Holly Santa Ana

Geology 365
Oceanography Research Paper – Ocean Sediments

The term sediment is defined as a material composed of particles which have settled to
the bottom of a liquid (for our purposes, ocean water). These particles are classified according to
the processes which determine their individual physical and chemical composition, which
includes the chemistry/mineralogy, which reflects the origin of the sediment, and grain size,
which reflects the method of transportation (McDuff). The source of the sediment in question is
quite important, and can come from preexisting rocks on the continents, precipitates which
formed in solution, a product of biological processes, or even from outer space.

Sediment derived from weathering or rocks on land is known as terrigenous (or

lithogenous), and can result from freeze-thaw processes or tidal action as well as weathering and
erosion. This type of sediment tends to settle on the continental shelf, where it then moves on to
the continental slope, or even makes it all the way to the abyssal plain. Some other small
contributions may be weathering at ridge crests or other recent volcanic features, as well as
heated seawater reacting with basalt (Seibold). Sediment tends to build up on the continental
margins, much more so regarding passive margins. For example, the Atlantic Ocean has very
thick sediment wedges (some greater than 10 kilometers) as well as a large proportion of slope
and rise areas (Seibold). This is due in part to the sediment supply, and also to the “trailing
edge” feature which indicates a passive margin.

From the continental margins sediment then travels to the continental shelf, which is
composed almost entirely of deposited sediment. Each continental shelf reflects the features of
the area, such as the presence of coral reefs in areas of low latitude and sea ice in areas of high
latitude, as well as the changes in sea level over time. During periods of glaciation, the growth
of ice leads to the exposure of the continental shelves. When the glaciers retreat as the Earth
warms again, the moving glaciers deposit massive amounts of trapped sediment which then gets
carried out onto the continental shelves. Deposition finally ceases around the shelf break, the
area between the continental shelf and slope where the gradient increases rapidly (Seibold).

Hydrogenous sediments are formed by chemical precipitation of the components which

are dissolved in solution. Marine evaporates are salt crystals which form when seawater
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evaporates, which include minerals such as halite, gypsum and calcite (“Marine Sediments”). A
famous ancient example of this occurring on a large scale is the drying up of the Mediterranean
Sea during the Miocene period. Some modern examples include Ojo de Liebre in Baja
California, Mexico and Bocana de Virrila located in Peru. Phosphorites are another type of
hydrogenous sediments, which is basically any mineral deposit consisting primarily of phosphate
and calcium. These phosphorite deposits can occur due to algae which extract available
phosphorous from seawater, or during decomposition of organic debris around the seafloor. The
phosphatic mineral apatite is often precipitated inside interstitial spaces by replacing the
carbonate minerals (Seibold).

Possibly one of the most valuable hydrogenous sediments are manganese nodules, also
called polymetallic nodules due to their composition of iron, nickel, copper, cobalt and other
trace elements in addition to manganese. These nodules form as rock concretions on the sea
floor over a very long period of time (several million years), most likely occurring from the
precipitation of metal content in the seawater. Most nodules tend to be between 5 and 10
centimeters, and they are spread far and wide over the Pacific Ocean, though concentrated more
in the broad, flat plains, as well as in the Indian Ocean. One last hydrogenous sediment type are
the ones formed from iron compounds. These include metal sulfide deposits occurring at mid-
ocean ridges, pyrite precipitation on continental slopes, as well as oxidized iron in the form of
goethite (also associated with manganese deposits) (Seibold). Hydrogenous deposits are
generally rare and make up a small percentage of total sediment in the ocean.

One of the most common types of sediment, especially in the deep ocean, is known as
biogenous sediment. Biogenous sediments are formed by the action of a living organism, such
as algae and invertebrates living near the seafloor. When these biological parts such as shells,
tests, etc. are accumulated to such an extent that they cover 30% of the ocean floor, these
sediments are then referred to as “ooze”, which dominates about 62% of the deep ocean
(“Marine Sediments”). Oozes consist of inorganic debris from dead organisms, and there are
generally two different types: Calcareous and Silicious.

Calcareous oozes are composed of calcium carbonate, chemical formula of (CaCO ). The
primary animal composed ooze comes from the foraminifera, a protozoan organism whose
mineral form is calcite. The dominant plant-based calcareous ooze is called the coccolith, which
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comes from the algae coccolithophoridae. Its’ mineral form is also calcite. Another plant-
derived ooze is known as pteropod ooze, which comes from a planktonic mollusk whose mineral
form is aragonite (a polymorph of calcite) (McDuff). Calcareous ooze is found mostly on the
ocean ridges and plateaus and tends to be present in colder, deeper water where there are
increased amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) which combine with water to form carbonic acid, a
chemical which dissolves the calcium carbonate that makes up the hard parts of the organism. A
written reaction for this process would be:
CaCO3(S) + H2O(L) + CO2 (G)  Ca2+ (AQ) + 2HCO3-(AQ) (“Marine Sediments”)

The other type of deep sea ooze is classified as silicious due to its SiO content. The
primary silicious plant ooze comes from a variety of algae called the diatom. The Protozoan
radiolarian is the primary animal based ooze. Both of these have the mineral form of opal, which
is a polymorph of quartz (McDuff). Silicious ooze occurs most commonly in regions along the
equator in the central Pacific, as well as areas of high latitude near Antarctica. These kinds of
oozes dominate around 14% of the worlds’ deep oceans (“Marine Sediments”).

Benthic organisms which live on the seabed (such as starfish) can affect the perceived
historical record by actively mixing (or bioturbating) sediments that were recently deposited in
that area. Bioturbation refers to a low-passing filter effect that suppresses or eliminates some
part of the record of events by creating a layer of sediment which is thinner than the depth of the
mixing. The only way to avoid mixing up the historical records this way is with rapid deposition
or sediments in an anoxic (lack of oxygen) environment (McDuff).

There are few non-skeletal sources of CaCO3, though one is dolomite, another polymorph
of calcite. However, a recent study by the United Kingdom’s Natural Environment Research
Council (NERC) found that a significant amount of carbonate crystals are precipitated not only
from the breakdown of algae and skeletons, but from inside marine fish. The carbonate source is
believed to be derived from the calcium content in the seawater which the fish digest and then
release into the marine environment. This study took place in the Bahamas, which are famous
for their white sands (made of carbonate), and they based their measurements made on the local
fish of that area. It was determined that Bahamian fish produced more than 6 million kilograms
of carbonate each year. They also stated that rising sea-surface temperature should result in high
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rates of carbonate production from fish, although the increasing acidity in ocean water may result
in more carbonate minerals being dissolved instead.

The final source of ocean sediment is also the least abundant, known as cosmogenous
sediment. Cosmogenous sediment is classified as extraterrestrial-derived sediments from
meteoritic debris and accounts for very little of the overall sediment content in the Earth’s
oceans. There are two main types, what are known as cosmic spherules and impact deposits.
Cosmic spherules form when particles of interplanetary dust melt as it enters the Earth’s upper
atmosphere (at speeds up to 12 kilometers per second). These spherical particles are
submillimeter in size and are often represented in significant quantities in deep sea sediments as
well as in the ice sheets sitting on Greenland and Antarctica. These are considered to be the
most abundant type of micrometeorite and are made of nickel-rich spinels which are thought to
be crystallized and oxidized as they enter the atmosphere, also containing a record of the oxygen
content in the upper atmosphere. Micrometeorites can be very useful in also detecting the past
changes and evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, though the problem tends to be that the
majority of cosmic spherules which are older than 0.5 million years have been chemically altered
and unusable for this purpose. However, a spherule which escaped alteration has been
discovered in Finland dating back 1.4 gigayears old (1.4 billion x 109 years). It was contained
inside of a red bed sandstone, leading to the conclusion that red beds may also contain a
substantial amount of fossilized micrometeorites (“Unaltered Cosmic Spherules”). The other,
less common cosmogenous sediments are impact deposits, which form when asteroids or comets
impact the Earth (at speeds from 15 to 60 kilometers per second). The explosions caused from
these great impacts can spread cosmogenous material over long distances. It is even believed
that in the severe impact which caused the mass extinction of species, including the dinosaurs,
spread cosmogenous sediment far enough to cover the entire planet (“Intro to Oceanography”).

Sedimentation Rates:

This brings us to the actual transportation of various types of sediments. One of the most
important factors of sediment transportation is the size of the sediment grains which are being
moved. The grain size of sediment reflects the energetics of transportation and deposition; fast
moving water has a higher energy, enabling it to move larger particles. On the other hand,
streams flowing with a low velocity generally have lower energy and are restricted to
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transporting finer particles (McDuff). There are many variations of accepted grain size
descriptions, depending on how simple or complex the classification is. In general, boulders are
classified as larger than 25 centimeters, cobble from 6.4 centimeters to 25 centimeters, pebbles
from 4 millimeters to 6.4 centimeters, granule from 2 millimeters to 4 millimeters, sand from
1/16 millimeter to 2 millimeters, silt is from 1/256 millimeter to 1/16 millimeter, clay from
1/4096 millimeter to 1/256 millimeter, with colloidal particles being even smaller than clay
(“Marine Sediments”). The grain size can also indicate the direction of sediment transportation
by analyzing the grain size in different directions of the area in question. This is because finer
material is carried farther than coarser material, such as pebbles and boulders. In addition, if
there is a larger surface area of fine material, then cohesion can occur between the water and the
grains which form quite a strong bond, very resistant to erosion. Grains from between 0.1
millimeter and .02 millimeter have a high mobility on the sea floor and they are the grains which
generally are found furthest from their original source.

The way that each size of particle moves through a stream or ocean water varies as well.
The only area where the velocity will be zero is on the sea floor, thus there is no sediment
transport due to currents. However, above the sea floor if the current is fairly slow, then the
main sediments that which are in motion are contained in the bed load. The bed load is indicated
by a rolling and jumping motion of the grains along the bottom of the stream. In faster currents,
the suspended load is more prevalent, in which particles are supported and carried along by the
flow of water, without bouncing off the bottom. The bed load in streams of a higher velocity
tends to impact the bottom more frequently and with more force than in a slow moving stream,
leading to a higher degree of rounding of the sediments (“Marine Sediments”). This is yet
another clue of how sediment traveled down current on its way out to sea. Overall, the coarser
material settles out first and the very fine grained sediment remains in the suspended load for
much longer, though environmental factors can also contribute to how long sediment particles
stay suspended, such as winter storms or hurricanes which stir up sediment (Seibold).

Rivers are the biggest contributors to the transport of sediment out to the ocean, and
dissolved sediment in rivers make up the majority of ocean sediment sources.. They can carry
material either in the suspended load or the dissolved load, which includes sediment and even
ions formed from chemical weathering. The materials carried in the suspended flow of rivers
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come from the weathering of the continents (terrigenous sediment), particularly those which are
more resistant to weathering or dissolve in an uneven manner. These are typically minerals such
as quartz, feldspars, and clay minerals such as kaolinite, which are produced from the previous
chemical weathering of fine-grained primary igneous rocks (McDuff). In general, larger
particles sink faster than smaller particles; for example, gravel is rarely transported in the
suspended load of a river because it sinks so quickly, thus it is mostly dragged along the river
bed in a process known as traction. The smaller particles such as sand grains move via saltation,
which is when the grains bounce along the riverbed and tend to be carried further than those
which move due to traction (“Marine Sediments”).

Volcanic activity is also a rather large contributor to the transport of sediment, and these
processes typically occur near active oceanic margins. Volcanic ash can be transported over
great distances depending on how explosive the eruption is. For example, a super eruption
occurred in Sumatra over 70,000 years ago, producing a layer of sediment which was 500 to
3500 kilometers in length. This particularly forceful eruption launched toxic fumes and ash into
the stratosphere, which lead to a period of global cooling for several years, potentially
contributing to the reglaciation which occurred around that time. Sediment samples taken from
deep sea clays date back to earlier than 10 million years ago, and suggest that the decomposition
of volcanic ash during that time was a major contribution to the deep sea clay that exists in the
Pacific Ocean. Pumice is also a very minor source of sediment transport, which is a volcanic
rock with a high porosity. Because of this property, pumice can float on the ocean currents over
great distances and in the process sometimes transporting small organisms which attached
themselves to it.

Active sedimentation processes refer to situations where the sediment affects the
properties and behavior of the suspension, including events such as mass wasting and turbidity
currents. These types of sedimentation tend to mask the previous processes in the area, which
can be a problem for dating sediment cores. Active processes depend on gravitational energy, so
in areas near an active margin they will not extend further than the trenches running along
convergent plate boundaries. However, coasts with a passive margin such as the east coast of the
United States have less of a drop from the continental slope, thus processes such as turbidity
currents can easily affect the entire ocean basin it occurs in (McDuff).
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Turbidity currents are defined as rapid, downhill flows of water which are caused by an
increase in density due to high amounts of sediment. These currents tend to form in deep water
at the base of the continental slope and the abyssal plain. Turbidity itself is a measure of the
level of sediment particles in a body of water and has a positive correlation with the density in
that body of water, thus when turbidity increases, density increases as well. Turbidity currents
can be provoked by earthquakes, which loosen mud and sand which are lying on the continental
shelf. They can also be triggered as slopes of build-up sediment begin to collapse and other
geologic disturbances which can be felt on the sea floor. Turbidity currents can also alter the
entire shape of the sea floor by eroding and depositing huge amounts of sediment where ever
they flow, leading to the formation of submarine canyons and abyssal fans (NOAA’s National
Ocean Service).

Submarine canyons are a V-shaped formation cut into the continental slope by turbidity
currents. The canyons can be quite large, often containing many smaller tributaries and
resembling canyons which are found on land. For example, the Monterrey Canyon off of the
coast of Northern California has a vertical drop of about 1,680 meters, extending 2,034 meters
below sea level. The first evidence supporting the then-theory of turbidity currents occurred in
1929 during an earthquake, which struck the Grand Banks region of the Atlantic Ocean (off the
coast of Newfoundland, Canada). The turbidity current which was produced by that earthquake
traveled from speeds of about 40 to 100 kilometers per hour, severing many transatlantic
telegraph cables in its path. Due to the order in which the cables broke (in a sequence), scientists
at that time determined how turbidity currents move underwater (“Submarine Canyons”).

There are two main techniques currently used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) in order to measure ocean turbidity levels. One tool is the use of
current meters, which are attached to turbidity sensors and used to collect data in the vicinity of
underwater volcanoes, or other active geologic areas. Another is satellite imagery, in which they
use satellites to observe turbidity by measuring the amount of light which is reflected by a
particular section of seawater. This reflection is due to the sediment particles concentrated in a
turbidity current and block light rays, which occur as turbidity increases (NOAA’s National
Ocean Service).
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Abyssal fans, also called deep-sea fans, are another feature produced from turbidity
currents. These features are formed at the base of a submarine canyon due to deposition as water
leaves the tributaries within the canyon. These accumulations of well-sorted sediment generally
form a fan-shape, sometimes becoming dissected by underwater channels which are often later
re-filled (Marine Conservation Society). Abyssal fans are very economical in the sense that they
contain high potential reservoirs of hydrocarbons, possible due to their high porosity and
permeability (Seibold).

Most of the sediment produced from turbidity currents is referred to as turbidites, the
most common depositional feature (Seibold). Turbidites generally show predictable changes in
their bedding from the coarse layers at the bottom up to the finer layers at the top. This
stratigraphy results from the varying settling velocities of the grain sizes present at the time of
deposition. Turbidite deposits are associated with high energy which can result in the
destruction of previous deposits due to the force of the turbidity currents (Schlumberger).
Turbidites not only have predictable stratigraphy, but the layers are also specifically deposited
according to what is known as the Bouma Sequence. This is characterized by five distinct layers,
or facies, from bottom to top:

 A structureless, massive sand deposit with a gravel-dominant erosional base.

 Parallel layers of sand which were produced during the upper flow regime
(generally characterized by high concentrations of sediment transport in a
continuous motion).
 Cross laminated sands containing ripple marks, produced by the lower flow
regime (for more information regarding flow see Figure ___).
 Laminated, silty layers.
 Pelagic (deep sea) and hemipelagic muds (consisting of both terrigenous and
hydrogenous particles) (Hill).

In general, deep water turbidite deposits are known to contain huge reservoirs of oil and
natural gas. The Bouma Sequence of turbidite layers can be thick and sandy enough to
form these reservoirs when they are buried beneath the ocean floor. These deposits are
actively explored ad developed in many different areas of the world, and with our
advances in geophysical technology, there are significantly fewer drilling failures due to
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lack of effective means of locating these features. However, the drilling companies must
take into account the geologic setting in which the deposits were formed, which greatly
influences the size and shape of the deposit, thus how much oil or gas should e expected
to be extracted. For example, if the turbidite deposit formed in a small confined basin, it
will tend to be small but relatively thick. However, if the deposit formed in a large
unconfined basin (such as the deep ocean floor), then the reservoir will tend to be much
more expansive, but quite thin. Another factor is the process by which the turbidite was
initially deposited, such as downslope turbulent flow, slow downslope creep of denser
material, or a large discharge of sediment from rivers during periods of flooding (Slatt).

In order for scientists to gain more understanding of individual deposits, they can
use seismic reflection surveys, well logs, well core samples, and advanced three-
dimensional models on a computer. Seismic reflection surveys are the principle
exploration tool for deep water turbidite deposits, used to provide an image of the
subsurface environment for scientific study. This is achieved by generating sound waves
at the water surface (or ground surface, if desired), and these waves travel downward for
several thousand meters. When the waves reach the major sediment body on the ocean
floor, the properties of the sediment cause a portion of the wave energy to reflect back to
the surface. This data is now expressed as a three-dimensional model which scientists
can use to interpret the volume of the turbidite deposits (Slatt).

In contrast to active sedimentation processes, passive processes are when

sediment is carried along but it does not affect the normal thermocline circulation
(McDuff). These processes include hemipelagic sedimentation, drift deposits, eolian
sedimentation, and ice rafting. Hemipelagic processes are when fine-grained sediment
moves along isopycnal surfaces (which have a constant density) high up in the water
column. This type of sediment produces a fringe of terrigenous deposits which can
extend up to a few hundred kilometers surrounding a landmass, and they tend to be
uniform throughout the sea floor.

“Drift” deposition occurs along the path of bottom currents, sweeping terrigenous
sediment out to sea, primarily in the high latitude region of the Atlantic Ocean along
ridges (McDuff). Sediment drifts are thick deposits which are controlled by the currents
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and driven by the thermohaline circulation system, creating a near-bottom “nepheloid
layer”. Some of these large-scale drifts existing in the Northern North Atlantic include
the Feni Drift, the Eirik Drift, and the Gloria Drift (Haupt). Drift deposits can
accumulate at hundreds of meters per million years and they are some of the best sources
for high resolution paeloceanographic records (McDuff).

Charles Darwin first hypothesized that dust particles build up on the ocean floors
during the 1800’s. His hypothesis most closely resembles the process of eolian
sedimentation, which refers to sediment transported by wind. Some estimates even say
that the majority of clay in the deep ocean could have been transported through wind-
derived sedimentation. Eolian processes account for less than 3% of terrigenous
sediment, though more prominent in certain areas; these tend to be regions where major
wind systems cross semi-arid source areas, or active volcanoes producing ash. Areas
with high eolian sedimentation include the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Arabian
Sea, with sources in the Middle East, Australia and North Africa (“Marine Sediments”).
Wind energy is limited to moving only very fine-grained sediment. Dust particles blow
out to sea from deserts and larger particles settle out first, with the grain size eventually
becoming smaller. In some cases larger particles can be transported fairly far distances,
such as when sediment larger than 0.075 millimeter was found over 10,000 kilometers
from its source in China (Seibold).

Ice rafting refers to the transport of material by ice, eventually depositing the
trapped sediment. This accounts for the transport of nearly 10% of terrigenous sediment
deposits, which can be easily distinguished by the poorly sorted angular particles
(“Marine Sediments”). This process is of course restricted to higher latitudes where there
is abundant sea ice, though ice rafting can carry very coarse-grained sediments (ice rafted
debris) into subarctic gyres, far from their original source (McDuff). Calving glaciers
can transport materials far out into the ocean in an unstratified manner, and each glacier
contains sediment from the mountain zone where it came from, which is very useful in
identifying the location of the glacier (Seibold).

Overall, there are endless things that we can learn from studying sediments in the
ocean. Even processes such as upwelling, the tendency of water to move seaward due to
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deflection by the Coriolis Effect, can be revealing. Warmer outward bound water is
replaced by cold nutrient-rich waters from greater depths within the thermocline.
Sediments below areas of upwelling are commonly rich in organic material, such as
carbon, opal, and vertebrate remains containing phosphate (Seibold). Passive
sedimentation processes can record the history of deep currents, volcanism, aridity, wind
direction and iceberg abundance and direction of travel.

Stratigraphy can tell us the age of the sediments; in ocean sediments, the
Cenozoic and Mesozoic ages are present. Stratigraphy correlations can be made using
different types of stratigraphy for data. Lithostratigraphy refers to the boundaries
between rocks of different types or character; biostratigraphy is based on the presence or
absence of an indicative fossil species, used throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages;
chronostratigraphy is based on the ages of the materials which are established using
radiometric dating methods; and magnetostratigraphy, which is based on the magnetic
reversals recorded in sediments. This method is particularly important for late Cenozoic
sediments. There is also a method called stable isotope stratigraphy, which is based on
the oxygen isotopic composition of carbonate-rich sediments. The signal used is
dominated by the global state of ice accumulation on the land masses during periods of
glaciation, which is important for Pleistocene sediments (occurring in the last 1.8 million
years) because they can contain records of climate change. The important signals include
deposition rates (the absolute rates of net deposition, which indicate changing proportions
of materials), and chemical signatures which reflect the conditions of original deposition
(directly or by proxy) (McDuff).

Another commonly used method to analyze sediment samples is taking cores of

deep sea sediments from the ocean floor. In order to do this, a vessel must be involved
containing coring gear and supplies, computers, and laboratory equipment. The cores
themselves are long cylindrical shaped pieces of sediment, about 2.5 to 5 inches in
diameter, taken with a coring device which resembles a hollow pipe lined with plastic
tubing attached to a weight, called a rig. The rig is lowered into the ocean from the ship,
and the force of the attached weight drives the device into the sediment which is then
analyzed. Deep-sea sediments can contain a number of things, such as microscopic
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fossils from marine-dwelling organisms, cosmogenous sediment, and other unusual
materials which can tell a story about the environment which they came to rest in. The
microfossils of the aforementioned foraminifera, diatoms, etc. can indicate the time and
temperature of deposition, along with any chemical changes which may have occurred
over time. Volcanic glass can record and preserve instantaneous geological events and
the time in which they took place.

Deep sea sediments were first explored in a scientific manner during the British
Challenger Expedition from 1873 to 1976. The next great step was during the German
Meteor Expedition from 1927 to 1949, marking the beginning of the Pleistocene
oceanography, which revolutionized what we understand about the Ice Ages. After that
came the Glomar Challenger in 1968 which recovered deep sea sediment samples from
the Cretaceous and Tertiary period (Seibold).