. Fires in the Southern Cape Peninsula, Western Cape Province, South
Africa January 2000. IFFN, 22, April: 69-75.

References: Heat Waves and Periods of Unusually Warm Weather

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References

Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather

Plant and animal range shifts and population changes

Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding

Coral reef bleaching

46. Pacific Ocean, Mexico -- Coral reef bleaching.

Arctic and Antarctic warming

Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding

Droughts and fires

New Points (2003)

Plant and animal range shifts and population changes

Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding

Coral reef bleaching

Arctic and Antarctic warming

Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding

Droughts and fires

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